Word & Sound Learning Lab Scholarly Works

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https://hdl.handle.net/1808/19778

The items in this collection are the result of the research of the Word and Sound Learning Lab, directed by Dr. Holly Storkel. The collection features published works from all funded projects within the lab and scholarly resources from the Kindergarten Children Acquiring Words through Storybook Reading (KAW Story) clinical trial. KAW Story is aimed at helping kindergarten children who have a specific language impairment (SLI) to learn new words through an interactive book reading treatment. The study is seeking to find the most favorable treatment for children with vocabulary difficulties through interactive book reading.

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Word Learning by Preschool-Age Children with Developmental Language Disorder: Impaired Encoding and Robust Consolidation during Slow Mapping
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2021-10-11) Gordon, Katherine R.; Storkel, Holly L.; Uglow, Stephanie; Ohlmann, Nancy B.
PURPOSE: Learning novel words, including the specific phonemes that make up word forms, is a struggle for many individuals with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). Building robust representations of words includes encoding during periods of input and consolidation between periods of input. The primary purpose of the current study is to determine differences between children with DLD and with typical development (TD) in the encoding and consolidation of word forms during the slow mapping process. METHOD: Preschool-age children (DLD = 9, TD = 9) were trained on nine form-referent pairs across multiple consecutive training days. Children’s ability to name referents at the end of training days indicated their ability to encode forms. Children’s ability to name referents at the beginning of training days after a period of overnight sleep indicated their ability to consolidate forms. Word learning was assessed one-month after training to determine long-term retention of forms. RESULTS: Throughout training, children with DLD produced fewer forms correctly and produced forms with less phonological precision than children with TD. Thus, children with DLD demonstrated impaired encoding. However, children with and without DLD demonstrated a similar ability to consolidate forms between training days and to retain forms across a one-month delay. CONCLUSIONS: Difficulties with word form learning are primarily driven by deficits in encoding for children with DLD. Clinicians and educators can support encoding by providing children with adequate exposures to target words via robust training that occurs across multiple sessions.
Using Developmental Norms for Speech Sounds as a Means of Determining Treatment Eligibility in Schools
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2019-02-26) Storkel, Holly L.
Purpose: For a child to receive treatment of a speech sound disorder in public schools, the child must demonstrate evidence of an exceptionality in producing speech sounds. One method advocated by some state or local guidelines is to use developmental norms for speech sounds to define impaired speech. However, current practices, as codified in state or local guidelines, may not be encouraging optimal use of this data source. The purpose of this article is to outline best practices in using developmental norms to determine eligibility for speech treatment in school settings. Method: Three commonly used sets of developmental norms (Sander, 1972; Shriberg, 1993; Smit, Hand, Freilinger, Bernthal, & Bird, 1990) are reviewed to generate best practices in the use of developmental norms to establish eligibility for speech treatment in schools. Three clinical scenarios then are used to illustrate implementation of these best practices. Results: The review of the normative studies indicates that a strict age cutoff used in isolation is counter to the intended use of developmental norms, representing a conceptualization of normal development that is too narrow. Best practice entails using a richer representation of development, specifically reflecting the range and variability inherent in development. Moreover, diagnosing the presence of a speech sound disorder requires more than just a single measure. Conclusion: Clinicians may need to advocate for change in state or local guidelines to better align these guidelines with best practices in using speech sound norms to determine eligibility for services in schools.
Clinical Forum Prologue: Speech Sound Disorders in Schools: Who Qualifies?
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2019-02-26) Storkel, Holly L.
Purpose: The purpose of this clinical forum is to provide guidance on which children with speech sound disorders should qualify for services in the public schools. The articles in the forum consider how to define impaired articulation (viewed more broadly as referring to articulation and phonology), adverse effects, and educational performance. Conclusion: The take-home message across articles is that determining eligibility for speech-language services is complex, requiring a comprehensive understanding of a child's skills with speech sounds but also the impact of their speech errors on written language and social–emotional well-being. These decisions cannot be made quickly with minimal information. Speech-language pathologists may need to advocate for a realistic allotment of time to conduct a comprehensive assessment, including time to think about the results and implications of that assessment.
The Impact of Dose and Dose Frequency on Word Learning by Kindergarten Children With Developmental Language Disorder During Interactive Book Reading
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2019-10-10) Storkel, Holly L.; Komesidou, Rouzana; Pezold, Mollee J.; Pitt, Adrienne R.; Fleming, Kandace K.; Romine, Rebecca Swinburne
Purpose: The goal was to determine whether interactive book reading outcomes for children with developmental language disorder (DLD) were affected by manipulation of dose (i.e., the number of exposures to the target word during a book reading session) and dose frequency (i.e., the number of repeated book reading sessions) and whether pretreatment factors predicted treatment response variation. Method: Thirty-four kindergarten children with DLD (aged 5;0–6;2 [years;months]) were taught 1 set of words using the Dose 6 and Dose Frequency 6 format from a prior study (Storkel, Voelmle, et al., 2017) and taught a different set of words using an alternative format, either Dose 4 × Dose Frequency 9 or Dose 9 × Dose Frequency 4, determined through random assignment. Word learning was tracked for each treatment via a definition task prior to, during, and after treatment. Results: Results showed that children with DLD learned a significant number of words during treatment regardless of the dose and dose frequency format but that significant forgetting of newly learned words occurred in all formats once treatment was withdrawn. Individual differences in word learning were related to Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Core Language and Understanding Spoken Paragraphs scores. Conclusion: When administered at an adequate intensity, variation in the dose and dose frequency of interactive book reading does not appear to influence word learning by children with DLD. Although interactive book reading continues to show promise as an effective word learning intervention for children with DLD, further development is needed to enhance the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Using Computer Programs for Language Sample Analysis
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2020-01-08) Pezold, Mollee J.; Imgrund, Caitlin M.; Storkel, Holly L.
Purpose: Although language sample analysis is widely recommended for assessing children's expressive language, few school-based speech-language pathologists routinely use it, citing a lack of time, resources, and training (pavelko, owens, ireland, & hahs-vaughn, 2016). The purpose of this clinical tutorial is (a) to describe options for language sample analysis using computer programs and (b) to demonstrate a process of using language sample analysis focused on the assessment of 2 preschool children as case studies. Method: We provide an overview of collecting and analyzing child language samples and describe 3 programs for language sample analysis: 2 dedicated software programs (computerized language analysis [macwhinney, 2000] and systematic analysis of language transcripts [miller & iglesias, 2015]) and 1 protocol for using word processing software to analyze language samples (sampling utterances and grammatical analysis revised; pavelko & owens, 2017). We also present analysis results from each program for play-based language samples from 2 preschool children and detailed analysis of the samples with potential treatment goals. Results: Each program offers different analyses, comparison databases, and sampling contexts. We present options for additional analysis, clinical interpretations, and potential treatment goals based on the 2 preschool cases. Conclusion: Clinicians can use computer programs for language sample analysis as part of a process to make naturalistic language assessment more feasible.
Children's Response Bias and Identification of Misarticulated Words
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2020-01-22) Krueger, Breanna I.; Storkel, Holly L.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine whether children's identification of misarticulated words as real objects was influenced by an inherent bias toward selecting real objects or whether a change in experimental conditions could impact children's selections. Method: Forty preschool children aged 4 years 0 months to 6 years 11 months across 2 experiments heard accurate productions of real words (e.g., “leaf”), misarticulated words (e.g., “weaf” and “yeaf”), and unrelated nonwords (e.g., “geem”). Within the misarticulated words, the commonness of the substitute was controlled to be “common” or “uncommon.” Using the MouseTracker software, children were asked to select between a real object (e.g., a leaf) and a novel object (Experiment 1) or between a real object (e.g., a leaf) and a blank square, which represented a hidden object (Experiment 2). Results: Consistent with previous findings, children chose real objects significantly more when they heard accurate productions (e.g., “leaf”) than misarticulated productions (e.g., “weaf” or “yeaf”) across both experiments. In misarticulation conditions, real object selections were lower than in the previous study; however, children chose real objects significantly more in the common misarticulation condition than in the uncommon misarticulation condition. Conclusions: The results of this study are consistent with previous findings. Children's behavioral responses depended upon the task. Despite these differences in the task, children demonstrated ease in integrating variability into their word identification.
The Complexity Approach to Phonological Treatment: How to Select Treatment Targets
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2018-07-05) Storkel, Holly L.
PURPOSE There are a number of evidence-based treatments for preschool children with phonological disorders (Baker & McLeod, 2011). However, a recent survey by Brumbaugh and Smit (2013) suggests that speech-language pathologists are not equally familiar with all evidence-based treatment alternatives, particularly the complexity approach. The goal of this clinical tutorial is to provide coaching on the implementation of the complexity approach in clinical practice, focusing on treatment target selection. METHOD Evidence related to selecting targets for treatment based on characteristics of the targets (i.e., developmental norms, implicational universals) and characteristics of children's knowledge of the targets (i.e., accuracy, stimulability) is reviewed. Free resources are provided to aid clinicians in assessing accuracy and stimulability of singletons and clusters. Use of treatment target selection and generalization prediction worksheets is illustrated with 3 preschool children. RESULTS Clinicians can integrate multiple pieces of information to select complex targets and successfully apply the complexity approach to their own clinical practice. CONCLUSION Incorporating the complexity approach into clinical practice will expand the range of evidence-based treatment options that clinicians can use when treating preschool children with phonological disorders.
The Influence of Misarticulations on Children's Word Identification and Processing
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2017-11-21) Krueger, Breanna Irene; Storkel, Holly L.; Minai, Utako
PURPOSE: The purpose of the present studies was to determine how children's identification and processing of misarticulated words was influenced by substitution commonness. METHOD: Sixty-one typically developing preschoolers across 3 experiments heard accurate productions of words (e.g., “leaf”), words containing common substitutions (e.g., “weaf”), and words containing uncommon substitutions (e.g., “yeaf”). On each trial, preschoolers chose between a real object picture (e.g., a leaf) and a nonobject (e.g., an anomalous line drawing). Accuracy and processing were measured using MouseTracker and eye tracking. RESULTS: Overall, children chose real objects significantly more when presented with accurate productions (e.g., “leaf”) than misarticulated productions (e.g., “weaf” or “yeaf”). Within misarticulation conditions, children chose real objects significantly more when hearing common misarticulations (e.g., “weaf”) than uncommon misarticulations (e.g., “yeaf”). Preschoolers identified words significantly faster and with greater certainty in accurate conditions than misarticulated conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present studies indicate that the commonness of substitutions influences children's identification of misarticulated words. Children hear common substitutions more frequently and therefore were supported in their identification of these words as real objects. The presence of substitutions, however, slowed reaction time when compared with accurate productions.
Applying item-response theory to the development of a screening adaptation of the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-2
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), 2017-03-13) Brackenbury, Tim; Zickar, Michael J.; Munson, Benjamin; Storkel, Holly L.
PURPOSE: Item Response Theory (IRT) is a psychometric approach to measurement that uses latent trait abilities (e.g., speech sound production skills) to model performance on individual items that vary by difficulty and discrimination. An IRT analysis was applied to preschooler’s productions of the words on the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation-2 (GFTA-2) to identify candidates for a screening measure of speech sound production skills. METHOD: The phoneme accuracies from 154 preschoolers, with speech skills on the GFTA-2 ranging from the 1st to above the 90th percentile, were analyzed with a two-parameter logistic model. RESULTS: A total of 108 of the 232 phonemes from stimuli in the sounds-in-words subtest fit the IRT model. These phonemes, and subgroups of the most difficult of these phonemes, correlated significantly with the children’s overall percentile scores on the GFTA-2. Regression equations calculated for the five and ten most difficult phonemes predicted overall percentile score at levels commensurate with other screening measures. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that speech production accuracy can be screened effectively with a small number of sounds. They motivate further research towards the development of a screening measure of children’s speech sound production skills whose stimuli consist of a limited number of difficult phonemes.
Interactive book reading to accelerate word learning in bilingual children with developmental language disorder: A preliminary intervention approach
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), 2017-12-21) Storkel, Holly L.; Fierro, Veronica
This article will describe a bilingual preliminary treatment method currently being utilized in a clinical research study to teach vocabulary to bilingual (Spanish/English) preschool aged (four to six year-old) children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD). The objective of this treatment method is to advance English vocabulary while supporting the native language abilities of English Learners (ELs). In this bilingual treatment method, Spanish and English are used within the session, which includes the reading of books in English and Spanish and the teaching of vocabulary in English and Spanish.
Implementing evidence-based practice: Selecting treatment words to boost phonological learning
(2017-08-04) Storkel, Holly L.
PURPOSE. Word selection has typically been thought of as an inactive ingredient in phonological treatment, but emerging evidence suggests that word selection is an active ingredient that can impact phonological learning. The goals of this tutorial are to (1) review the emerging singled-subject evidence on the influence of word characteristics on phonological learning in clinical treatment; (2) outline hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action of word characteristics; (3) provide resources to support clinicians incorporating word selection as an active ingredient in their approach to phonological treatment. METHOD. Research demonstrating the influence of the word frequency, neighborhood density, age-of-acquisition, and lexicality of treatment stimuli on phonological learning is summarized. The mechanism of action for each characteristic is hypothesized. Methods from the research studies are used to create a free set of evidence-based treatment materials targeting most of the mid-eight and late-eight consonants. RESULTS. Clinicians have numerous evidence-based options to consider when selecting stimuli for phonological treatment including (1) high-frequency and high-density words, (2) low-frequency and high-density words, (3) high-frequency and mixed density words, (4) low-frequency and late-acquired words, (5) nonwords. CONCLUSION. Incorporating word characteristics into phonological treatment may boost phonological learning.
The complexity approach to phonological treatment: How to select treatment targets (Supplemental materials)
(2017-08-03) Storkel, Holly L.
PURPOSE. There are a number of evidence-based treatments for preschool children with phonological disorders (Baker & McLeod, 2011). However, a recent survey by Brumbaugh and Smit (2013) suggests that speech-language pathologists are not equally familiar with all evidence-based treatment alternatives, particularly the complexity approach. The goal of this clinical tutorial is to provide coaching on the implementation of the complexity approach in clinical practice, focusing on treatment target selection. METHOD. Evidence related to selecting targets for treatment based on characteristics of the targets (i.e., developmental norms, implicational universals) and characteristics of children’s knowledge of the targets (i.e., accuracy, stimulability) is reviewed. Free resources are provided to aid clinicians in assessing accuracy and stimulability of singletons and clusters. Use of treatment target selection and generalization prediction worksheets are illustrated with three preschool children. RESULTS. Clinicians can integrate multiple pieces of information to select complex targets and successfully apply the complexity approach to their own clinical practice. CONCLUSION. Incorporating the complexity approach into clinical practice will expand the range of evidence-based treatment options that clinicians can use when treating preschool children with phonological disorders.
Interactive book reading to accelerate word learning by kindergarten children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI): Identifying adequate progress and successful learning patterns
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2016-12-05) Storkel, Holly L.; Komesidou, Rouzana; Fleming, Kandace; Romine, Rebecca Swinburne
PURPOSE. The goal of this study was to provide guidance to clinicians on early benchmarks of successful word learning in an interactive book reading treatment and to examine how encoding and memory evolution during treatment contribute to word learning outcomes by kindergarten children with SLI. METHOD. Twenty-seven kindergarten children with SLI participated in a preliminary clinical trial using interactive book reading to teach 30 new words. Word learning was assessed at four points during treatment through a picture naming test. RESULTS. The results indicate that the following performance during treatment was cause for concern, indicating a need to modify the treatment: naming 0-1 treated words correctly at naming test 1; naming 0-2 treated words correctly at naming test 2; naming 0-3 treated words correctly at naming test 3. In addition, the results showed that encoding was the primary limiting factor in word learning but retention also contributed (albeit to a lesser degree) to word learning success. CONCLUSION. Case illustrations demonstrate how a clinician’s understanding of a child’s word learning strengths and weaknesses develop over the course of treatment, substantiating the importance of regular data collection and clinical decision-making to ensure the best possible outcomes for each individual child.
Interactive Book Reading to Accelerate Word Learning by Kindergarten Children With Specific Language Impairment: Identifying an Adequate Intensity and Variation in Treatment Response
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2016-05-27) Storkel, Holly L.; Voelmle, Krista A.; Fierro, Veronica; Flake, Kelsey; Fleming, Kandace; Romine, Rebecca Swinburne
Purpose. This study seeks to identify an adequate intensity of interactive book reading for new word learning by children with SLI and to examine variability in treatment response. Method. An escalation design adapted from non-toxic drug trials (Hunsberger, Rubinstein, Dancey, & Korn, 2005) was used in this Phase I/II Preliminary Clinical Trial. Specifically, 27 kindergarten children with SLI were randomized to one of four intensities of interactive book reading: 12, 24, 36, or 48 exposures. Word learning was monitored through a definition and a naming task. An intensity response curve was examined to identify the adequate intensity. Correlations and classification accuracy were used to examine variation in response to treatment relative to pre-treatment and early treatment measures. Results. Response to treatment improved as intensity increased from 12 to 24 to 36 exposures and then no further improvements were observed as intensity increased to 48 exposures. There was variability in treatment responding: children with poor phonological awareness, low vocabulary, and/or poor nonword repetition were less likely to respond to treatment. Conclusion. The adequate intensity for this version of interactive book reading was 36 exposures, but further development of the treatment is needed to increase the benefit for children with SLI.
The Effects of Phonotactic Probability and Neighborhood Density on Adults' Word Learning In Noisy Conditions
(American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2016-11) Han, Min Kyung; Storkel, Holly L.; Lee, Jaehoon; Cox, Casey
Purpose: Noisy conditions make auditory processing difficult. This study explores whether noisy conditions impact the effects of phonotactic probability (the likelihood of occurrence of a sound sequence) and neighborhood density (phonological similarity among words) on adults’ word learning. Method: Fifty-eight adults learned nonwords varying in phonotactic probability and neighborhood density in either an unfavorable (0dB Signal-to-Noise Ratio, SNR) or a favorable (+8dB SNR) listening condition. Word learning was assessed in a picture naming task by scoring the proportion of phonemes named correctly. Results: The unfavorable 0dB SNR condition showed a significant interaction between phonotactic probability and neighborhood density in the absence of main effects. Specifically, adults learned more words when phonotactic probability and neighborhood density were both low or both high. The +8dB SNR condition did not show this interaction. These results were inconsistent with those from a prior adult word learning study under quiet listening conditions that showed main effects of word characteristics. Conclusion: As the listening condition worsens, adult word learning benefits from a convergence of phonotactic probability and neighborhood density Clinical implications are discussed for potential populations who experience difficulty with auditory perception or processing making them more vulnerable to noise.
Markedness and the grammar in lexical diffusion of fricatives
(Taylor & Francis, 2002) Gierut, Judith A.; Storkel, Holly L.
This paper examines the contributions of markedness and a child's grammar to the process of lexical diffusion in phonological acquisition. Archival data from 19 preschoolers with functional phonological delays were submitted to descriptive analyses of productive sound change in fricatives. Children's presenting fricative inventory, the fricatives newly learned, and their position of occurrence were varied, with word frequency and neighborhood density measured. Results indicated that lexical diffusion of fricatives occurred differentially by word position. Positional, featural and structural markedness further converged such that change in unmarked structure of any type was implemented in low frequency words. A child's presenting fricative inventory was not directly affiliated with systematic patterns of diffusion. These results have clinical applications for the evaluation of productive sound change and theoretical implications for deterministic models of lexical diffusion and processing models of word recognition.
The effect of probabilistic phonotactics on lexical acquisition
(Taylor & Francis, 2000) Storkel, Holly L.; Rogers, Margaret A.
The effect of probabilistic phonotactics on lexical acquisition in typically developing children was examined to determine whether a lexical or sublexical level of language processing dominates lexical acquisition. Sixty-one normally achieving 7, 10, and 13 year-old children participated in a word learning task, involving non-words of varying probabilistic phonotactics. Non-words were presented in a lecture format and recognition memory was tested following a 7 minute filled delay. Results showed that 10 and 13 year-old children recognized more high probability non-words than low probability non-words. In contrast, 7 year-old children showed no consistent effect of probabilistic phonotactics on lexical acquisition. These findings suggest that the sublexical level of processing dominates word learning during the initial phases in older children. This, in turn, raises questions about the mental representations of words and the eOEect of phonological knowledge on lexical acquisition in young children. Implications of these findings for children with specific language impairment (SLI ) are discussed.
Homonomy in the Developing Mental Lexicon
(Cascadilla Press, 2004) Storkel, Holly L.; Young, Junko
Lexical Influences on Interword Variation
(Cascadilla Press, 2002) Storkel, Holly L.; Gierut, Judith A.
Whole-Word versus Part-Word Phonotactic Probability/Neighborhood Density in Word Learning by Children
(Cascadilla Press, 2006) Storkel, Holly L.; Hoover, Jill R.

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