INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME I I I % e p r i n c i p a l aim of Volume I I I of FLUK i s t o present the phenomena outs i d e of Kansas t h a t have i n f l u e n c e d the l i f e of f o r - l i n g groups w i t h i n the s t a t e . Almost as important i s the e x p o s i t i o n of developments elsewhere t h a t have t h e i r p a r a l l e l i n Kansas. The m a t e r i a l on Europe set f o r t h f o r each n a t i o n a l i t y i s intended t o advance the f i r s t aim; whenever d e a l i n g w i t h other s t a t e s of t h i s n a t i o n t h i s study has both aims i n view. Even the d e t a i l s of geographic d i s t r i ­ b u t i o n are intended, not only to provide i n f o r m a t i o n not e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e elsewhere, but to reveal,the probable sources of Kansas p o p u l a t i o n . We can l e a r n from what s t a t e immigrants come, but o f t e n they l e f t no more exact record of t h e i r provenance, and t h e i r g r a n d c h i l d r e n are f r e q u e n t l y without knowledge t h a t i s more p r e c i s e . The character of the settlements t h a t they l e f t f o r Kansas was a f a c t o r p a r t i a l l y determining t h e i r behavior i n Kansas. For i n s t a n c e , a German from the heart of the d i s t r i c t i n I l l i n o i s southeast of S t * Louis was l i k e l y t o be much more German than one who had r e s i d e d along the I l l i n o i s R i v e r . To Germans i s devoted almost h a l f of t h i s volume because t h e i r numbers i n Kansas were approximately twice as great as t h a t of any other l i n g u i s t i c stock i n Kansas and among them the f u l l course of the E n g l - i z i n g process can be observed. The s t a t e r e c e i v i n g the most a t t e n t i o n f o r p r a c t i c a l l y every stock i s I l l i n o i s because more f o r - l i n g s came to Kansas from I l l i n o i s than from i F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E U N I T S O F K A N S A S V O L U M E III E u r o p e a n and A m e r i c a n B a c k g r o u n d b y J . N e a l e C a r m a n B e i n g a m i c r o f i c h e of the o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p t i n the p o s s e s s i o n of the U n i v e r s i t y of K a n s a s L i b r a r y T h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of K a n s a s L a w r e n c e / M a n h a t t a n / W i c h i t a (c) C o p y r i g h t 1974 by T h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of K a n s a s Internat ional S t a n d a r d B o o k N u m b e r 0 -7006 -0115 -5 L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g C a r d N u m b e r 62-9451 F i l m e d i n the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a i i i Volume III Table of Contents Section Page ^ 9 . 00 - ^ 9 . 9 % General Considerations 2 pp b e f o r e 1 il-9.00 Bibliography f o r Gejneral Considerations 2 pp b e f o r e l 49•01-.09 Causes of European Emigration l ^9.10-.15g Religion i n Europe— 5 49.20-.29 Pre-Kansas Immigration to the United States 8 ^9•30-.39 American Industry and For-lings, Especially, Coal Mining and Meat Packing 13 49.^0-.kl Social Forces — General — 28 49.^2-.^3g Por-ling Protestants 29 (further treated under stocks) ^9«50-.68g Catholicismknd Por-lings 29 9^.70-%72 The Public and F-lang 47 *J-9.80-. 89 Intermarriage - 48 ^9.90-.93 Census Data 5 5 ^ 9 . 9 ^ Which L i n g u i s t i c Stocks are Treated 58 50.0 Bibliography f o r Germans 60 50.10-52.9 Germans i n Germany and on i t s B o r d e r s — — — ~ 68 50.10-.31g S t a t i s t i c s on Emigration from Germany 68 50.40-.^2g Early Emigrations 76 50.50-.91 Regional Considerations i n Germany ~ — 77 50.92-.93g Sex and Occupation i n Emigration 93 51.00-.06g P o l i t i c s and Emigration from Germany 94 51.10-. 3 S o c i a l Considerations a f f e c t i n g Emigration 102 51.^0-.71 Economics and Emigration from Germany— — — 107 51.7^ Other Forces f o r Emigration from Germany 115 51.8 Cessation of P u l l f o r Emigration - 116 51.90 Where from i n Germany to Kansas — — - — 117 i v 52.o-.4g German Swiss 121 52.50-.52g Alsace and L u x e m b u r g — — — — — — 125 52.60-.9 East Border Germans 129 53.00-54.91g Germans i n Russia • 134 53.00-. 19 General Considerations, Mainly P o l i t i c a l 134 53.20-.39 Volgans — P o l i t i c a l and Economic History to 1870- 145 53,40-.83g Volgan S o c i a l L i f e 156 53.90-.93 Volgans during the Period of Emigration 165 53.94-.96g Location of Volgans i n the United States 168 54.00-.4lg Mennonites i n Russia 170 54.50-. 8 Blacks eamen 181 54.90 Late History of Germans i n Russia 196 54.91g Yiddish-speaking Jews 197 55.00-.04g General Considerations f o r Germans i n the United States 199 55.10-57*99 German Americans by States 204 55.10-.29 Germans i n Ohio 204 55.30-.47 i n Indiana 220 55.48-.49 i n Michigan 236 55.50-.52 i n I l l i n o i s — General and H i s t o r i c a l 240 55.53-.69 i n Southern I l l i n o i s 242 55.70-.84 i n Central I l l i n o i s 255 55.85-.99 i n Chicago and Northern I l l i n o i s 267 55.00-.06 i n Wisconsin — General and H i s t o r i c a l 286 56.07-. 18 i n Milwaukee and Near 291 56.19-.32 i n Wisconsin near Lake Farther North 302 56.33-.39 i n Southwestern Wisconsin 316 56.40-.49 i n P o l i t i c s and Religion i n Wisconsin 323 V 56*50~*52 Germans in Iowa — General and IJistorical--- 332a 56.53-• 6^ inlowa along the Mississippi < 332c 56,65-.76 in Iowa Farther West to DesMoines 341 56.77-*89 in Iowa — Desmoines to the Missouri Rirer359 56• 90-.91 in Missouri — General and Historical 374 56.92-.99 in St. Louis- 375 57.00-.02 in Missouri on the Mississippi Downstream 383 57•03-.16 in Missouri up the Missouri to Jefferson City 387 57.17- .23 in Missouri on up to Kansas City 403 57.2^-.29 in the rest of Missouri . — 413 57.30-.31 in Nebraska — General and Hi s t o r i c a l — 419 57.32-. kS in Omaha and North of the Platte- — 422 57. ^ 6-.60 in Lincoln and West and South for 80 Miles 439 57.61-.6^ in Southeastern Nebraska 457 57*&5-.69 in Nebraska West of the 98th Meridian 463 57.70-.89 in Oklahoma 473 57190-.99 in Colorado and other States 483 58.00-.^7g Germans and Religion in the United States 492 58.00-.07German Churches in General— 492 58.08-.17 German Lutheran Churches — 501 58.18- .22 Other Nationally organized German Churches — 514 (non-Mennoni te) 58.23-.29 German Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyteri­ ans 525 58.30-.^6 Mennonite and Penn-German Churches — 533 58. ^7 German Free-thinkers 544 58.50-.7 German Social Organizations, Schools, Press in U. S. 545 58.8-.93g Engl-izing of Germans— 559 59.00-.52g Dutch • 566 59.60-*9 Flemings 579 v i 60.Og Bibliography f o r Scandinavians 588 61.0-63.% Scandinavians i n E u r o p e - - — — — — - 539 61.0-.2 Scandinavian S t a t i s t i c s and General Cause of Emigra­ t i o n 589 61.3-£g Sweden 593 62.0-63.% Denmark and Norway 600 64.Og Scandinavians i n the United States — General Considerations 605 65.00-.6g Swedes i n the United States — 606 65.0-.4 by States 606 65.5g Swedish Mobility 619 66.0-.4 Swedish Churches i n America 620 66.5~.6g Swedish Societies and Engl-izing 625 67.0-.4g Danes i n the United States 625 68.0-.4g Norwegians i n the United States 638 69.Og General Considerations on the Eng l - i z i n g of Scandinavians— 643 70.0-78.4g Slavs • 644 70.0-.lg Introduction and Bibliography f o r Slavs — 644 71.0-.3 Czechs — S t a t i s t i c s 647 71.3~.6g Czechs i n Bohemia and M o r a v i a — — 649 72.0g-73o0g Bohemian Germans and Slovakians 665 74.00-.9 Czechs i n the United States by States 667 75.0-.7 Czechs i n the United States C u l t u r a l l y Considered— 681 75.8 Slovaks 693 ( i n U. S.) 76.0-.2 Polish S t a t i s t i c s — 695 76.30-.53g Poles i n Poland 699 76.60-.9 Poles i n the United States 707 77.0-.9 South Slavs i n Europe • 722 78.0-3 South Slavs i n the United States 735 TU ffilto-Jiai/* - e r a i - - - - - - 7 4 4 vii 80.0g~83.9 I t a l i a n s 747 $0.0-81*0 I t a l i a n s — I n t r o d u c t o r y and Bibliography 747 81.1- .6lg S t a t i s t i c s — North and South I t a l i a n s - - — - 750 81.7- 82.4g I t a l i a n s i n I t a l y 759 82.50-.72g I t a l i a n s i n America — Geographically 778 82 .8- 83.2 — Cul t u r a l I n s t i t u t i o n s 793 83.3-.9 — Assimilat i o n 807 84.0-87.9 French (from Europe and Canada) 817 84 .0- .1 Speakers of French i n United States — S t a t i s t i c s — 817 84.2- 85.8g French from Europe — there and i n America 819 85 #9 The French of L o u i s i a n a — 829 86.0 French Canadians — Bibliography — 831 86.1- .4 — S t a t i s t i c s on them i n Canada — 833 86.5 -»9 — History and Culture i n C a n a d a — — 836 87.00-.03g i n New England — History 853 87.10-.6 — Culture 859 87.7-.9 i n West 875 88.00-90.9 Mexicans- 886 88.00-.02g Mexicans — Introductory and Bibliography 886 88.10-.11^ — S t a t i s t i c s on Immigration 891 88;,20-.54g i n Mexico — History and So c i a l Analysis 893 88.60-.92g — Economics 903 89.00-.03g i n United States — General and S t a t i s ­ t i c s 915 89.10-.19 i n New Mexico — H i s t o r y and So c i a l Anal­ y s i s 918 89.20-.25 —Tucumcari and Albuquer­ que Areas 932 89.26-.28 — i n North of State 943 89.29 — i n South of State 957 v i i i 89.30-, 38 Mexicans in Texas u n t i l 1900 965 89.39- .^ 5 after 1900, Ranching and Gener­ a l Farming 975 89.46- .46f in Cotton Fields 990 89.47- .48d in ci t i e s 997 89.49 delations with North 1006 89.50-.59 in Arizona • 1008 89.60-.69 in California 1020 89.70-.79 in Colorado 1040 89.80-,89 outside the Southwest 1058 89.90-.99 in Oklahoma 1068 90.00-.26g in a l l United States — Occupations 1080 90.30-.9 Social Analysis- 1089 91.0-92.9% Welsh — 1106 91.0-.5 Welsh — General and Statistics 1106 91.6-92.21g Welsh in Wales 1112 92.30-.38g in America —History and Geography 1125 92.4-.94g — C u l t u r a l l y 1137 93.00-9^.916 Greeks 1148 93.00-.3 Greeks — General and Statistics 1148 93.40- .9 in Greece 1153 94.00-.91 in the United States 1160 95.0^96*59 Lebanese 1177 95.0- .22g Lebanese — General and Statistics 1177 95.3-96.0 Lebanese in Lebanon——- — — — 1181 96.1- 59 in the United States 1189 96.0-.9 Other Linguistic Groups 1189 97.0-.9 Sources of Kansas For-ling Population—General Summation 1201 98.00-99.99 Engl-izing 1208 98.00-.8 Forces for Engl-izing 1208 99.90-.99 The Process of Engl-izing 1218 2 pp b e f o r e 1 Prefa &ory ^ote. I t a l i c i z e d a r a b i c numerals r e f e r t o pages i n ^ o l . I , Inasmuch as the background in Europe and in America for non-English linguistic stocks represented in Kansas is the concern of this volume 9 general considera­ tions affecting a l l or several stocks are presented f i r s t , then each stock in the order of frequency in Kansas as established in Volume II. The treatment of history and conditions outside the United States precedes the material on condition within this country. In the United States a stock i s studied in those states contributing appreciable numbers of the stock to Kansas and in certain states where the parallels to the development in Kansas seem of particular interest* The treatment of each stock is provided with its own bibliography* The bibliography in the following section treats only works referred in #**9. 01-49. 99. The separate bibliographies for the various for-ling stocks are located as follows: Germans #50*0, Dutch #59*0, Fleming #59.6, Scandinavians #60*0, Slavs #70.1, Italians #61*0, French in Europe #8^2, French Canadians #66.0, Mexicans #88.02, Welsh #91*1, Greeks, #93.00, Lebanese #95*10. °® Bibliography for Generalities on For-lings outside Kansas. Ba - Barry, Colman J., The Catholic Church and German Americans, Wash­ ington and Milwaukee, 1953* C - Commons, John R., *Slavs in the Bituminous Mines of Illinois,* Charities.XIII (1909), 227-9* D - Dexter, Robert, "50-50 Americans,* World's Weric, X&V12I (192*0,366- 371. Dr - Drachsler, Julius, Intermarriage in New Xork City, Newflfcsk, 1921. F - Fishman, Joshua A., and Associates, Language Loyalty in the United States, The Hague, 1966. 1 pp be fore 1 H - Heckser, E. F., Svensk Arbete och Iar, Stockholm, 19^1. LC - Leeehy Harper, and Carroll, John Charles, Armour and his Times, New lork & London, 1938. P - Pantle, Alberta, "History oftthe French-Speaking Settlement in the Cottonwood Valley*1, Part I, Kansas Historical Quarterly XK (1951) 12-49. E - Roemer, T., The Ludwig-Missions Verein and the Church in the U.S.A. Catholic University of America Studies in American History, XVI, 1933* Sh - Shea, John D. 6., A History ofjthe Catholic Church within the Limits of the United States, 4 vols., Hew York, 1886-1892. S - Sixty-first Congress Second Session (1909*10), Senate Documents Vols. LKVUI and LHX Part I, Bituminous Coal Mining; Vol. LKXV Immigrants in Industry, Part XI, Slaughtering and Msat Packing. T - Taylor, Paul S., Mexican Labor in the United States, Vol. U, jfc of California Publications in Economics, Vol VII (1930). W - Wade, Mason, "The French Parish and Survivance in Nineteenth Century New England", Catholic Historical Re viewy XXXVI (1901}, 163-189. Wr - Wright Carrol D., Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants Employed In the Packing Business in Chicago Bulletin, Bureau of Labor, X, No. 56, January 1903. 1 49.01 beginning about 1640 i n both Europe and the United S t a t e s the background f o r f o r e i g n settlement i n Kansas becomes s i g n i f i c a n t . Land was not opened to s e t t l e r s i n Kansas u n t i l 1854, but the t e r r i t o r y ' s f i r s t c i t i z e n s born i n Europe had f r e q u e n t l y a r r i v e d i n America s e v e r a l or many years before. For immigration from Europe the p e r i o d of i n t e r e s t p r a c t i c a l l y ends i n 1914. The d r y i n g up of the European sources of l a b o r caused by the F i r s t World War and by the passage of s t r i n g e n t American immigration laws l e d to an i n f l u x from Mexico p a r t i c u l a r l y important f o r Kansas i n the f i r s t two decades of the t w e n t i e t h century. From the r e s t of the United States important f o r - l i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n s to Kansas except f o r Mexicans ceased about the same time, but i n f l u e n c e s from other s t a t e s went on f o r another quarter century or more, and p a r a l l e l s t o what happened i n them are sometimes of much l a t e r i n t e r e s t . 49.02 The terms Old and New Immigration became e s t a b l i s h e d i n the f i r s t decades o f the t w e n t i e t h century, and i n t h i s work are used because of t h e i r con­ venience. The "Old" immigrants a r r i v e d mostly before 1890, the "New" l a t e r . The "Old" were mostly from western Europe, the "New" from southern and eastern Europe. Consequently, f o r convenience the term "Old" a p p l i e s among f o r - l i n g s t o Scandinavians, Germans, Dutch, Flemish, and m a r g i n a l l y French. Czechs are a l s o more or l e s s on the margin. The "New" i n c l u d e s other S l a ­ v i c peoples and the Jews l i v i n g among them, I t a l i a n s , Greeks, Lebanese. Magyars and Finns are of no i n t e r e s t t o t h i s study. The "Old" immigration slackened j u s t as the l a s t of the d e s i r a b l e land i n Kansas was being oc­ cupied. The "New" f l o u r i s h e d during the greatest demand f o r manpower by the c o a l f i e l d s of southeastern Kansas and the packing houses of Kansas C i t y . 49.03 The causes of emigration from Europe were s e v e r a l . The primary one was economic, but p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s motives deserve some c o n s i d e r a t i o n . C e r t a i n f e a t u r e s of nineteenth century European economic, p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y t h e r e f o r e a l l merit some review. 49.04 Overpopulation i n Europe, def i n e d as too many people to be supported i n a givpn region by a c t i v i t i e s under the economic techniques i n p r a c t i c e , i s recognized as the primary cause of mi g r a t i o n to America during the n i n e ­ teenth and tw e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s . T e c h n i c a l advances might be as potent as t e c h n i c a l r e t a r d a t i o n i n determining movement, but the primary cause was increase i n p o p u l a t i o n without compensating advancement i n production. In other words, emigrants u s u a l l y l e f t Europe i n search of a more abundant m a t e r i a l l i f e . The l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t s of t h i s m o t i v a t i o n have seldom been considered important, but i t should be evident t h a t hope of betterment t e n ­ ded t o dispose minds t o accept c h a n g e — l i n g u i s t i c change as w e l l as other. I n view of the r e s i s t a n c e of many—even most—immigrants t o s h i f t i n g t h e i r language, such an argument may seem erroneous, but the s w i f t n e s s of s h i f t can s t i l l i n p a r t be a t t r i b u t e d t o the weakening of r e s i s t a n c e through the h a b i t of accepting p r o f i t a b l e economic newness as su p e r i o r t o i n a p p l i c a b l e economic t r a d i t i o n . 49.05 A g r i c u l t u r a l depression e x i s t e d i n Europe during p a r t of the 1870 !s and 1880 fs, l e s s r e c o g n i z a b l y e a r l i e r . % d crop years played t h e i r r o l e i n b r i n g i n g i t on, but poor crops had not e a r l i e r had such marked e f f e c t s . Low p r i c e s were a potent cause i n t h i s p e r i o d j the p r i c e s were the r e s u l t of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n advances through v a s t improvements i n f e r r o u s technology and the use of steam power on sea and l a n d , enabling g r a i n from newly opened v i r g i n lands, mostly from America, but i n c r e a s i n g l y too from R u s s i a , 3 to be poured i n t o the European markets at g r e a t l y reduced f r e i g h t r a t e s . (H 342)• G r a i n from across the A t l a n t i c f o r c e d people t o s a i l westward over the A t l a n t i c . 49.06 The p o r t s i n EuropJjpy which people came to the United States i n c l u d e d a l l of importance on the western coast from R i g a t o Le Havre w i t h much t r a n s ­ shipment through England and e x i t from L i v e r p o o l i n c l u d e d . Many I t a l i a n s , a t l e a s t i n the e a r l i e r days, s a i l e d from Le Havre. L a t e r the M e d i t e r r a ­ nean p o r t s placed them and Greeks and South Slavs onto ships bound d i r e c t l y f o r New York. Steerage t r a v e l was abominable, but the d u r a t i o n of the voyage was so much s h o r t e r w i t h steam than w i t h s a i l s t h a t readiness t o emigrate was g r e a t e r a f t e r the steamship l i n e s were e s t a b l i s h e d . B e t t e r ocean t r a n s ­ p o r t was indeed an important f a c t o r i n causing i n c r e a s e d emigration. Ready t r a n s p o r t a l s o meant t h a t r e t u r n t o Europe was e a s i e r , the "New" immigrants used the resource more f r e q u e n t l y than the "Old". The r e s u l t was a l e s s marked break w i t h Europe, and a somewhat more marked tendency to continue the use of the language of the " o l d country" as long as v i s i t s there were a t t r a c t i v e . 49.07 I n d u s t r i a l development i n Europe was the primary f a c t o r t e r m i n a t i n g the " o l d " immigration. The i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s were no longer overpop- u l a t e d , might even be importing l a b o r e r s as i n the case of Poles i n wes­ t e r n Germany. The year 1890 represents a moment when western Europe could s u f f i c i e n t l y occupy i t s l a b o r f o r c e . The American hard times of the 1890 !s made discontented r u r a l Europeans t u r n r e a d i l y to new o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n i n d u s t r y at home. The l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t of t h i s r a t h e r sudden c u t - o f f was marked. E a r l i e r , the conservatives could always f i n d reinforcements among new a r r i v a l s . Without such h e l p , they grew o l d b i t t e r l y . 4 49.08 P o l i t i c a l rionsidftra.-Mnns had t h e i r e f f e c t i n promoting emigration from Europe, r a t h e r by determining the character of the emigrants than by a f ­ f e c t i n g the numbers. The f a i l u r e of the r e v o l u t i o n s of 1848 e x p e l l e d r e ­ v o l u t i o n a r i e s . The r i s e of European n a t i o n a l i s m l e d t o the spread of the requirement of o b l i g a t o r y m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . Resistance t o such measures o f t e n took the form of f l i g h t . Hanoverians and other nmuss-Preussen M r e ­ garded avoidance of c o n s c r i p t i o n as a h i g h l y respectable reason f o r l e a v ­ i n g Germany. The subject peoples i n A u s t r i a and Hungary were s i m i l a r l y actuated. The Russian determination to r e q u i r e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e of w e l l - rooted c o l o n i e s from the west drove the Germans i n them t o the United S t a t e s . The b r u t a l i t i e s to which they would be subject i n the Czar^s army brought e x i t from the Volga, r a t h e r than n a t i o n a l i s t i c o r r e l i g i o u s con­ s i d e r a t i o n s . Bismarck fs Kulturkampf r e s u l t e d i n the e x i t of some Germans and Poles from the German empire. Anti-semitism had i t s r o l e . The w e l l - to-do, however, seldom went i n t o permanent e x i l e f o r such reasons. The l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t of such motivations was l i k e l y t o be potent, perhaps conservative by causing mass emigrations t h a t remained u n i t s on reaching the United S t a t e s , thus p r o v i d i n g centers of r e s i s t a n c e to l i n g u i s t i c a b s o r p t i o n . Except as o u t l i n e d above few emigrants l e f t Europe t o replace bad po­ l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s by others which, f o r newcomers, were l i t t l e b e t t e r . But the p o l i t i c a l past of the new a r r i v a l s had a p e r c e p t i b l e l i n g u i s ­ t i c r e s u l t i n the United States even when i t had not d r i v e n them across the ocean. Emigrants from European m i n o r i t y groups a r r i v e d i n America l o o k i n g upon t h e i r language both as a symbol around which t o r a l l y p o l i t i c a l l y and as a mark a l l o w i n g o b j e c t i o n a b l e segregation from government; of these two c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n f l u e n c e s the l a t t e r , which made f o r E n g l - i z i n g , was the 5 stronger because of the general p o l i t i c a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y of immigrants as soon as the l i n g u i s t i c b a r r i e r was pushed a s i d e . Emigrants f l e e i n g from t y r a n t s who spoke t h e i r own language were yet r e a d i e r to slough o f f the l i n g u i s t i c t i e to the abandoned p o l i t i c a l order. 49.09 The F i r s t World War shut o f f the "New" emigration e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h the same l i n g u i s t i c r e s u l t s as closure of the "Old" through western Europe's i n d u s t r i a l development. To be sure the American immigration laws were need­ ed to make permanent the stoppage. 49.10 R e l i g i o n was a c o n t r i b u t i n g i n f l u e n c e i n determining c e r t a i n depatures from Europe. The most celebrated case i s the exodus of Mennonites from South Russia upon the t h r e a t of the i n s t a l l a t i o n of m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . The Volga Germans departed f o r economic and p o l i t i c a l reasons o n l y , but the r e l i g i o u s motive caused the emigration of a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n of the w e l l - t o - d o among the Mennonites. Even when r e l i g i o n played o n l y a minor r o l e i n p r o v i d i n g the push f o r emigration, i t deserves a t t e n t i o n because emigrants c a r r i e d to the United S t a t e s the r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s and the r e l i g i o u s movements of Europe. 49.11 Roman C a t h o l i c emigrants departed from v a r i o u s European c o u n t r i e s . In Europe the v a r i e t y of language among C a t h o l i c s was l e s s important than the v a r i a t i o n s i n ardor, ranging from something l i k e h o s t i l i t y t o the Church among nominal C a t h o l i c s i n Bohemia t o the passive f a i t h f u l n e s s of neighboring Poles and the ardent z e a l of Russian Germans. I n areas where C a t h o l i c i s m reigned without competition as i n I t a l y and Poland r e l i g i o u s u n i t y was t r a n s p o r t e d to America but w i t h c e r t a i n easy going tendencies. In areas where C a t h o l i c and P r o t e s t a n t communities were c l o s e neighbors without more than casual contacts as i n the Volga and Black Sea regions and i n p a r t s of Germany, s t r i c t n e s s and a s p e r i t y had more p r e s t i g e . In a 6 few areas such as could be found i n western Hungary and Bukovina where P r o t e s t a n t s and C a t h o l i c s l i v e d i n the same community, a t t i t u d e s toward neighbors of d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s background were already developed s i m i l a r t o those prevalent i n American communities. In studying the e f f e c t of C a t h o l i c i s m upon l i n g u i s t i c development i n America the v a r y i n g character­ i s t i c s of t h a t r e l i g i o n i n the various European coun t r i e s cannot be w h o l l y neglected, 49.12 Lutheranism was dominant i n Scandinavia and much of Germany, The churches were n a t i o n a l , however, and c o n t i n u i n g the o r i g i n a l p a t t e r n they were not i n c l i n e d t o become one o r g a n i z a t i o n on a r r i v i n g i n America nor to adhere t o what they found already e s t a b l i s h e d i n America, 49.13 Other P r o t e s t a n t denominations i n Europe were a l s o on a m o n o - l i n g u i s t i c b a s i s , C a l v i n i s m r e s u l t e d i n Reformed o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n Germany, S w i t z e r ­ l a n d and the Netherlands t h a t had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n to each other o r g a n i z a ­ t i o n a l l y and s t i l l l e s s t o P r e s b y t e r i a n i s m , But Mennonites, who a l l ( a t l e a s t a l l i n regions from which emigrants came t o America) worshipped i n High German considered themselves of the same body whether they were from S w i t z e r l a n d , Germany, Poland, A u s t r i a or R u s s i a . 49.14 P i e t i s m . In the p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g the Napoleonic wars, Scandinavia, Holland, S w i t z e r l a n d and P r o t e s t a n t Germany were subject t o two r e l i g i o u s i n f l u e n ­ ces, governmental pressure to increase the a u t h o r i t y of e s t a b l i s h e d chur­ ches and a s o r t of p i e t i s t i c r e v o l u t i o n . The z e a l of the p i e t i s t s sometimes l e d them to separation from dominant churches j sometimes, w h i l e they stayed w i t h i n the e s t a b l i s h e d church, they f e l t great d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i t s complacent and w o r l d l y a t t i t u d e s . The e s t a b l i s h e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s sometimes r e t a l i a t e d by i n v o k i n g p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l sanctions amounting very n e a r l y t o p e r s e c u t i o n . During the t h i r t i e s and p a r t i c u l a r l y the f o r t i e s of the 7 nineteenth century p i e t i s t i c d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n was at the root of the p i o ­ neering emigration t o America, I t a l s o had somewhat t o do w i t h P r o t e s t a n t Russian German emigration, f o r Lutheranism fas an e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n i n many German v i l l a g e s , looked w i t h d i s a p p r o v a l at the meetings of the "breth­ r e n , " pushing the l a t t e r toward emigration. Much of the immigration i n t o Kansas before 1890 was by elements w i t h p i e t i s t i c backgrounds, e i t h e r , l i k e the Dutch, sent us by other p i o n e e r i n g settlements, o r s p r i n g i n g up w i t h unsponsored e a r l y n u c l e i which l a t e r r e c r u i t e d a d d i t i o n a l members among the constant stream of p i e t i s t s coming out of Europe. Though r e l i g i o n was f o r most newcomers not so important an i m p e l l i n g motive f o r emigration as economics, besides being the f i r s t k i n d l i n g spark, i t was a cohesive element, and i f o n l y by keeping language groups together made f o r l i n g u i s t i c conser­ vatism. 49.15g I n d o c t r i n a t i o n f o r Emigration. Propaganda encouraging emigration was nat­ u r a l l y spread by s u c c e s s f u l emigrants and by those who could p r o f i t f r o $ these p o p u l a t i o n movements, namely, r e c i p i e n t American communities, steam­ shi p and r a i l companies, and employers seeking cheap l a b o r . The success­ f u l emigrants wrote "America l e t t e r s " t o t h e i r f r i e n d s i n Europe. These were of two types: ( l ) o r d i n a r y f a m i l y l e t t e r s , u s u a l l y w i t h a tendency to boast, but s e n s i t i v e t o bad crop years and general hard times, and (2) pro­ paganda by men l i k e the Kansans, Swehla of Wilson (#47.69) and Flusche of Westphalia, (#48.02) who were endeavoring to form c o l o n i e s around them. J o u r n a l i s t s of the "hyphenated" press and organizers of c o l o n i z a t i o n com­ panies e n l i s t i n g newcomers performed a very s i m i l a r m i s s i o n . (3) Town and c i t y governments seem to have done l i t t l e a d v e r t i s i n g abroad, but i n the 1870 !s and 1880 !s many s t a t e s wanted immigrants to take up t h e i r l a n d , and t h e i r governments, Kansas i n c l u d e d , (P34-45) p r i n t e d propaganda or sent 8 agents t o a t t r a c t newcomers from Europe as w e l l as from the East. The f e d e r a l government, too, spread the word i n p r i n t e d form and o r a l l y through consular agents. (4) Railways w i t h l a n d grants were yet more zealous. The e f f o r t s abroad of the Kansas P a c i f i c and the Santa Fe i n Kansas are set f o r t h elsewhere (#8.4ff). These were only three of s e v e r a l l a n d grant l i n e s west of the M i s s i s s i p p i s i m i l a r l y engaged. The M i s s o u r i , Kansas and Texas R a i l r o a d a l s o had Georges de Pardonnet i n France (P 34) . Land agents tended t o contact c o - r e l i g i o n a r i e s i n Europe as a group and s e t t l e them together i n America. (5) Steamship agents roamed a l l over Europe even t o Samara on the eastern-most bend of the Volga. They were f r e q u e n t l y u n t r u s t ­ worthy, but they provided the i n f o r m a t i o n necessary to put passengers on t h e i r s h i p s . (6) Labor con t r a c t o r s v e r y e a r l y abused t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and were subj e c t to r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n . They played a p a r t i n pro­ v i d i n g contingents of i n d u s t r i a l workers f o r Kansas, but at a p e r i o d ( a f t e r 1890) when t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s had t o be d i s g u i s e d and are hard t o t r a c e . 49.20 F o r - l i n g s i n the United States o u t s i d e Kansas. General. The f i r s t f o r - l i n g s who came t o Kansas almost without exception had spent some time elsewhere i n the United S t a t e s before e n t e r i n g the newly-created t e r r i t o r y . Many l a t e r s e t t l e r s i n most f o r - l i n g communities had a l s o l i v e d p r e v i o u s l y i n other s t a t e s before coming t o Kansas. The f a c t s vary enough from one f o r - l i n g stock to another so t h a t most of the American o u t - s t a t e h i s t o r y of groups i n Kansas w i l l appear more a p p r o p r i a t e l y i n the sec t i o n s devoted t o each stock, but c e r t a i n g e n e r a l i t i e s are appropriate here. 49.21 P o r t s of E n t r y t o the United S t a t e s . A l l through the h i s t o r y of the United States the great m a j o r i t y of immigrants entered t h i s country through North A t l a n t i c p o r t s , u s u a l l y New York. Before the C i v i l War, however, and to a l e s s e r extent i n the years immediately f o l l o w i n g i t , some immigrants, among 9 them a number who u l t i m a t e l y came to Kansas, a r r i v e d f i r s t a t New Orleans. Between 1857 and I860, 49,000 immigrants entered at New Orleans, 452,000 at New York. Most of the entrants from the south found t h e i r way to S t . Louis and the towns near-by; some went up the Ohio R i v e r as f a r as C i n c i n ­ n a t i . I n these places they mingled w i t h those who had come by the way of the eastern seaboard, and t h e i r l a t e r h i s t o r y i s unaffected by t h e i r port of e n t ry. A few immigrants came by the New Orleans route d i r e c t l y t o Kansas; p a r t of the Neuchatel Swiss i n Nemaha and Pottawatomie Counties may be c i t e d as examples. 49*22 American Sources of the F o r - l i n g P o p u l a t i o n of Kansas. The s t a t e s f u r n i s h i n g t o Kansas almost a l l the f o r - l i n g s who d i d not come d i r e c t l y from Europe were those bordering the Great L a k e s , a l s o Pennsylvania, M i s s o u r i , and Iowa. Those coming from Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, southern I l l i n o i s , and M i s ­ s o u r i were almost a l l Germans. Some of these belonged t o the eighteenth century stock of immigrants commonly dubbed Pennsylvania Dutch, and i n t h i s work c a l l e d Penn Germans; a number of others were l a t e r a c c r e t i o n s t o t h i s Pennsylvania stock. Many, i n c l u d i n g p r a c t i c a l l y a l l those from M i s s o u r i and southern I l l i n o i s , were from settlements of immigrants d i r e c t from Europe. The American f r o n t i e r hacjnoved r a p i d l y forward i n the years before Kansas was opened f o r settlement. Along the great waterways settlement was a decade, sometimes much more, ahead of movements p o p u l a t i n g regions l e s s e a s i l y acces­ s i b l e f o r commerce. The ferment was strong along the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r i n the 1840,s when there were pockets i n Ohio and Indiana j u s t being f u l l y opened. Consequently i n the 1850!s and 1860 ls there were many areas i n I l l i n o i s , e astern Iowa, southeastern Wisconsin, and the r i v e r v a l l e y s of M i s s o u r i ready t o export land-hungry i n h a b i t a n t s ; l a t e r the need was s t i l l g r e a t e r . i i any other state. Ohio, Indian*, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, and Ne­ braska are the objects of most of the r e s t of the material i n this volume except i n considering French Canadians, f o r whom New England cannot be l e f t out of account, and Mexicans who came from the South­ west and are therefore studied i n the Southwest. The exposition of the processes of l i n g u i s t i c displacement i n a l l these areas i n the United States makes clear the f a c t that Kansas i s merely an example of what was happening everywhere* The behavior of the strong colony of Czechs near Crete and Wilber, Nebraska, re­ sembles that of the Czech settlement near Cuba, Kansas, or that near Wilson; s i m i l a r l y the conduct of the small group of Swedes at Buck- l i n , Missouri, i s analogous to Swedish development at V i l a s , Kansas, or f o r that matter to German behavior i n many settlements of low importance, that near Homewood, Kansas, f o r instance. To be sure, the Kansas developments may be somewhat le s s complicated than those taking place i n , say, I l l i n o i s or Wisconsin because foreign s e t t l e ­ ments began farther west somewhat l a t e r and the intrusion of new elements i n the twentieth century was somewhat l e s s . The geographic d i s t r i b u t i o n of f o r - l i n g settlements presents i n other states a pattern s i m i l a r to that occurring i n Kansas, As i n Kansas the l a r g e s t r u r a l settlements seldom a f f e c t more than three counties. In I l l i n o i s the German settlement southeast of St. Louis occupies a l l or parts of four counties? the Swedish settlement referable to Galesburg dominates two counties, just as i n Kansas the Concentrated Mennonite D i s t r i c t takes up much of four counties and the Swedes of Lindsborg much of two. Small r u r a l settlements upon which the pressure of the general population i s great are scatteratover p r a c t i c a l l y a l l the upper M i s s i s s i p p i and Ohio valleys as well as over Kansas. What appears most remarkable, despite many l o c a l differences, i s the uniformity of the process of Engl-izing. 10 Though northern I l l i n o i s , Wisconsin, and Iowa f u r n i s h e d many Germans to Kansas, they a l s o provided most of the other f o r - l i n g s of the Old Immigration; I l l i n o i s and Iowa the g r e a t e r p a r t of the Scandinavians; Iowa and Wisconsin the Czechs; I l l i n o i s the French Canadians; Iowa most of the Dutch. The New Immigrants who worked i n the packing houses and the c o a l mines o f t e n stop­ ped nowhere before Kansas, but there was a r e s t l e s s exchange of man-power, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r the mines, between the Kansas centers employing them and those i n the s t a t e s above mentioned, p a r t i c u l a r l y I l l i n o i s . 49.23 Pre-Kansas Urban L i f e of F o r - l i n g s . I f the f o r - l i n g immigrants to Kansas came from urban centers t o r u r a l settlements i n Kansas, the o u t - s t a t e c i t i e s v e r y f r e q u e n t l y had been a very temporary way-station ( f o r example, Chicago, most i m p o r t a n t l y , S t . L o u i s , C i n c i n n a t i , La P o r t e , Galesburg, and New York u s u a l l y f o r o n l y very b r i e f s t a y s ) . Sometimes settlement a s s o c i a t i o n s were formed i n these c i t i e s which sent out organized c o l o n i e s t o found new c i t i e s ; t h i s was the case i n Chicago f o r the Germans who came t o Eudora i n Douglas County i n 1857 (#48.23), f o r the Swedes, a l s o i n Chicago, who s e t t l e d at Lindsborg i n McPherson County i n 1868 (#47.44) ? the same year i n Galesburg, f o r the Swedes who founded Scandia i n R e p u l b l i c County (#47.64)^ and f o r the Germans i n C i n c i n n a t i who came out to Windhorst i n Ford County i n 1878 (#48.29) M o s t l y , however, the f o r - l i n g s who came to c i t i e s and then became Kansas farmers s e t t l e d i n communities already begun i n Kansas. When residence i n the c i t i e s was b r i e f , the l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y of the immigrant was p r a c t i c a l l y u n a f f e c t e d , but i f he had t o work long years i n a c i t y before accumulating the very modest c a p i t a l necessary to s a t i s f y h i s land hunger, he o f t e n had a smattering of E n g l i s h before a r r i v i n g i n Kansas. I f f o r - l i n g s came from o u t - s t a t e urban centers and s e t t l e d i n towns i n Kansas, t h e i r knowledge of E n g l i s h was f r e q u e n t l y great on a r r i v a l , 11 p a r t i c u l a r l y among e a r l y Germans. These men had f r e q u e n t l y gone from place t o place i n the Wander.jahr t r a d i t i o n absorbing much from a l l the c u l t u r a l l i f e t h a t they encountered. 49.24 Urban c o n d i t i o n s among o u t - s t a t e f o r - l i n g s repeatedly r e c e i v e comment i n t h i s volume, though l a r g e urban settlements are few i n Kansas. An e s s e n t i a l reason f o r t h i s treatment i s t h a t , w h i l e , f o r p o p u l a t i o n u n i t s o f comparable s i z e , urban l i n g u i s t i c developments were l i k e l y to be more r a p i d than i n the country, the f a c t o r s promoting E n g l - i z i n g were e s s e n t i a l l y the same i n town and country. The con t r a s t s between the E n g l - i z e d and the l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative were o f t e n greater i n the c i t i e s , but there was the same s t r u g g l e between the generations, the same b a t t l e s over the language question i n churches, the same pressures from one hundred per-cent Americans. Since the c i t y has more o f t e n than the country preoccupied commentators, more p r i n t e d e x p o s i t i o n s of the various phenomena can be found f o r urban than f o r r u r a l u n i t s . I t i s proper t o take advantage of t h i s comparative r i c h ­ ness of evidence. 49#25 R u r a l American Environments of F o r - l i n g s Coming to Kansas. x f a f o r - l i n g immigrant to Kansas came from a r u r a l area i n some other s t a t e , h i s sojourn there was u s u a l l y long enough to a f f e c t h i s l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y . The i n ­ fluences t o which he had been subject d i d not d i f f e r g r e a t l y from those to which he was subject i n Kansas, and they v a r i e d l i t t l e from one region t o another. I n a general way, though, f o r - l i n g s who l i v e d along the Ohio R i v e r , the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r near the Onio confluence, and the lower M i s s o u r i R i v e r were i n a conservative l i n g u i s t i c environment; those along the upper M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r were i n an atmosphere f a v o r i n g change, and those who l i v e d along the Great Lakes were i n a conservative area r u r a l l y , though i n a d i s ­ t r i c t of s w i f t urban e v o l u t i o n . 12 49.26 Rate of E n g l - i z i n g i n the Nineteenth Century. C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , E n g l - i z i n g i n the U n i t e d States proceeded very s l o w l y before the C i v i l War, and q u i t e r a p i d l y afterward. The c h i l d r e n of immigrants who a r r i v e d before 1850 appear to have spoken as good f - l a n g as t h e i r f o rebears. The second generation of l a t e r years, however, almost always debased t h e i r p a r e n t s 1 mother tongue. The i n f l u e n c e s t h a t brought t h i s s i t u a t i o n about were i n some small p a r t caused by the C i v i l War. Them, as i n the two world wars, young men l e f t f o r - l i n g communities i n considerable numbers t o j o i n the army and were ob­ l i g e d to a s s o c i a t e w i t h a l l s o r t s of En g - l i n g s . A much more important mid-nineteenth century l i n g u i s t i c i n f l u e n c e i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y was the more r a p i d c i r c u l a t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n caused l a r g e l y by the b u i l d i n g of r a i l r o a d s . The wave of n a t i v i s m i n the F i f t i e s was a l s o i n p a r t respon­ s i b l e , though i t was a two-edged sword. 49*27 Nativism, When Kansas was opened f o r settlement i n 1854, the KnoweNothing P a r t y , shouting "America f o r Americans," was n a t i o n a l l y very a c t i v e . This n a t i v i s m , which made l i f e miserable f o r f o r e i g n e r s i n the East, worked f o r e a r l y t r a n s f e r to Kansas of those i n search of "a more p e a c e f u l l i f e " where, however, Know-Nothings a l s o a r r i v e d . By d r i v i n g f o r - l i n g s i n upon them­ selv e s the movement acted as a strong conservative l i n g u i s t i c f o r c e . Before the time of the movement " c e r t a i n l e a d e r s even claimed t h a t the Germans should a s p i r e t o nothing more than to be ' r a d i c a l humus', "merging w i t h English-Americans at once." Under i t s pressure the same men advocated t h a t the Germans "should u n i t e e n e r g e t i c a l l y , " dreaming of a new s t a r i n the f l a g to represent a "German-American S t a t e . " "They are t h i n k i n g of Kansas." t f the Know-Nothings won, "the i n e v i t a b l e e f f e c t of success would be t h a t the Germans...would u n i t e the more c l o s e l y and would h o l d t h e i r own l a n ­ guage and customs the more sacred"(R 141-143). 13 I f the Know-Nothings promoted clannishness among f o r e i g n e r s , n a t i v i s m on the other hand, l i k e every s e g r e g a t i o n a l f o r c e , tended a l s o t o make i n ­ d i v i d u a l s endeavor t o escape from the group subject to d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Inasmuch as most of those attacked could not r e a d i l y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the r e s t of the p o p u l a t i o n except by t h e i r language, f o r - l i n g s o f t e n ceased to be such. 49.28 F i s c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the United States a f f e c t e d not o n l y a r r i v a l s from Europe, but a l s o p o p u l a t i o n movements w i t h i n the country toward Kansas. The panics and accompanying depressions of 1857, 1873, and 1892 meant a di p i n immigration. A f t e r the two e a r l i e r panics the l u r e of f r e e l a n d brought e a r l i e r resumption of f o r - l i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n i n Kansas by people from w i t h i n the United States than by those from Western Europe; the emi­ gr a t i o n s from R u s s i a were, however, not a f f e c t e d by f i s c a l c o n d i t i o n s . A f t e r 1874, t h e r e f o r e , the o v e r - a l l p r o p o r t i o n of s e t t l e r s d i r e c t from Europe was not a f f e c t e d . 49.29 The b u i l d i n g of r a i l r o a d s to the east of Kansas had i t s e f f e c t on f o r - l i n g development there . Immigrants a r r i v i n g from Europe by t h i s means were t r a n s ­ ported without delay to western s t a t e s . Kansas thus r e c e i v e d many thousands without previous experience w i t h E n g l i s h . 49.30 I n d u s t r i a l development i n the United States before the F i r s t World War a f f e c t e d Kansas l e s s than many s t a t e s , but c o a l mining and meat packing were a c t i v i t i e s t h a t brought the "new" immigrants t o Kansas, and c e r t a i n trends i n i n d u s t r y deserve our a t t e n t i o n . 49.31 The r e l a t i o n s between c a p i t a l and l a b o r a f f e c t e d the development of language usage among f o r e i g n born workmen. Leech and C a r r o l l s t a t e the matter thus i n Armour and h i s Times (LC 230): "In p a r t these migrations were n a t u r a l overflows from a crowded continent t o a newer l a n d , &\it much of the immi­ g r a t i o n was d e l i b e r a t e l y promoted by great i n d u s t r i a l i s t s i n c l u d i n g the 14 packers. The purpose was not o n l y to o b t a i n cheaper l a b o r , but to prevent u n i o n i z a t i o n by d i s p l a c i n g experienced and perhaps d i s i l l u s i o n e d employees w i t h greenhorns unable to speak the language of the e a r l i e r comers, who might have been contaminated by contacts w i t h union o r g a n i z e r s . The l a b o r agencies which brought these raw m a t e r i a l s to Packingtown knew what the packers wanted and searched eastern and southern Europe f o r the goods d e s i ­ red. I t was the p o l i c y of the **labor r e l a t i o n s men,f. ..to keep the races and n a t i o n a l i t i e s apart a f t e r working hours, and t o foment s u s p i c i o n , r i v a l r y , and even enmity among such groups. The packers d i d i t . Everybody d i d i t . " John R. Commons i n "Labor Conditions i n *vleat Packing and the Recent S t r i k e " , J o u r n a l o f Economics, XIX (1905), 1-32, s e l e c t s a v i l l a i n d i f f e r e n t from Leech and C a r r o l l ' s ; he says: "The races were kept apart by language, d i s t r u s t , and the i n f l u e n c e o f the p r i e s t s " (p. 31). C a r r o l D # Wright, as seen below, blames "shrewd l e a d e r s . " The c a p i t a l i s t i c p o l i c y i n r e c r u i t i n g immigrant l a b o r was w e l l under­ stood by l a b o r groups competing w i t h the newcomers. I n Kansas C i t y , Kansas, i n 1897 a Santa Fe fireman asserted i n speaking w i t h a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the Labor Commission of the s t a t e : "In case an employer refuses t o a r b i t r a t e w i t h h i s employees, a c r i s i s f o l l o w s , and he seeks f o r e i g n l a b o r to deprive the American l a b o r e r s of t h e i r r i g h t s . " W i c h i t a trackmen, s t a t i n g the matter more c o n c r e t e l y , i n the same year s a i d : "American l a b o r e r s demand from $1.25 to $1.50 per day w h i l e I t a l i a n s and Bavarians and other f o r e i g n l a b o r ­ ers w i l l work f o r from 90 cents t o $1." The "American" l a b o r e r s speaking thus were o f t e n themselves sons of immigrants or were even immigrants of long residence here; the l a s t one quoted was l i k e l y a north German. T h e i r hos­ t i l i t y to f o r e i g n l a b o r e r s d i d not l e a d to the segregation and e x c l u s i o n of the newcomers, however, but to e f f o r t s toward converting them i n t o "Americans." 15 They were taken i n t o the unions and t h e i r education there l e d s w i f t l y toward E n g l - i z i n g * C a r r o l D. Wright, U. S. Commissioner of Labor, wrote President The­ odore Roosevelt as f o l l o w s : ffThe immigrant, when he sees t h a t the union wants t o r a i s e h i s wages, decrease h i s hours of l a b o r , e t c . , begins to see the n e c e s s i t y of l e a r n i n g the E n g l i s h language, of understanding the i n s t i ­ t u t i o n s he hears t a l k e d about i n the union meetings 1 1 (Wr 2 ) . Wright says f u r t h e r — h e speaks of packing house workers, but s i m i l a r statements apply to miners and other branches of l a b o r : "In t h e i r business meeting the motions made, r e s o l u t i o n s read, and speeches d e l i v e r e d are u s u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n f i v e languages, though i n some l o c a l s only t h r e e . A l l business, however, i s t r a n s a c t e d p r i m a r i l y i n E n g l i s h , although any member may speak to any motion i n the language he best understands, h i s words being rendered i n t o E n g l i s h f o r the minutes of the meetings and i n t o a l l the languages necessary f o r the i n f o r m a t i o n of the members. I t i s here t h a t the p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y of l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h i s brought home f o r c i b l y to the immigrant. In a l l o ther of h i s a s s o c i a t i o n s not o n l y does h i s own language s u f f i c e , but, f o r reasons t h a t can be w e l l understood, shrewd leaders minimize the importance of l e a r n i n g any other... I t i s t r u e t h a t t h i s Americanizing i s being done by the I r i s h and the Germans, but i t i s Americanizing nevertheless, and i s being done as r a p i d l y as the m a t e r i a l t o work on w i l l permit, and very w e l l indeed...When the speech of the L i t h u a n i a n i s t r a n s l a t e d i n the meeting of the trade union the ^ r i s h and the Germans see i n i t the workings of a f a i r l y good mind" (Wr k)• W r i g h t 1 ^ i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s i s i d e a l i s t i c . Rather c e r t a i n l y the debaters among the f o r - l i n g s were not numerous. In 1909 the i n v e s t i ­ gators f o r the Immigration Commission reported thus to the Senate concerning 16 I t a l i a n workmen i n the Kansas Oklahoma mining d i s t r i c t : nA few of the more h i g h l y Americanized members of the race g e n e r a l l y c o n t r o l the remainder, n and they spoke no b e t t e r of the Slavs ^ocu^ents, The Americans u n i o n i z e d the f o r - l i n g s i n order to c o n t r o l t h e i r behavior as r e ­ gards t h e i r acceptance of pay and working c o n d i t i o n s ; f u r t h e r Americaniza­ t i o n through unions came, not from the w i l l of those powerful i n the unions, but from the i n t e r p l a y of b l i n d f o r c e s . The i n f l u e n c e of the unions was f e l t o n l y spasmodically. 1 t was not important u n t i l almost 1900, and a f t e r an unsuc c e s s f u l s t r i k e , such as th a t of the packing house workers i n 1904, i t languished. S t i l l the str u g g l e between c a p i t a l and l a b o r l e d toward the use of E n g l i s h . Employers kept s t i r r i n g the pot and pouring new elements i n t o i t , d espite themselves; the o l d workers, making a l l i e s of the new, t r a i n e d them t o behave l i k e themselves. 49-32 Coal mining i n the United States absorbed many immigrants, and Kansas r e ­ ceived a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of those e x t r a c t i n g s o f t c o a l (Production i n 1907, 393 m i l l i o n ) . S t a t i s t i c s on the production and l a b o r f o r c e i n c e r t a i n s t a t e s t h a t have had r e l a t i o n s w i t h Kansas are quoted below. Other s t a t e s producing more than a m i l l i o n and a h a l f tons i n 1907 are: (the number i n p arenthesis shows the m i l l i o n s o f tons produced i n 1907—Alabama (14), Arkansas (3), Indiana (14), Kentucky ( l l ) , Ohio (32), Tennessee (7) , Texas (2) , V i r g i n i a (5) and West V i r g i n i a (48.) S o f t Coal Production and Labor Force i n the U.S.* Pro d u c t i o n Labor Force Penna. 111. Okla. Kan. U. D. Penna. 111. Okla. Kan. I860 3 .7 6 1870 8 3 17 17 6 2 1880 18 6 .1 .7 42 33 16 4 Penna. 111. Okla. Kan. U.S. Penna. 111. Okla Kan. 1890 42 15 .9 I l l * — j - 2** 6** 1900 00 as 111 1?C1 r' T" 1902 Op 33 0 did 1903 1CC 'o n ^ ^ 190/;. J a 3 07c 1909 I1C ... - (a cruses Sod;5/ * The production i s recorded i n the nearest m i l l i o n of tons, the l a b o r f o r c e i n the nearest thousand of employees unless an entry i s s m a l l e r than the u n i t ( m i l l i o n ^ thousand). ** For 1889. Although Kansas Production ranks low -among producing s t a t e s , i t s inndppent miners were t o p i c a l i n t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n a. oiv; i . d e r a t i n g stock and i n t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c development. The best source f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c o a l f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t t o hnusns i s die .» .0 -t of Lhe 1,09 l a v i t_" 1 ao_ c ' b.e 1 . \* tier. Jo . ds- . _m 1 - • . a K i ^ J . - -Ui' o i en *" c — ' , _*o j- JP L > . J- , > a - , 1 , s _» C" v . - i u ' d da y i s o' :uc . " lor .hit "est Lo ^s oh u ie.. .: ':>i u : l l do c i _ o l f o r 18 The Middle West i n c l u d e d I l l i n o i s , Indiana and Ohio. Few data were gath­ ered from Ohio, most of them from I l l i n o i s , the s t a t e of the greatest i n t e r e s t t o Kansas. The Southwest i n c l u d e d Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texasj almost no data came from Arkansas and Texas (9, 17) > and f o r t u n a t e l y Kansas and Oklahoma are f o r many purposes given separate c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The per­ centage of the t o t a l number of employees in t e r v i e w e d by the i n v e s t i g a t o r s was f o r Pennsylvania 30.1$, f o r the Middle West f o r the Southwest, 33.8$, f o r the South, 15.5$ (9, 18). In other words Kansas and Oklahoma rec e i v e d the most n e a r l y complete study. Besides c o l l e c t i n g s t a t i s t i c s f o r the four d i s t r i c t s according t o a set p a t t e r n the I n v e s t i g a t o r s s t u d i e d a number of communities. There were more of these f o r I l l i n o i s , Kansas and Oklahoma than f o r any place e l s e , none f o r Ohio or any of the d i s t r i c t s i n the South but Alabama, o n l y two f o r Pennsylvania. These two were i n southwest Pennsylvania and had been opened l a t e ; t h e r e f o r e , since they give us no i n f o r m a t i o n a p p l i c a b l e to those miners brought to Kansas i n 1879 and 1880 from Mercer Co. much f a r t h e r north i n western Pennsylvania, o n l y a few s t a t i s t i c s from Pennsylvania are here given as contrasted w i t h more extended i n f o r m a t i o n f o r I l l i n o i s , Oklahoma and Kansas. Selected s t a t i s t i c s f o r the t o t a l number of. those i n t e r v i e w e d are a l s o presented. Less o f t e n s t a t i s t i c s concerning the households of which i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s were made are presented because the number of persons in t e r v i e w e d i n c e r t a i n stocks was not l a r g e enough to make the report on them s i g n i f i c a n t . However, since the "households" f u r n i s h the o n l y data on women, they are sometimes of use. 19 Percentage of Each Stock i n U.S. Each S p e c i f i e d Number of Years no. r e p o r t i n g -5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20- Croats 2,416 54.4 35.5 5.3 3.5 1.2 French 775 23.2 28 .8 4.1 16.9 27.0 Germans 2,677 15.8 13.6 4.5 20.5 45.7 N. I t a l i a n s 6,622 41.1 36 9.5 8.3 5.1 S. I t a l i a n s 4,239 44.9 37.5 8.9 5.3 3.4 Poles 7,316 42.9 31.9 9.1 9.2 7.0 Slovaks 11,272 36.7 31.6 11.4 9.9 10.4 Slovenians 1,899 44.5 36.6 8.6 6.6 3.7 Swedes 306 7.5 11.8 4.9 21.2 54.6 T o t a l f o r e i g n language 54,300 37.9 29.6 8.4 9 15.1 Percentage by Stocks of A l l Coal Miners Interviewed Middle South- A l l West Penna. West South U.S. Croats 1 4 2 1.9 2.7 French 1 .7 3.1 .3 .9 Germans 4.6 3.1 2.6 .8 3.1 N. I t a l i a n s 9.2 6.9 16.6 3.0 7.5 S. I t a l i a n s 2.3 4.6 6.1 8.8 4.8 Poles 4.4 12.3 3.1 2.2 8.3 Slovaks 4.2 20.3 1.9 2.9 12.8 Slovenians .5 3.2 2.8 .4 2.2 Swedes .4 20 Middle South- A l l West Penna. West South U.S. 1 0 0 % = 18,737 1 0 0 % ~ 49,137 100°/o - 7,036 1 0 0 % = 13,458 1 0 0 % - 88,368 persons persons persons persons persons The " o l d " emigration i s represented above by the French, Germans, and Swedes. There were s t i l l as many Germans as there were Croatians and Slovenians, but two-thirds of them had been i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s more than 15 years, as com­ pared w i t h a p r o p o r t i o n of one-fourth f o r a l l s t o c k s . There was, however, a not i n c o n s i d e r a b l e element r e c e n t l y a r r i v e d . Among the French except f o r a great f a l l i n g o f f during the hard t i p e s of the n i n e t i e s , the a r r i v a l s had been steady. Over two-thirds of the North Slavs and much over t h r e e - f o u r t h s of the I t a l i a n s and South S l a v s had a r r i v e d a f t e r 1898. E n g l - i z i n g among them could not be f a r advanced. The f i g u r e s on d i s t r i c t s show the high p r o p o r t i o n of North I t a l i a n s i n the Southwest. Most of the Slovenians of the Southwest were i n Kansas and the I n v e s t i g a t o r s there confused them w i t h Croats so t h a t t h e i r importance f o r Kansas i s not evident i n t h i s t a b l e . North S l a v s were much more important i n Pennsylvania than elsewhere. 49*33 A b i l i t y t o speak E n g l i s h among the s o f t c o a l miners as r e f l e c t e d i n the r e p o r t of the 1909 I n v e s t i g a t o r s was f o r a l l the U n i t e d States and f o r the stocks of i n t e r e s t t o Kansas as f o l l o w s : H CV CO a 0 - P 0 ctf O O N H 0) O L A eg CD CO CO O H O Pw O CO I L A O a* CO L A I O •3 CO £ O -4-<4 rH O •a CO - 4 - • i 1 § CO A; -H cl rH ^ 0 b0 CO 0 tuO P , a 00 p£) I • 0 bQ O > d O v . o O V o •v. o O o V o O O O O O O H o L A L A H H H • • • • • • • • to N O L A H O o cv N O vO to t>- vO N O t>- vO O N H H cv O O SsO L A vO -4" O O C O H O CV cv L A O H C V to cv vO -4- to CV CO- H rH r—1 0 o CV O to o C A to to C A O -4 N O o C A Q C A L A CO CV C A to to L A C A H H H C A L A O L A to -4 cA N O CA CV -4 o CA CV CO o o C A C A to t>- -4 -4 O O CV rH C A vO rH C O CV H H H CV 3 CA o L A CV O a 0 u fa cv 8 L A 3 CN CV -4 -4- CA CV 8 El O tO CA N O -4 O C A O -4- N O N O o N O to 4^ -4 O H to CA CV N O CV H CV CA 5 C A CV -4- LTV I A N O H o to to to CV H N O to o o to •\ H CV H en -4 H N O N O CV L>- to N O rH to N O -4 CA CA CA -4- o o •> n r—( rH CA CV CO N O rH CV to C V rH C V C V •4" L A to C V N O c>- to o to o-rH N O cv rH C A ~4 H L>- C V O N to o C A cv en N O to o rH C V to rH N O C V C V C A L A o O o o o O O o O o o o O o O to O L A C V to rH N O O N • • • • • • • • o o C V Q C V to o O N N O N D L A L A N O 4^ o £>- o to N O C V N O to C O to L A -4 -4 C V C A to C A o L A L A H *\ «\ •> rH CV -4 C V C A N O rH O to to O -4" CA CV to CA N O N O L A H rH H to «\ CV N O CO -4- co rH rH an s 1 CO CO •H .an 5^ 3 •H •H CO •a en g - P U •s •51 ±e AO AO 0 O - p O - P o rH H C!5 & M 00 rH CO CO 0 - P 0 0 U 0 - P CO 0 o u 0 o CO - P CO CO Q 0 a 5^ CO CO •H M fl o iA.ll « H CO 0 CO u - p 0 0 SH 0 0 £ a 0 a CO 0 O - P - p 0 0 > o •H a . He alleged, as one reason for preferring, when upper and lower Louisiana were separated, to be Bishop of St. Louis rather than New Orleans, that his knowledge of English was much better than his knowledge of French (Sh III, 391)• S t i l l there were a number of French parishes in his diocese and there were Germans. The Germans became very numerous, but Rosati fs successors have consistently been Irish. 31 k9m$l One of the* most notable events for i t s effect on Kansas of Bishop du Bourg's residence in Missouri was that i n 1823 he brought the Jesuit novitiate from Whitemarsh, Pennsylvania, to the north of St. Louis at Florissant, Missouri. These young Jesuits under the leadership of Charles van Quickenborne were to become missionaries to the Indians of the west.* They were mostly Belgians but were joined by others, notably for Kansas a Frenchman, Mi^ge, (see below) and an Italian, Ponziglione (see below). But after one or two other French Bishops, the dioceses that were created to the north of the Ohio, whence Kansas received much population, were to be in the hands of either German or much more frequently Irish bishops. Bishop, later Archbishop, Henni of Milwaukee was the most distinguished of the Germans. He was in Wisconsin from iQkh to 1881 and had earlier been in the late l830!s and early l8U0fs the mainstay of the Irish bishop at Cincinnati. U9»5>2 The Irish Catholics had firm hold of New York from the beginning and of New England after 1825• With the upsurge of the French Canadian popu­ lation in New England, the dominance of the Irish there led to much bi t t e r ­ ness among the French clergy. The arrival much later of the "new immigra­ tion" brought Catholic peoples speaking many different languages to the United States. The new iinmigrants were in no position to dispute the Irish hegemony, and at the hierarchial lev e l they are s t i l l not s i g n i f i ­ cantly represented. Though every linguistic stock had been able, more or less effectively, to provide priests for i t s own parishes, the proportion of vocations has remained highest among the Irish, high also among the Germans, particularly the Russian Germans. Therefore parishes with mixed stocks are most l i k e l y to be served by Irishmen, and next most frequently by Germans. 32 k9*$3 Since the Second World War certain bishops have tried providing parishes that have unmixed stocks with pastors from another stock, but such appointments have been proceeding cautiously. Historically even when the language question has ceased to exist, the pastor has usually come of the same stock as the people — mixed parishes aside. The result has been that the pastor usually represents the same ideas as his people as opposed to those of the higher echelons. When priest and people have quarreled necessitating episcopal interference, the difference in origins between people and bishop, i f such a difference exists, may make his task more d i f f i c u l t , his decisions less palatable, and sometimes perhaps less just. S t i l l episcopal authority has been generally respected — even with considerable awe, and when the bishop has acted discreetly, he has controlled a l l cases. U9»5U Monastic orders when they entered the United States from abroad were largely represented at their a r r i v a l by a body of some particular lin g u i s t i c stock, and that stock has tended to prevail in the order since that tMe, or i f not, to furnish most of the monks i n specific monastic houses. The nationalistic character of the American monastic orders was much more marked in the 19th century than\in the mid-twentieth. In Kansas the Jesuits did not represent any particular li n g u i s t i c stock, but a l l the other orders to arrive early were German at the time of their a r r i v a l and long afterward, the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Francis­ cans, the Capuchins* None others had entered Kansas before 1915 except the Passionist Fathers who took over from the Jesuits at St. Paul in l89h9 (they were Irish), and the Fathers of the Sacred Heart who Qame from Louvain, Belgium i n 1912 to serve the Flemings at Kenney Heights* Some­ what later were the Augustinian Recollects who came from Spain to serve 333 the Mexicans. U9*55 The net Catholic iiamigration amounted to nine and one-third million according to Barry. Six million of the Catholic immigrants arrived after 1870, four and three-fourths million after 1890. The new immigration then furnished far more immigrants than had the Iri s h and Germans, though natural increase among these western peoples prevented them from ever being overwhelmed numerically. Their dominance however, i s to be explained by their having taken good root before the arrival of the others as well as by p o l i t i c a l shrewdness, aided for the Irish from the beginning and for the Germans, by the time the rest came, by expertness in the English language. According to Barry the r e l a t i v i t y of numbers among Germans and Irish as shown t*y i j m i g r a ^ arrivals, was up through 1880 as follows: GERMANY IRELAND 1830 2,197 35,356 181*0 38,876 1UU,5U5 1850 110,831 530,810 i860 SUU,887 602,000 1870 210,000 371*000 1880 175*000 180,000 781,791 1,863,791 (Ba 6) U9#56 The Irish were not slow in seizing the advantage which they were given by the English language that many generations earlier had become native to them, and they called vigorously for the use of English. The Germans complained of neglect from very early and found a sympathetic ear in Europe. The Austrian Leopoldinen Stiftung ( founded 1829 ) and the Bavarian Ludwig Missionsverein (1838) began to support missions in the United States; the Bavarian society at least included Kansas. Their money 3U was a t t r a c t e d most r e a d i l y toward p u r e l y German work. Over a century l a t e r the a r c h i v i s t of the Leopold M i s s i o n s v e r e i n i s c i t e d by Barry as confirming two statements: "Loss of language meant l o s s of f a i t h and t r a d i t i o n s • . . • The German d i d not c l a i m t h a t German was the l a n ­ guage of h i s f a i t h , but i t was the best means of keeping the f a i t h " (Ba Ofs had parallels that were usually somewhat passive in the half century that followed the C i v i l War* If there was an enduring commercial advantage i n dealing with people in a f-lang, Americans would countenance or promote i t s use by their employees with customers, but the general attitude was that ignorance of English was an absurdity, and English in the brogue of some for-ling stock was an occasion of merriment. "Americans" in this case included not only those of colonial stock but also the des­ cendants of more recent arrivals from Europe who had become proficient i n English. If you were ignorant of English, you were stupid or else regarded as belonging to another zoological species. U9#71 The F i r s t World War turned this contemptuous view of the monolingual for-ling into a rabid h o s t i l i t y not only toward monolinguals but also toward bilinguals who s t i l l used f-lang where American ears could hear i t . German and Germans were the object of most of this h o s t i l i t y , but i t extended to other languages and other stocks. The conditions described for Kansas i n #9.6 were general throughout the United States. U9©72g After 1918 f-lang for six or eight years did not regain favor at a l l . The h o s t i l i t y to German was no worse — i t could hardly be — , but English was in some sense deified, and any effort to conserve any other language among for-lings was treasonable. Despite these attitudes of English monolinguals — and many bilimguals too — there grew up a pitying attitude for the old who had not had the privilege of enlightenment i n their youth. Even among the "new11 immigrants where their children expected U8 t o hear t h e i r e l d e r s u s i n g f - l a n g on the s t r e e t s , such conduct i n any one who was young was regarded as s u r p r i s i n g . Only, as among the Mexicans, where a defensive a t t i t u d e toward d i s c r i m i n a t i o n might be formed, was there any tendency t o p e r s i s t w i t h f - l a n g and then not w i t h reverence f o r the o l d , but as a mark symbolizing what the speakers wanted t o champion against discriminators. I n the 19$0fs and 1960 fs these a t t i t u d e s had not disappeared but very f r e q u e n t l y the general p u b l i c developed something l i k e r e spect f o r the achievement of b i l i n g u a l i s m and the b i l i n g u a l s them­ selv e s could e x e r c i s e t h e i r accomplishment w i t h a sense of s u p e r i o r i t y . U9»80 Intermarriage, t h a t i s marriage between members of two f o r - l i n g stocks as w e l l as marriage of a f o r - l i n g to an American of old e r stock was i n the United States almost c e r t a i n t o result i n E n g l - i z i n g of the home w i t h consequent abandonment of f - l a n g by the c h i l d r e n of the marriage. The readiness w i t h which members of a given l i n g u i s t i c stock took a mate i n other l i n g u i s t i c stocks i s t h e r e f o r e a f a c t o r important i n •ing determine E n g l - i z i n g , and the tendency t o choose one's mate from one's own stock i s important i n determining the p r e s e r v a t i o n of f o r e i g n language. J u l i u s D r a c h s l e r studied i n t e r m a r r i a g e i n New York C i t y f o r the years 1908-1912. H i s f i n d i n g s are not a l l p e r t i n e n t t o the present purpose because he d i d not determine the a n c e s t r a l stock of new spouses w i t h both parents born i n the United S t a t e s . He a l s o deals o n l y w i t h urban c o n d i ­ t i o n s . R u r a l c o n d i t i o n s are d i f f e r e n t , and most stocks i n Kansas have been predominantly r u r a l during the E n g l - i z i n g p e r i o d . Lack of urban in t e r m a r r i a g e proves isQl&Mon:- i n s i d e a c i t y , and the e f f e c t i n urban stocks may be considered as equivalent t o t e r r i t o r i a l i s o l a t i o n i n the r u r a l areas, which a l s o r e s u l t s i n l i t t l e i n t e r m a r r i a g e • H i s statement of the number of i n t e r m a r r i a g e s , between "men and women of the 1 s t , 2nd, h9 and 3rd generation11 (p. k3)> per 100 marriages has, nevertheless, consid­ erable significance in comparing the tendency of stocks to marry into other stocks. For groups of interest to Kansas,-^ - his data are here presented in the form 6f the percentages of marriages between two members of the same stock in a l l the marriages involving persons of the named stock. Italy (south) 9k.h2% It§y (combined groups) 93.2k% Austria foolish) 86.UU Italy (north) 83.27 Russia (Polish) 79.75 Hungary (German) 75.59 Austria (Bohemian) 7U.85 Sweden 68-96 Germany (combined groups) 66.66 Norway 60.86 Denmark 52.58 France 50.U5 Germany (north) U6.95 Germany (south) UU.02 Wales U0.56 Belgium 1*0.37 Austria (German) 1*0.39 Holland 37.^ 2 Switzerland (German) 33.68 Canada (French) 2luU0 Switzerland (French) 17.96 The extraordinarily high rate of intermarriage for German and French stocks i s explained by the tendency of a member of one of these stocks to marry some one from another country speaking the same language. For instance, among the foreign-born, 6 French Swiss men married French Swiss women, but 10 French Swiss men married 10 French women from France and 20 French Swiss women married men from France. These thirty-six households would therefore #In case of "combined groups" no data are considered as to whether the Italians or Germans were from the north or the south; in many cases such data did not exist. 50 have nothing more potent than d i a l e c t a l d i f f e r e n c e s t o favor E n g l - i z i n g of the household* A l l 36 households would be headed by two speakers of French and only 72 households were considered* The r a t e of inte r m a r r i a g e w i t h non-French speakers was $0$. 81 Of the l i n g u i s t i c stocks l i s t e d above the P o l e s and the I t a l i a n s show the lowest r a t e of intermarriage,then Bohemians, Scandinavians and, pre s e n t i n g great range, v a r i o u s types of Gentians* Stocks w i t h a small number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s tended to have high r a t e s of i n t e r m a r r i a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f c u l t u r a l l y close stocks could provide spouses. The 228 Turks l a r g e l y married each other ( r a t e 86*8£$) because no c l o s e l y r e l a t e d people provided mates* But the 3lj2 Danes and the U52 Norwegians show a n o t i c e a b l y d i f f e r e n t r a t e from the 1,329 Swedes, and the l e s s numerous Danes i n t e r m a r r i e d more than the Norwegians* The i n f l u e n c e of great numbers i n t h i s aspect of E n g l - i z i n g was conservative of f - l a n g . The stocks w i t h a low r a t e of intermarriage were a l s o the stocks w i t h a second gen­ e r a t i o n more than u s u a l l y p r o f i c i e n t b i - l i n g u a l l y * D r a c h s l e r ' s data on r e l a t e d stocks deserve f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n ^ i t i s set down here f o r purpose of comparison r a t h e r than i n the se c t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h those stocks* 82 Of the 6,8UU P o l e s 91$ married P o l e s * This percentage i s higher than D r a c h s l e r f s e n t r y f o r Poles because of Russian and A u s t r i a n P o l e s i n t e r m a r r y i n g * Those who r e g i s t e r e d as North I t a l i a n s showed 83$, and South I t a l i a n s 9k% and the combined I t a l i a n group 93% as Drachsler s a i d * I f we study the marriages of immigrants alone and t h e i r marriages w i t h foreign-born and t h e i r progeny of the same stock, the percentage of homogeneous marriages f o r P o l e s remains u n a l t e r e d , but the r a t e f o r I t a l i a n s r i s e s t o 97%* I t a l i a n s were more m o n o l i t h i c than P o l e s * This $1 phenomenon came about largely because Poles, particularly Galician Poles, intermarried readily with Slovaksj 22$ Polish men took brides from the other side of the Russo-Austrian frontier, 131 married Slovak maidens* The Slovak-Polish lin g u i s t i c shock would be no greater than that between dialects from different parts of Italy* The immigrant generation among Poles and Italians may thus be considered to have behaved in very nearly the same fashion, with the Poles slightly less clannish, probably because they were less numerous* This disparity becomes auch more marked in the second generation; $6% of the Poles married within Polish stock of the immigrant or succeeding generation, 68% of the Italians* The behavior of the sexes i s of interest because of the conservative influence women may have on account of their closer connection with small children. The following table gives percentages of homogeneous marriages for men and women* no. MEN no. marrying in stock % no. TOMEN no. marrying i n stock % Immigrant 12,210 11,775 96 10,126 9,963 98 Italian 2 d Generation 607 278 1*1* 1,1*82 1,302 88 Immigrant 3,l*0l* 3,126 92 3,UU0 3,096 90 Polish 2d Generation 11*0 103 71* 230 103 1*5 Those of the f i r s t generation specifically identified as South Italians showed percentages of homogeneous marriage of 90% for men and 91% for women* North Italians, so identified, 8$% for men and 80% for women* An additional \6% of North Italian women married South Italians bringing the rate of North Italian women marrying Italians to 96%; 98%$% of South Italian 52 women married Italians* 83 In the next generation out of 637 Italian bridegrooms only 38 identified their parentage as North Italian and 11 as South Italian ; none of these North Italians and only four of the South Italians married into their regional stock or Italians at a l l . The women were either readier to acknowledge or better acquainted with the regional origins of their parents. 119 women identified as North Italian took 118 Italian spouses, 116 from the North; 388 women identified as South Italian took 385 Italians, 380 from the South. The very high percentages seen here are nearly identical for the two areas. The intermarrying couples usually failed to reveal regional origins. 8U A remarkable fact revealed by the data presented above in tabular form i s that Italian men, but not Italian women, of the second generation were much given to miscegenation; in other words many Italian-American g i r l s were marrying immigrants from Italy whereas Italian men were not. In these years before the F i r s t World War, the hold of Italian parents upon their daughters was nearly absolute, while the sons were frequently escaping into the general population. The linguistic result in th^ family of this dichotomy, like the general cultural consequence, made for chaos, which favored Engl- izing; but at the same time the conservative influence of women was per­ petuated. Just the contrary currents were present in Polish households. The Polish immigrants frequently lost control of their daughters but 3/U of their sons tended to prefer g i r l s from their own stock. The linguistic result to be expected i s that Poles should remain bi-lingual less generally and for less time than Italians, but there are counter-acting forces, religious and patriotic. 53 J##85 Intermarriage Testimony on I n t e r s t o c k H o s t i l i t y * H o s t i l i t i e s between r e l a t e d stocks are o f t e n r e p o r t e d , between North and South I t a l i a n s , between Swedes and other Scandinavians, between North Germans and South Germans, between Czechs and Slovaks* These h o s t i l i t i e s are r e a l , but they do not prevent the c l o s e l y r e l a t e d stocks from g i v i n g preference t o each other above other stocks i n e s t a b l i s h i n g marriages* Whether the phenomenon i n the United S t a t e s has been E n g l - i z i n g or conservative of f o r e i g n language depends on circumstances* A spouse from a n e a r l y r e l a t e d l i n g u i s t i c group u s u a l l y adapted t o the language of h i s mate i f he j o i n e d a community usi n g the mate's speech, and thus the marriage exerted a conservative i n f l u e n c e * I f on the other hand, the Community was made up of Eng-lings or a mixture of f o r - l i n g s , i n c l u d i n g a mixture of persons speaking the d i a l e c t s of the spouses, the marriage exerted E n g l - i z i n g f o r c e * But whichever the case the prevalence of marriage w i t h c l o s e l y r e l a t e d stocks i s of s i g n i f i ­ cance. U9*86 Among I t a l i a n s i f we consider the cases i d e n t i f i e d by D r a c h s l e r as North or South we f i n d among immigrants: $.$% of North I t a l i a n men married South I t a l i a n women 16*0$ " " " women 11 » » men U.(# " South Tf men 11 North « women 1.6% n " 11 women n 11 «» men These percentages would doubtless be greater i f Drachsler had been able t o i d e n t i f y the very numerous cases where r e g i o n of o r i g i n was not i n d i c a t e d * The other f o r e i g n language stock from which a spouse was most f r e q u e n t l y s e l e c t e d was German* 1.3% of a l l I t a l i a n immigrant men married German women .6% » » » » women » * men $h The preference of I t a l i a n s t a k i n g mates outside of t h e i r own region was obvio u s l y f o r other I t a l i a n s (by an index f i g u r e we may set a t 3)* U9«87 Drachsler does not provide a category of Pole s from Germany* Probably a few of h i s Germans marryihg Poles were P@les marrying P o l e s , but Germans may again serve as a term of comparison* 1*1$ of A u s t r i a n P o l i s h men married Russian P o l i s h women 7.1$ tt tt tt women tf tt tt men h.2% tt tt tt men 11 Slovak women .9% it tt tt women t! tt men 1.1$ tt tt tt men n German women 3*7% of A u s t r i a n P o l i s h women married German men 18.$% tt Russian tt men n A u s t r i a n P o l i s h women h.0% w tt it women tt tt n men 3.2% tt tt n men tt Slovak women .6% w tt tt women tt tt men 1.9% tt tt men tt German women 2.1$ tt tt « women tt tt men Though no commentators speak of h o s t i l i t y between G a l i c i a n and Congress Kingdom Poles t h e i r t a s t e f o r each other, i n marriage i s not m a t e r i a l l y g r e a t e r than t h a t of North and South I t a l i a n s f o r each other. Using Germans as a base the index of preference i s 3*3* Without e n t e r i n g i n t o p e r c e n t i l e s f o r Czecho-SIovakians, the Drachsler data r e v e a l t h a t Czech men married women from Germany but not from A u s t r i a as r e a d i l y as they d i d Slovak women, and Czech women married Germans much more r e a d i l y than they d i d Slovaks* U9«88 In the matter of North Germans and South Germans Drachsler had y e t more d i f f i c u l t y than with I t a l i a m s i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g North from South* 55 The A u s t r i a n data w i l l s u f f i c e t o r e v e a l t a s t e i n marriage* Out of 5>31 A^striam German men only 2k had German b r i d e s , 3 s p e c i f i e d as from the North and 2 from the South; the A u s t r i a n German women, who numbered U82 were not so e x c l u s i v e ; 283 of them married Germans; 66 of whom were s p e c i ­ f i e d as South Germans; none were l a b e l e d as from the North* The l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t s among the f i r s t generation A u s t r i a n Germans should be s i m i l a r t o corresponding phenomena i n 2d generation I t a l i a n s * U9.89 The m a r i t a l s i t u a t i o n among Scandinavians i s as f o l l o w s without d i s t i n c t i o n of sexes* T o t a l M a r r i e d No* of ^ Immigrants Swedes Panes Norwegians Germans Swedes 2,029 1,39k 66.7% 29 l*k% 63 3.1% 31 1.$% Danes $27 27 $.1% 286 $k.3% 2$ $.1% 23 k.k% Norwegians 986 63 6.k% 2$ 2.$% i j l 7 k2.k% 12 1.2% I n view of the much greater number of a v a i l a b l e German immigrants ( n e a r l y 9,000 as compared w i t h the 2,000 Swedes, the one thousand Norwegians, and h a l f a thousand Danes) the preference of Scandinavians f o r other Scandinavian stocks over Germans i s evident* (The index i s 1+6.) A l l evidence from D r a c h s l e r f s i n t e r m a r r i a g e data goes t o show t h a t h o s t i l i t y between c l o s e l y r e l a t e d l i n g u i s t i c stocks i s not so important a f a c t o r i n determining E n g l - i z i n g i n America as the tendency of those same stocks t o intermarry* k9m90 A mialgamation of a f o r - l i n g stock w i t h other s t o c k s on the American scene leads toward E n g l - i z i n g whether the amalgamtion^is p a r t i a l or com­ p l e t e . The school has been the most potent instrument f o r p a r t i a l amalga­ mation, t o a greater degree s t i l l f o r E n g l - i z i n g * Learning the language of i n s t r u c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r the c l a s s room, and when, as has ve r y f r e q u e n t l y been the case, the student body has components of more than 56 one l i n g u i s t i c &ocl$ E n g l i s h i n c l u d e d , the need f o r a l i n g u a f r a n c a on the playground imposes E n g l i s h there t oo. E n g l - i z i n g by schoo l i n g as i t a f f e c t e d Kansas has been t r e a t e d i n V o l . II. #30-31*9» The conclusions there drawn apply t o the United States as a whole* To be sure, there have been i n c i t i e s and sometimes i n r u r a l areas more school d i s t r i c t s than i n Kansas where p r a c t i c a l l y a l l p u p i l s might be of the same l i n g u i s t i c stock, also a greater p r o p o r t i o n of p a r o c h i a l schools, but i n f l u e n c e s a f f e c t i n g the teaching f o r c e even i n such schools have f i n a l l y i f not immediately promoted E n g l - i z i n g * U9«91 Census Data* V o l * I, 26-28 presents U.S. census s t a t i s t i c s concerning persons born i n Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Bohemia f o r the United States*and f o r c e r t a i n s t a t e s c o n t r i b u t i n g p o p u l a t i o n t o Kansas. The t a b l e below presents "mother-tongue 1 1 data f o r 1920 and 1910 f o r the United S t a t e s and a smaller number of s t a t e s so as f u r t h e r t o a l l o w comparison of stocks and s t a t e s * No data f o r Spanish have been i n c l u d e d as being m i s l e a d i n g . CQ © - P •H CO cd 03 C cd ^ c •H • u o 4j> c o W>rH •H O N CD rH O <8 r > CH CVJ C O N r Q) o (1) 42 O K o > © O C Cd o co •H 3 C H CO •H C C CD b 0 O •H W O C A © O N £ r H C CO C •H C " d •H © > O O CQ O N CO O • - «\ CM C A - d " rH O N N O O N N O CM -=t rH •> •* •V CM C A C A C O - d " .rH C A CM X A C^- CM rH C A rH X A C A - J - C A X A C O N O C - H *\ •s rH -3 - d -H C O CM CM rH ~ d C A O oo X A •1 C A rH rH C A O N X A C A X A -=$ X A CM <* CM C A rH H O N CA CO C O o$7 CM NO rH rH rH O N C O CO NO NO rH CA rH O N rH •> rH CM rH H o CO CM XA N O C O O -d* CA -=t H CA rH C— NO rH X A vO r A X A CM «* CM CA CM rH H O N -d " f>- CM CO c\i O ~3 CM O N - d " CM rH N O O N rH - a - -=r CM t— CM vO •V CA CO X A H CM o N O O N CM vO CO X A CA CM O NO vO NO vO CA CM CO O o CA H C O O N CM rH O O X A O N vO CM CO CM CM X A O N f A X A v g O CM CM vO Xf\ CA rH CM rH C -^ rH CNl vO CM CA CM CA r A Xf\ O N H o rH N O - d " C^- O N O N *i CA rH vO rH CO X A O rH CM CM H 8^ O N CM ON vO O rH X A CO vO rH O •* CA CM rH H X A O N X A O N C A X A O N C O CM i H O CM O N -X C A CM O X A C O CM C O X A CM CM CM H H 8 vO vO -3 CO vO CM rH rH O X A CO X A CO O xCA XfN CO CO H rH CA rH vO a CM CA o- H CA «>- rH o rH O N C O 3 CM CM XA O N X A C O CO vO X A rH rH ^ d O N oo CO c o CM O N CA ^ d vO VO CM O N CM H O N CA N O N VO o CM O N CA X A O X A r- X A X A vO Xf\ CM r H O N r H H vO X A H r H C A H H CO -3 CM CM Mi O CO CA -d - CO r H C O O o f>- CM X A O N vO X A CA CM X A CM CM CO O r— r H VO O CM O N rH -d " f>- CO rH c o CA CA X A oo CO CO vO CM rH rH CA X A rH rH rH C O oo CA CM vO O N O X A C A O N CM C O O O N MO O N CM rH rH O N C A CM f>- - 3 - - d - vO C O CM vO C A rH vO rH vO X A ON CO X A VO C A - d " ON CM O N CA CO CM CM 58 vO 3 - d c— rH O ^d £1 CO CQ •H •H o -p 0 © rH P=4 CO 8 O CO •H cd •H rH Cd 4^ O CO © •H O © © rH O d (U o I rH CO CM O N vO O C A - d - C O O C A CM C O X A C A X A O N C O CM r H r H O N CVJ H ^ d O N O N X A CA CA CM -d - O N CM rH CO rH CM H cd C C •H cd cd •H »H © -P CQ l> cd CO O O rH u PS CO o o CM O N CM CA XfN CM ~3 CM X A O rH -^d C O O O N C A X A CM •* H X A N O o H O vO C O vO rH O c o CM C A C O vO O N vO C A C O C A C O CM X A CM C A rH -3 vO X A CO ^d" O N O N O XfN r>- rH r- X A X A 8 CM O N CA O C O X A C O Xf\ o •H •S L9 58 U9*93 The 19U0 Census Report on Mother Tongues i s of i n t e r e s t p r i m a r i l y because of i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n of speakers of n a t i v e parentage. No speakers were counted beyond the grandchildren of immigrants. I f the percentage of these i n d i v i d u a l s among t o t a l speakers of a mother tongue was low, i t meant e i t h e r t h a t there were few g r a n d c h i l d r e n or t h a t the grandchildren d i d not acknowledge an a n c e s t r a l mother tongue as t h e i r s . I f the p e r ­ centage was h i g h , p e r s i s t e n c e i n the use of the mother tongue was i n d i ­ c ated. Those stocks i n which the percentage f o r the whole United S t a t e s rose above eight were Norwegian (12.3/Q, Dutch (22.9$), French (36.7$) German (18.756), Czech (15.7$), Spanish (38.6$), (N 208). None of the "new" immigration i s represented i n t h i s t e s t ; t h e i r grandchildren were numerous by 19U0 but were often of an age when t h e i r parents reported f o r them, and they were u n l i k e l y to r e p o r t t h a t they continued using f - l a n g i n the f a m i l y . Testimony adduced elsewhere makes i t probable t h a t the grandchildren of a l l stocks except the French Canadian and Mexican were about e q u a l l y f a i t h f u l t o the language of t h e i r grandparents. U9«9Ug The l i n g u i s t i c stocks t r e a t e d i n t h i s volume are the same as those d e a l t w i t h i n Volume I I . Only one paragraph each has been devoted t o Magyars^ Japanese, Chinese, Puerto Ricans, and American I n d i a n s | no e f f o r t has been made to study F i n n s . These stocks are neglected because they are not s i g n i f i c a n t l y represented i n the p o p u l a t i o n of Kansas. A l l the stocks r e s i d i n g i n Europe outside of the Balkans and:speaking a major Indo-European language are considered and i n addition the Lebanese, who speak A r a b i c . Germans are t r e a t e d at greater l e n g t h than others because more Germans came t o Kansas, and i n general the amount of matter on the other stocks has a r e l a t i o n s h i p to the number of each stock to be found i n Kansas. The order of treatment i s determined both by s i m i l a r consider­ a t i o n s and by constituency of language f a m i l i e s * 59 BACKGROUND FOR GERMANS 60 50.0 Bibliography for Germans« AE - Albright, Raymond W», A History of the Evangelical Church, Harrisburg, 19U2. Am - Amend, Edward F # J S Lutherans on the Volga, Unpublished typescript, 19l4l~9* AN - Andreas, History of Nebraska, 1882* Ba - Barry,; Colman J», The Catholic Church and German American^ Milwaukee, 1952. BD - Bauer, Gottlieb, Geschichte der deutschen Ansiedler an der Wolga, 1766- l87U f Saratov, 1908. '' Eek - Bek^ Wm Godfrey, "Gottfried Duden's Report, l82U-27,,f Missouri Historical Review, XII-XIII (1917-1919) passim* B.e ~ Benckman, Frederick, History of the Diocese of B e l l e v i l l e , B e l l e v i l l e , I l l i n o i s , 19lU# Be - Beratz,, Gottlieb^ Die deutschen Kolonien an den unteren Wolga, Saratov, 1915. . ' Bo - Bollinger, Theodore P., History of the F i r s t Reformed Church, Canton, Ohio, Canton,. 1916 • S7 - Bonwetsch, Gerhard, Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien an der Wolga, Stuttgart, 1919• B.. - Bosse, Georg von,Das deutsche Element in den Ver^nigten Staaten, New York, 1908• Bfc - Brownson,^History of the I l l i n o i s Central Railroad to 1870, University of I l l i n o i s Social Studies IV (1915), No, Urbana. Ca - Carman, J* Neale, nThe French on the Volga," French Review, XXV (1952), 319-321. C « Clapham, John H*, The Economic Development of France and Germany 1815- 191U, Fourth Edition, Cambridge, 1955* 61 C:E - Conard, Howard Louis, Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri, New York, 1901. Co - Cole, Arthur C#, Centennial History of Illinois*: Vol* III, The Era of the C i v i l War 18U8-1870, S p r i n g f i e l d , 1910, C.f - Cronau, Rudolph - Drei Jahrhunderte Deutschen Lebens in Amerika, Berlin, 1909. Cr~ - Cronau, Rudolf, German Achievements in America, New York, 1916* DB - Dalton, Hermann, Beitrage zur Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche in Russland, Gotha* D - Dawson, Wm Harbutt, German Life in Town and Country, London, 1901© Ma - Deutsch-Amerikanische Geschichtsblacbter, PublileatiQndtfbthewDeutsch- Amerikanischen Historischen Gesellschaft von I l l i n o i s , see Mannhardt below. DM - Douglass, Paul F., The Story of German Methodism, Methodist Book Concern, 1939* E. i - Eiboeck,Joseph, Die Deutschen von Iowa, Des Moines, 1900. Eis - Eisenach, George J» Das religiose Leben unter den Russlanddeutschen in Russland und Amerika, Marburg, 19£0# EC - Eisenach, George J,, A History of the German Congregational Churches in the United States, Yankton, 1938* EI - Emigration and Immigration, United States U9th Congress, House of Representatives, Reports of the Consular O f f i c i a l s of the United States, Washington, 1887* E s - Esarey, Logan, A History of Indiana to 185>0, Indianapolis, 1915>« E v ~ Everest, Kate A« "Early Lutheran Immigration to Wisconsin," Trans­ actions, Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, VIII (1888-1891), 289-298* 62 l a - Faust, Albert Bernhardt, The German Element in the United States, 2 vols., Boston 1909 (Volume I i s indicated by notes except where otherwise specified)* F ~ Fif e , Robert Herndon, The German Empire Between Two Wars, New York, 1916* FH & FK - Fishman, Joshua A., et al, Language Loyalty in the United States, The Hague, 1966* Chapter on German (pp. 206-25&) by Henry Kloss. Fo - Forster, Walter 0*, Zion on the Mississippi, St* Louis, 1953, Section on Lutheran usage (pp 139-155) by John E* Hofinan* Fr - Fritsch, W.A., Aus Amerika Alte und Neue Heimat, Stargard, Pomerania, Germany? 1905 • G - Gates, Paul Wallace, The I l l i n o i s Central Railroad and i t s Colonization Work, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 193U* Gi - Gingerich, Melvin, "M* S. Steiner visited Kansas Churches,1* Menn* Historical Bulletin, VI (195U), No* h, pp. 1-2* Go - Gofebel, Julius, Der Kampf urn deutsche Kultur in Amerika, Leipzig, 191h. GL - Gonner, Nicholas, Die Luxemburger in der Neuen Welt, Dubuque, 1$89* GS ~ Grueningen, John Paul von, The Swiss in the United States, Madison, 19U0- GF ~ Guenther, H*, Friedensbothekalender, Saratov, 19l!u HA - Hafen, LeRoy R., Colorado f the Story of a Western Commonwealth, Denver, 1933* Ha - Haxthausen, August Franz L* M«, Freiherr^von, The Russian Empire,, t r * by Robert Farie* 2 vols., London, 1856* H - Hense-Jensen, Win*, Wisconsin fs Deutsch Amerikaner, 2 vols. Milwaukee, 1900-1902* 63 Ja - Jansen, Peter, The Memoirs of Peter Janeen, Beatrice, Nebraska, 1921 (composed 1913)• Jo - Johnson, Harrison, History of Nebraska, Omaha, 1880. KB - Kaindl, Raimund F., Geschichte der Bukowina- Dritter Abschnitt, Czernowitz, 1898• KK - Kaindl, R. F., Geschichte der Deutechenlin den Karpathen-lSndern, Vol. I l l , Gotha, 1911* KG - Kaindl, R. F., Die Deutschen i n Gaiizien und in der Bukowina, Frankfurt a* M., 1916. KB *• Kehlenbeck, Alfred P., An Iowa Low German Dialect. Publications of the American Dialect Society, Noi 10, November, 19U8. Kl - Klaus, A.Unsere Kolonien (translated from J . Toews* Russian work of 1869) Odessa, 1887 K - Koerner, Gustav* Das DeutscfeElement i n den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordto&rika, SNewtIork^nl881i. Ko - Kolarz, Walter, Religion i n the Soviet Union, New York, 1961. La - Laing, Francis S., ,fGerman Russian Settlements in E l l i s County, Kansas,11 Kansas Historical Collections, XII (1909-1910),: U89 ff. L ~ Levi, Kate Everest, ftGeographical Origin of German Immigration to Wisconsin/ 1 Collection of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, XIV (1898), 3U1-393* Lo - Louis, John J., ""Shelby County - A Sociological Study," Iowa Journal of History and P o l i t i c s , II (190U) 83-101 j 2l8-2# # Lu ~ Luchsinger, John, "The Swiss Colony of New Glarus," Wisconsin Historical Collections, VIII (1877-1891), &L14£9, XII ( t i t l e altered to "The Planting of" etc.). LA - The Lutheran Annual, published by T. Newton Kurz. Baltimore, 1855. 6h Mc - McReynolds, Edwin C , Oklahoma, A History of the Sooner State, Norman, 195U* M£ - Mannhardt Emil - Articles and notices in Deutsch-Amerikanische Geschichtslaetter Vols. II (1902) and III (1903), particularly ftDie Jeveraner-Kolonie i n Will County, I l l i n o i s und ihre Tochter Kolonien" II, No. 1, 33-39* References to this collection or journal are a l l keyed under MA whether by Mannhardt or others or anonymous. ME - The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Editors Smith, Bender, Krahn, Gingerich, volumes, Hillsboro and Newton, Kansas; Scottdale, Penna* - 1955-1959* Me - Meyer, Duane, G., The Heritage of Missouri - A History, St. Louis, 1965* MF - [Methodist] Foreign Language Commission, "Abstract of Findings," Methodist Episcopal General Conference Journal, 192H, pp. 161*0-1690. M - Moenckme i e r , Wilhelia, Die deutsche iiberseeische Auswanderung, Jena, 1912. MR - Morgenstern, William, "The Settlement of Bessarabia, Russia, by the Germans," Kansas Historical Collections, XV (1919-1922) 579-590. Mb.- Muecke, A. Geschichte der deutschen evangelischen Synode von Nord America, St. Louis, 1915* N - Neff, D» C , editor, Gedenkschrift zum U00 jahrigen JubilSum der .Mennoniten, 1525-1925, Ludwigshafen, 1925* OS -^Ogg and Sharp, Economic Development of Modern Europe. New York, 1932. 01 - Olson, James C , History of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1955» P - Passant, Ernest J., A short History of Germany, 1815-19U5, Cambridge University. Press, I960. Pe - Pease, Theodore Calvin, Centennial History of I l l i n o i s , Vol. I I , The Frontier State, Chicago, 1919» 65 Pa - Pisarevski, Grigori, Is i s t o r i i inostrannoi kolonisatii Rossii v XVIII Veke, (text i n Russian, but subtitle in French: Recherches sur l f h i s t o i r e de colonisation ^trangere en Russie au XVIII e siecle), Moscow, 1909. PI - Platz, M. C , F i f t y Years in the Kansas Conference [of the] or PK Evangelical Association, Cleveland, 191k* Po - Pooley, Wm. V., The Settlement of I l l i n o i s from 1830 to 1850, University of Wisconsin, History Series, Vol. I, Noi U, 287-595, Madison, 1908. R - Ramaker, A. J., Ein Ueberblick ttber die Geschichte der Deutsche Baptisten von Nord Amerika, Cleveland, 1897» R a - Raney, Wm. Francis, Wisconsin, a Story of Progress, New York, 19U0. RB - Religious Bodies, Vol. II, 1916 - Bureau of the Census. RW - Roseboom and Weisenburger,A/History of Ohio, Columbus, 1953* Ru - Ruppenthal, Jacob C.,f,The Gertnan E l orient in Central Kansas," Kansas Historical collections, XIII (1913-191U), 513-53U. Rb - Rothensteiner, John, History of the Archdiocese of St. Louis, 2 vols., St. Louis, 1928 RGi - Ruth, Kent'(and staff\ Oklahoma, a Guide to the Sooner State, Norman, 1957. Sa - Sallet, Richard, Russlanddeutsche Siedlungen i n den Vereinigten Staaten von America, Chicago, 1931* SW - Sartorius von Waltershausen, Deutsche Wirtschaftsgeschichte 1815-191U, 2nd edition, Jena, 1923• FS - Schnabel, Franz, Deutsche Geschichte ±m. Neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Dritter Band, 2d edition, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1950. 66 Sc - Schleuning, Johannes, Deutschen siedlungsgebiete in Russland, Wurzburg, 1955. Sch - Schneider, Carl E., The German Church on the American Frontier, St Louis, 1939. SPK - Schottle, Pelts and Kb>pp, "Mixturum Wolga - Weichsel-Rhein,!t Der EuropSische Osten, XII (1966) 359-366. S.h - Shea, John G., h i s t o r y of the Catholic Church in Hie United States, Vols. I l l and IV, New York 1890-1892. Sk - Skal, George von, History of German Immigration i n the United States, New York n...d„ [1910]. S - Sixt y - f i r s t Congress, Second Session (1909-1910), Senate Documents,. Vol. LXVIII. Sm - Smith, C. Henry, The Coming of the Mennonites, Berne, Ind., 1927. SMS - Smith, C. Henry, Story of the Mennonites, 3rd edition, Newton, 1950. SB - Spencer, J. W., and Burrows, J. M. C , The Early Days of Rock Island and Davenport, Chicago, 19U2. St - Stack, Jacob, Die deutschen Kolonien in Sudrussland, Prischib, 190U. S'tp - Stumpp, Karl, Die Russlanddeutschen, Freilassing, 196U. S.tu - Stutzer, Emil, Deutsche Sozialgeschichte, Halle I 8 9 8 . SR - Swiss Record, Yearbook of the Swiss American Historical Society, Vols. I and II, 19U9-1950. U - Utter, Wm.,T?., History of the State of Ohio, Vol. II, The Frontier State, Columbus, 19U2. We - Week, Hermann, Das Deutschtum in Ausland, Munich, 1916. W - Weisenburger, Francis P., History of the State of Ohio, Vol. I l l , The Passing of the Frontier, Columbus, 19U1. 67 WK - Weding, J. W., History of the Kansas Di s t r i c t , Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, 1938. Wi - Williams, Hattie Plum, A Social Study of the Russian German,University of Nebraska Studies, Vol. XVI (1916) No* 3, 101 pages. WM - Wolff, Lorin J., Story of the Midwest Synod, 1890-1950, No place or date , [Omaha, 195& WW - Writers 1 Program, Wisconsin, a Guide to the Bodyer State, New ^ ork, 19U1. Z.e - Zeilinger, G. J., 185U-1929, A Memoir for the 75th Anniversary of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Iowa and Other States, Chicago, 1929* Z - Zottman, A., Franz X. von Zottman, Munich, 190U. 68 50.10 Qer-lings, that i s , speakers of German, should l i n g u i s t i c a l l y be divided into speakers of Low German dialects and speakers of High German dialects, but since they a l l used Standard German for some purposes, were in many settlements in Kansas mixed together, and were more l i k e l y in their linguistic development here to be conditioned by the regions of their nativity than by their dialects, they are in this work f i r s t sub­ divided for study according to the country of their origin. Further sub0 a n ( j f ollowing ; are in the main descendants of Reich Germans but West Fringe German blood i s also found among them. 50*12 II. West Fringe Germans. A* Swiss Germans (not including the Swiss Mennonites who, except for one small settlement, did not come directly from Switzerland to Kansas; Swiss 69 Mennonites are usually the descendants of Swiss who made settlements f i r s t i n Galicia then in Eastern Poland, now Russia. They are called Swiss rather than Polish Mennonites to distinguish them from another Mennonite group in Poland^. B. Alsatians C. Luxemburgers. These three groups on the west border of Germany have characteristics d i f ­ ferent from those from the south and east borders, largely because they have occupied their present lands for at least two millennia. Very frequently they must be treated as part of general Ger-ling groups, but i n a number of settlements they have required special mention. 50.13 III. East Fringe Germans. The Germans on the south and east borders of the Reich were more recent settlers. A. Bohemian Germans came to Kansas but formed no separate settlements. Moravian Germans did. Polish Germans had separate settlements only among the Mennonites. B. Bukovinan Germans (usually called Austrians) settled in the Austrian crown lands east of the Carpathians] they have their importance in Kansas. Co Galician Germans formed separate colonies in Kansas only in the case of Mennonites originally from Switzerland. They too, lived on Austrian crown lands. D* Hungarian Germans from the part of Hungary nearest Vienna have one important settlement in Kansas. E. More Jews were from this area than from the Reich. 50.lU^ IV. Russian Germans. That i s , Germans from settlements in Russia to the east of Russian Poland. These f a l l into sharply divided secondary 70 groups* A. Volgans — the Germans li v i n g deep in Russia at the most eastern bend of the Volga River* Catholics and Protestants must be distinguished among them* B* Mennonites, whose principal colonies were in the country near the Black Sea, just above the Crimean Peninsula, now part of the Ukraine, in the 19th century part of South Russia* C* Black Seamen — from colonies farther west than the Mennonites, from just west of Odessa and from Bessarabia which the Rumanians claim, but the Russians hold* It was Rumanian between the two wars. For Kansas the Odessa settlements are the more important, 1 though Black Seamen in Kansas are small in number as compared with either Mennonites or Volgans* 50*20 United States census data on Ger-lings has been presented in Volume I,: pp*= 26-28, on persons born in Germany resident in thirteen states which have furnished population to or absorbed population from Kansas* Similar data for Kansas appears in Vol. I, p* 10* There follow here statistics for the United States as a wholei United States Residents Born in Germany 1850 - 1583,771* 1900 - 2,663,10-8 i860 - 1,276,075 1910 - 2,311,237 1870 - 1,690,533 1920 - 1,686,108 1880 - 1,966£7U2 1930 - l,6o8,8lU 1890 - 2,78Ii,89U (Data for United Statins residents born in Switzerland, Luxemburg, etc. are presented in later sections.) There were a certain number of persons other than Ger-lings who immigrated from Germany, notably Poles, and many Ger-lings born outside of Germany* 71 Therefore pertinent data as published in the census of 1930 are presented in following sections. 50«21 Persons of German Mother Tongue Resident in the United States 1910 1920 1930 New York U8U,310 379,919 1+1*8,962 Pennsylvania 222,1*30 173,868 161,21*6 Ohio 198,81^ 159,325 11*0,175 Indiana 60,1*27 1*3,080 32,816 I l l i n o i s 311,680 257,1*1*3 250,319 Michigan 122,1*97 110,758 111,676 Wisconsin 22l*,l*97 188,083 162,381* Minnesota 111,226 9U,287 7U,110 Iowa 103,631* 78,959 59,81*1* Missouri 102,231* 72,861* 56,993 Nebraska 67,603 1*1+, 769 Kansas 51,560 39,526 29,631* Oklahoma 1U,656 11,611 9,701* Texas 1*8,032 38,239 31,657 United States 2,759,032 2,267,128 2,188,006 Country of Origin of Persons of German Mother Tongue Resident in the United States in 1920 and 1930 1920 1930 Germany 1,61*1,1*82 1,587,052 Austria 201,603 191,715 Russia 116,535 103,371 Switzerland 97,087 87,073 Hungary 76,81*5 1*8,198 Poland 38,179 31,814* Czechslovakia 16,1*1*6 30,900 Rumania 8,167 28,61*0 Yugoslavia 7,787 23,1*03 France 21,907 ll*,376 Canada 11,136 9,818 Luxemburg 10,81*1* 7,927 Others 19,020 23,689 Total 2,267,128 2,188,006 73 >23g Year of Immigration of Persons Bora in Germany- Re sident i n the United States in 1930 Unknown 1900 or earlier 1901-10 1911-11+ 1915-19 1920-2U 1925-30 (Apr.) Pa. 3,708 62,767 ll+,l+88 l+,959 923 9,350 li+,327 Ohio 3,1+67 60,1+1+3 10,711+ 3,881* 705 6,803 9,681 111. 7,521+ 112,516 22,01+2 8,555 1,228 16,1+37 22,303 WiSCe 5,71+9 90,561 10,920 3,926 1+75 6,709 9,929 Iowa 1,333 1+0,936 5,21+7 1,953 162 2,U80 1,790 Mo. 1,789 29,031+ 1,581+ 1,282 261 2,50? 2,821+ Neb. lyOl+8 2l+,651+ 3,11+5 992 108 1,510 1,087 Kans. 717 13,500 1,611 1+26 55 596 1+79 U.S. 1+5,003 1,636,556 139,571 51+,l+57 10,1*00 108,931+ l80,000(rounded) Observe that only Missouri of the states west of the Mississippi had a larger immigration between 1925 and 1930 than between 1920 and 192k; the others were down by about one-fourth, whereas the country as a whole was up nearly three-fourths and the other states l i s t e d about one-half. Ohly a saall proportion were bringing German speech from Germany to the mid-continent. 50.30 Immigration to the United States From Germany and Switzerland Germany Switzerland Germany Switzerland 1820-30 7,729 3,257 1886 81+, 1+03 i+,805 I836-I+O 152,1+51+ 1+,821 1887 106,865 5,211+ 181+1-1+5 105,188 3,097 1888 109,717 7,737 181+6-50 313,721+ 1,368 1889 99,538 7,070 1851-55 662,987 18,528 1890 92,1+27 6,993 1856-60 30l+,39l+ 6,662 1891 113,551+ 6,811 1861-65 233,052 6,625 1892 119,168 6,886 1866-70 55U,hl6 16,661 1893 78,756 1+,71+U 1871 82,551+ 2,269 1891+ 53,989 2,905 1872 11+1,109 3,650 1895 32,173 2,239 1873 11+9,671 3,107 1896 31,885 2,301+ 187U 87,291 3,093 189-$ 22,533 1,566 1875 1+7,769 1,811+ 1898 17,111 1,2U6 1876 31,937 i,5i+9 1899 17,1+76 1,326 1877 29,298 1,686 1900 18,507 1,152 1878 29,313 1,808 1901 21,651 2,201 1879 3l+,602 3,161 1902 28,301+ 2,3U+ 1880 8l+,638 6,156 1903 1+0,086 3,983 1881 210,1+85 11,293 1901+ 1*6,380 5,023 1882 250,630 10,81+1+ 1905 l+o,57U l+,269 1883 19l+,786 12,751 1906 37,561+ 3,81+6 188U 179,676 9,386 1907 37,807 3,71+8 1885 12l+,l+U3 5,895 1908 32,309 3,281 75 Germany Switzerland Germany 1909 25,5UO 2,69k 1912 27,788 1910 31,283 3,533 1913 3U,239 1911 32,061 3,U58 191U 35,73U 50#31 Immigration to the United States — Persons of German Race, i#e#, Gerlings (l) Admitted to the United States (2) Giving Destination as Kansas Switzerland 3,505 U,ioU 14,211 Total Ger-lings in Ger-lings Admitted to Total H i Ger-lings Admitted U.a from (2) Ger-lings from 1 to U.S. Russia Kansas to U.S. Russia Kansas 1899 26,632 5383 521 1911 66,1*71 8,779 1,269 1900 29,682 663 1912 65,3U3 1^ 031 1A59 1901 3U,7U2 $61*3 550 1913 80,865 17,857 1,U31 1902 51,686 8,51*2 1,01*2 1911* 79,871 9,889 611* 1903 71,782 10/*85 90U 1915 20,729 905 190U 71,790 7^ .28 919 1916 11,555 63 1905 82,360 6,722 1,109 1917 9,682 39 1906 86,813 1Q279 993 1918 1,992 10 1907 92,936 13>80 1,658 1919 1,837 1908 73,038 1QP09 1,713 1920 7,338 9 1909 58,53U 7,781 l,ll * U 1921 2i*,l68 75 1910 71,380 10pl6 911 1922 31,218 180 1903 65,5U3 318 1921* 95,627 300 (2) A larger proportion of the immigrants from Russia than of those from Germany came to Kansas upon arriving in the United States. 76 lj.0 Emigration from Germany i n the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was primarily from the South and Rhine West. The devastation of the Thirty Years War, which i s said to have reduced Germany's population fromsseven- teen million to four million, was particularly bad in this region. Later wars, particularly Turenne's campaign through the Palatinate in 167U, brought further ruin to German territory. Certain te r r i t o r i e s , again the Palatinate i s a signal example, changed hands between Protestants and Catholics, between Calvinists and Lutherans so that those adhering to these principal religions frequently found themselves i n unfavorable conditions. No matter which of the three was in power, less numerous sects, mostly P i e t i s t i c and Anabaptist in character, were the object of persecution. For the present purpose Mennonite^and Tunkers (Bunkers, Dunkards) are the most important examples. P o l i t i c a l and religious conditions thus led to a desire for emigration. But economic considerations as always pressed upon the greatest number of people. Population recovery after l6U8 was not sufficiently acco mpanied by economic redevelopment, either in town or country, and crop failures were calamities to be escaped mainly through departures. I4I Until 1683 emigration to America was not great and not organized; then William PennTs venture brought Rhineland Pietists to Germantown. Thereafter emigration from Germany did not lapse but the great outpouring from the Palatinate began in 1708. New York, Maryland, Virginia and Carolina received contingents, but Pennsylvania was the favorite domain of settlement and contined to be u n t i l the American Revolution* The southeastern counties, particularly Lancaster (63-33) became heavily German. Not a l l the Westward movement ftas beyond the confines of the state and Penn-German settlements in the weatern counties on the state line furnished population which came on directly to Kansas or harbored new immigrants during their years of acclima- tation in the United States before they later ventured west. 77 5>0#h2g The German settlements on the Eastern Fringe and in Russia began largely posterior to 1763^ The nature of the pull to the east i s discussed elsewhere. The push was almost a l l economic. In general the South German governments found emigration was a convenient means of ridding themselves of their indigent and unemployed; occasionally the exodus was of such pro­ portions that in some panic they put checks upon i t . One ijiportant emigra­ tion to the east was neither from the southwest nor primarily the result of bad economic conditions. The Mennonites who l e f t the Danzig area for south Russia in the 1780fs l e f t to avoid pressures for military service. Their earlier and smaller establishments in Poland had been made from the Danzig area for similar reasons. The movement into the Sudetan territory and the German enclaves within Bohemia and Moravia were from neighboring parts of Germany and of varying date. £0.5>0 Conditions in Germany existing during the l i f e time of natives who evntually came to Kansas, f i r s t become of importance to this work in i t s treatment of Reich Germans some years after the Napoleonic era, though Kansas did receive a few emigrants born before 1800. Whatever must be said for earlier periods i s set forth i n the treatment of Kansas G&£-lings not directly from Germany. Throughout the period that concerns us a l l the inhabitants of Germany possessed acute nationalistic consciousness, but at the same time a great many of them f e l t deep loyalties to the areas of their birth, less usually to the governments existing in those areas than to the land. One of the deepest loyalties was to their dialect * which-^13 n0.£lg The regions of Germany which for the present purposes require differen­ tiation are five (small states not named are also included as appropriate; Prussia i s broken up). The South: Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden and after 1870 Alsace. Pfalz (the Palatinate) as an administrative division of Bavaria i s included. The Rhine West: Hessia, a l l divisions, and the Rhineland (Rhein Provinz). The Northwest: Westphalia, Hanover, Oldenburg, Schleswig, Holstein. The Inner North: Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Altmark, Brandenburg, the Saxonies, and the Thuringian States. The East: Silesia, Poland, West Prussia and East Prussia. Linguistically, the South i s High German territory; the Rhine West, Middle German, the Northwest, Low German, the other two areas mixed, but Low German along the Baltic Sea. The northern part of the Rhineland i s Low German and 79 part of Westphalia i s Middle German; because of indu&rial development these areas produced few emigrants after the C i v i l War in America. 50.60 Overpopulation was a basic cause of emigration from Germany un t i l industrialization was well advanced, that i s , u n t i l shortly after 1880. The population of Germany at the close of the Napoleonic Wars i s estimated to have been no greater than at the beginning of the Thirty Years War in the early seventeenth century, but the country was a l l this time in such a depressed state that i t could support no increase in population and the emigrations of the eighteenth century both toward eastern Europe and toward America were needed to relieve population pressures. After 1815 population increased very fast. In I 8 l 6 Germany (territory of future Reich) had 2k,833,000 inhabitants; i n 1830 the population was 29,520,000 (SW 3k). Decade by decade population went up. 18U0 - 32,700,000 1880 - L£,23U,000 1850 - 35,300,000 1890 - l49,U28,000 i 8 6 0 - 37,700,000 1900 - 56,367,000 1870 - U0,800,000 (SW160) 1910 - 6U,926,000 (C 278) The a b i l i t y of the country to take care of an ever-increasing rate of pt*pu~ lation growth between the formation of the Empire and the F i r s t World War was largely the result of industrialization, but also improvements in agri­ culture played their part, not by maintaining more people on the land, but by making the agriculturist's l i f e more bearable. 50 .6lg The relative importance of the areas population-wise may be seen from this distribution. Population of Germany in 1885 by 100,000 fs (0= less than 67,000) (Total for Empire = U6„800,000) H 5 3 80 - P CO 05 o3 •H CO CO 5H CM 05 •H CO CO u © CO o •H CO © CO c— CO H OsJ CM CA CA CM CM CM CM o CO H XI •P, •H -p (• H o tuD JH (D 3 > X> © c c C © C O C « H - H M C H H cd H ^ © .H PQ CQ g • H n oj ?H © P-t o CM o CO o C W to Is P< rH iH O •P © XJ o CO O W 05 H CO & O , H 82) Hesse-Darmatad^ Hesae^assau# Rhineland^ total 1810-3 3,579 5,000 14,000 18UU-6 8,H*2 12,000 15,000* 37,000 18U7-9 U,130 10,000 1U,331* 28,000 1850-2 8,519 12,000 U*,15l 35,000 1853-5 18,558 28,000 2U,257 71,000 1856-8 10,038 15,000 17,10*6 U2,000 1859-61 13,000 19,000 7,831 1*0,000 88 Hesse-Darmstadt# Hesse-Nassau^ Rhineland** Total 1862-U 15,000 22,000 11,106 1*8,000 1865-7 18,000 30,000 15,190 63,000 1868~71 9,000 25,993 1U,510 50,000 ^ O f f i c i a l l y known departures — 18UU-6 estimated. #Officially known departures for the las t period; rest estimated. $O f f i c i a l l y known departures 18U1-58, rest estimated. 50.83 Overseas Emigration by Thousands and by Regions, 1871-1899 in Groups Presented by Moenckmeier (M 128-91) Moenckmeier1s East differs from ours by including Brandenburg and Mecklenberg, his Northwest by excluding Westphalia, his Southwest from our South by i n ­ cluding Hesse-Darmstadtj his West from our Rhine West by including Westphalia and excluding Hesse-Darmstadt, his Middle i s Thuringia and the Province of Saxony, East Northwest Southwest Middle West Empire 1871 28 14 23 4 7 76 1872 63 19 29 5 12 128 1873 56 16 28 4 7 111 1874 21 9 12 2 4 48 1875 14 ?7 7 1 3 32 1876 15 5 6 1 3 30 1877 10 5 5 1 2 23 1878 10 6 6 1 3 26 1879 14 6 10 2 4 36 1880 47 17 38 3 12 117 89 East Northwest Southwest Middle West Empire 1881 105 34 50 7 25 221 1882: 89 36 47 8 24 204 1883 73 29 46 7 19 174 1881; 66 27 36 6 14 149 1885 48 20 26 4 12 110 1886 36 14 21 3 9 83 1887 44 15 32 3 11 105 1888 45 15 31 3 10 104 1889 40 15 29 3 9 96 1890 43 13 28 3 10 97 1891 61 15 29 4 11 120 1892 57 16 27 4 12 116 1893 37 14 23 4 10 88 1894 14 10 10 2 5 a 1895 12 8 11 2 4 37 1896 12 7 10 2 3 34 1897 8 6 7 1 3 25 1898 7 6 6 1 2 22 1899 9 6 6 1 2 24 50.84 The emigration from Hanover, 1871-1910, i s of such interest that the stati s t i c s for o f f i c i a l l y known departures are here presented separately (M 86, 87): 1871 - 7,423 1881 - 1U,624 1891 - 6,772 1901 - 1,778 1872 - 9,123 1882 - 15,729 1892 - 7,255 1902 - 2,176 1873 - 6,658 1883 - 12,808 1893 - 6,060 1903 - 2,518 1874 - 4,261 1884 - 11,276 1875 - 3,334 1885 - :?,045 1876 - 2,413 1886 - 5064 1877 - 2,032 1887 - 6,279 1878 - 2,638 1888 - .6*157 1879 - 2,983 1889 - 6,730 1880 - 7,371 1890 - 5,929 189U - U,612 1895 - 3,U53 1896 - 2,780 1897 - 2,321 1898 - 2,183 1899 - 1,999 1900 - 1,786 90 190U - 2,277 1905 - 2,259 1906 - 2,179 1907 - 2,U2U 1908 - 1,755 1909 - 1,9U9 1910 - 2,267 The data given above in this section and those presented in Section 50^ 81 show that emigration from Hanover was particularly high i n the period 1867-1873• The reason was p o l i t i c a l ; see below* 50#85g The landowners of Germany in 1873 sent out a questionnaire asking whether agricultural laborers were emigrating overseas. The affirmative answers from various geographical units in percentiles were as follows (M 105): (answers of t fa l i t t l e 1 1 were not numerous except in the southwest) South Bavaria 5$ (but U0$ said a l i t t l e ) Wurtembeig 12$ 0x1% said a l i t t l e ) Baden 32$ (33$ said a l i t t l e ) Hohenzollern 50$ Northwest Schleswig-Hoistein 53$ Hanover (all) 1*0$ Administrative d i s t r i c t s of Hanover: H-Haldesheim k3% Lu(eneburg (east) 7% Osnabrueck (southwest) 71$ Stade & Aurich 50$ (the coast, inc., East Frisia) Rhine West Rhineland 5$ Hesse-Nassau 60$ Hesse-Darmstadt 10$ (30$ said a l i t t l e ) East East Prussia 12*5$ West Prussia 62$ Posen 57$ S i l e s i a 7$ Inner North Mecklenburg 100$ (only one answer) Pomerania 97•5$ 91 Westphalia 10$ Oldenburg 38$ Brunswick 6$ Brandenburg 22$ Prov. Saxony k% Kingdom Saxony 0$ (lU answers) Thuringian States 5$ 50.90 The relative heaviness of emigration from German states in 1888 i s shown by the following table derived from Moenckmeierfs work (M 92) ( O f f i c i a l l y known departures per 1,000 of population.) (States with emigration above the Empire average are ita l i c i z e d . ) South Rhine West •96 Bavaria except the Palatinate 2.12 Rhineland Palatinate Wixrtemberg Baden Alsace-Lorraine H ohenzollern Northwest 2.9U Hessen-Nassau 1.97 3.18 He s se-Darmstadt2.28 2.38 •60 1.05 East Schle swig-Hoistein 3*78 Hanover 2.77 Westphalia .87 Oldenburg 2.98 Brunswick ©83 Waldeck 1*59 Schaumburg-Lippe 1.72 Lippe Lubeck 1.15 Bremen 6.27 Hamburg 3.33 East Prussia 1.06 West Prussia 8.80 Posen 7*08 S i l e s i a .56 The emigration from West Prussia and Posen contained many Poles. The percentages from the South should be relatively greater because of departures through France. 92 Inner North Empire 2.10 Brandenburg 1.2 Pomerania U.7U Prov. of Saxony- .61 Kingdom of Saxony .69 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 1.97 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 2.43 Thuringia .92 Anhalt .39 50.91 The areas from which emigration was the highest shifted as the nine­ teenth century progressed. The South continued to be an important center for departures, but became relatively less so as time went on. The East or more specifically the Northeast became more and more important and after the Empire was formed was the greatest producer of emigration both absolutely and relatively. It w i l l play only a minor part in further discussions here, however, because relatively few of these people reached Kansas. The Rhine West provided fewer and fewer emigrants a$ industrialization progressed, but particularity i n the early days of the Empire, the Southern part of the section was a d i s t r i c t of heavy emigration, and contributed i t s share to Kansas. The Northwest following a rise in relative importance after 1866 provided approximately three-fourths as many emigrants as the South u n t i l the 1890fs* The Inner North was less an emigration area than others, but certain spots i n i t are of interest — Saxonly early, Pomerania and Mecklenburg in the i860*s and l8?0 fs. Further consideration of sectional differences? i n emigration patterns from Germany are postponed u n t i l p o l i t i c a l , social, and economic conditions have been examined. 93 $0*92 The Germans very frequently emigrated as families 5 a conservative linguistic t r a i t . There were, however, many adventurous young men who l e f t alone. From them came most of the immisced Germans in the United States who abandoned German very rapidly, usually marrying either out of their own stock or g i r l s whose forefathers had come from Germany. However, many of them stayed within the German settlements and found wives among emigrating single women and daughters of emigrants. Unmarried women came to America to relatives other than their parents more frequently than in most stacks (Scandinavians behave similarly). About one-third of the single persons emigrating 1879-189U were women; somewhat over half of the emigrants in families were female. Between 1855 and 1870 the percentage of males over females leaving Hamburg varied per year between 58$ and 67$ (M 139), from I87I to 1910 among officially-known emigrants 5U$ to 60$ were men. Subtracting the immisced Germans i t i s clear that the need for miscegenation among German emigrants was small; the ling u i s t i c effect weak at least for the f i r s t generatioh. mine because there were so many who combined farming with house industry or a trade. Men would naturally specify their specialty. Laborers brought up on a farm but lately employed in industry would l i k e l y specify their last occupation; naturally those specifying "laborer" increased as ind u s t i a l i - zation grew. In the years 18U6-1852, the craftsmen proportion in the migration was I8I46 - 69$ 1850 - 50$ 50.93g The occupational character of German emigrants i s d i f f i c u l t to deter- 18U7 - 67$ 1851 - U8$ 18U8 - 5U$ 1852 ~ 71$ 18U9 - 60$ (M 15U) % of Occupations among Emigrants A l l Germany 1871-U 1875-9 Bavaria 1871-U 1875-9 Wurtemberg 1871-U 1875-9 Farming 34.3 24.7 24.6 18.9 12.3 15.9 Industry & Handcraft 14.6 17.2 21.3 23.3 27.1 30.3 Business 5.6 12.4 5.7 12.6 5.2 10.8 Laborers 8.2 18.5 11.3 11.8 10*3 7.5 None or Unspecified 27.3 27.2 37.2 33.5 35.1 (M 164) 35.5 The high proportion of business employees during the depressed period i s to be remarked. In 1871 out of 1,313 adult men I. Industry 738 Construction work 196 Clothing wDrk 163 Food handling 218 House care 91 Factory 69 Quarry 1 I I . Agriculture 390 Includes vine growers 36 (M 165) A l l the elements needed for building up a small Kansas town are here. 5l«00 German p o l i t i c a l history in the nineteenth century explains certain features in the history of emigration. The blockade of the Napoleonic Wars did not allow great numbers to leava Germany. The arrangements after those wars greatly increased Prussian territory, but l e f t i t i n two divided blocks. 95 The older P r u s s i a c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y of Brandenburg, the country around Berlinj and the Germany t o the north and east of i t . The kingdom already h e l d b i t s of t e r r i t o r y i n the west, but i t was o n l y the Congress of Vienna t h a t i n s t a l l e d i t i n a l l Westphalia and the Rhineland. Hanover and the Hessias were the l a r g e s t p o l i t i c a l u n i t s i n t e r p o s e d between the two p o r t i o n s of P r u s s i a . N e i t h e r Westphalia nor the Rhineland had any sense of i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l u n i t y , and l i t t l e l o c a l p a t r i o t i s m i n t e r f e r e d w i t h P r u s s i a n i z a t i o n . The western P r o v i n c e s , however, had been imbued w i t h the s p i r i t of l i b e r a l i s m during the p e r i o d of French occupation and had w i l l i n g l y accepted French i n ­ novations t h a t u n i f i e d t h e i r laws and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The adminis­ t r a t i v e personnel i n s t a l l e d by P r u s s i a was from the eastemprovinces, but w i s e l y these people behaved much more l i b e r a l l y i n the west than they d i d at home. With i t s great economic resources the west was then ready to prosper v e r y e a r l y i n the century, and except along the inner edges of the provinces were not much given t o emigration. The eastern provinces except f o r the P o l e s i n Posen and neighboring d i s t r i c t s were p o l i t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d or at l e a s t d o c i l e throughout the century. The other s t a t e s of Germany were r u l e d by conservative governments which only at moments were g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by the p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l i s m t h a t was seething among the middle c l a s s e s . 51.01 The l i b e r a l s bufcst i n t o r e v o l t i n a comparatively minor way i n 1830, and again i n momentary triumph i n 18U8. The suppressions and revocations of r i g h t s t h a t took p l a c e soon afterward together w i t h a c t u a l p h y s i c a l i n s e c u r ­ i t y i n some cases l e d t o the emigration of the F o r t y - e i g h t e r s t o the United S t a t e s . They were i n general i n t e l l i g e n t , e n ergetic and i r r e v e r e n t men, given to open d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h everything imperfect, and i n c l i n e d t o act upon t h e i r impulses, a c o n t r a s t to most other emigrants from Germany who 96 u s u a l l y o n l y demanded a chance t o work and accumulate and non-interference w i t h t h e i r e s t a b l i s h e d h a b i t s and b e l i e f s . 51.02 Progress toward the u n i f i c a t i o n of Germany, hindered by the r i v a l r y between P r u s s i a and A u s t r i a , advanced p r i n c i p a l l y , u n t i l the Bismarckian Wars of the l 8 6 0 f s , through the p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of customs unions which f i n a l l y embraced a l l Germany before the establishment of the Empire. The customs unions served almost everybody's s e l f - i n t e r e s t because economic advancement was impossible unless goods could be exchanged, but l o c a l p a t r i o t i s m s might very w e l l have stood i n the way. However, n a t i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m f o r whatever causes developed f a s t e r than p o l i t i c a l union and was there t o put the s e a l 6f approval upon anything u n i f y i n g . The most potent reason f o r excluding A u s t r i a from the u l t i m a t e u n i f i c a t i o n was t h a t the A u s t r i a n Empire was only i n s m a l l p a r t German. A c l e a r e r example of German n a t i o n a l i s m was presented by the case of S c h l e s w i g - H o l s t e i n . The German-speaking s e c t i o n of t h a t area, a l l Hcbtein and a l a r g e p a r t of Schleswig were j u s t as c e r t a i n t h a t they d i d not want t o be Danes as the S l e s v i g e r s were l a t e r t h a t they d i d not want to be Germans. S t i l l many of these Germans were w i l l i n g t o t r a n s p l a n t themselves t o America where they could remain German and become American both. S h o r t l y a f t e r the Empire was founded the general p u b l i c became aware t h a t the German emigrants had not r e a l l y remained German and d i s a p p r o v a l of such behavior was probably one of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s t h a t u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o c e s s a t i o n of emigration. 51.03 When Bismarck came to power the P r u s s i a n army was already stronger than P r u s s i a ' s neighbors r e a l i s e d , and he b u i l t i t i n t o a s t r i k i n g f o r c e of a power r e a l i z e d ohly a f t e r F rance fs defeat i n 1870. The short wars of 186U and 1866 which brought f i r s t the h u m i l i a t i o n of Denmark and then t h a t of A u s t r i a were of great p r o f i t t o P r u s s i a . Hanover and Hesse-Nassau had 97 been so unwise as to side with Austria and consequently lost their sovereignty and l i k e Schleswig-Holstein became Prussian states. None of the three liked their new status (F 225, among others). In Hanover the issue was held before the public longer because of the efforts of the deposed ruling family and i t s adherents to regain their former position (F 102, 123). The size of emigration from the conquered provinces prompted Consul Lang i n Hamburg to say in 1886: l,The new Prussian territories Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, and Hesse-Nassau, put forth a very large emigration for a few years after 1866, and though i t has diminished to some extent, i t i s s t i l l large and embracing a greater average than the other provinces 1 1 (EI 183)* His last phrase was incorrect for Hesse-Nassau, but was true for Hanover and Schleswig-Hostein where the rate of emigration in I887 were 2.87 and 3»62 per thousand, while the Empire average was 2.10 and that average was raised by the high rate i n the provinces discharging Poles. Of the other pro­ vinces, only Pomerania1s was higher (U.63) and only Oldenburg (3«01) and Mirtemberg (2 .99) competed (M 9 2 ) . In any case Lang 1s statement shows the reputation for i r e of the Muss-Preussen. The emigrants ifrom Schleswig- Holstein were in part Danes (P 9k) + 98 5>1.0U The most onerous burden they had t o undertake was o b l i g a t o r y m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . Many young men departed when the law began t o be s t r i n g e n t l y applfed i n 1869 but avoidance of c o n s c r i p t i o n was not the only p o l i t i c a l stimulus f o r departure. For a decade many Muss-Preussen (must-Prussians) r e q u i r e d l i t t l e other stimulus than d i s l i k e of the regime t o make them emigrate. The formation of the Empire brought c o n s c r i p t i o n i n t o a l l s t a t e s , and u n t i l the F i r s t World War i n s p i r e d many young men w i t h a d e s i r e t o emigrate. The burden was not^ however, so g r e a t l y resented i n the l a t e r decades. The American consuls of 1886 i n t h e i r emigration r e p o r t s o f t e n i n c l u d e d comments on comscription avoidance as a cause f o r emigration, though from the P r u s s i a t e r r i t o r y of the l8th century J u l i u s Dittmer a t S t e t t i n maintained t h a t a cause of emigration must not be sought i n com­ p u l s o r y m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e $1 2U0)^ a l s o the r e p o r t s from Saxony, kingdom and p r o v i n c e , s c o f f e d at the n o t i o n t h a t Germans f l e d from anmy service» Though the consul at Dresden was s i l e n t , the consuls a t Annaberg, L e i p z i g , and Chemmitz spoke out. Tanner at the l a t t e r town s a i d : "Compulsory s e r v i c e , though severe, has no t e r r o r t o the average Saxon, who above everything e l s e , i s m i l i t a r y i n sentiment and t a s t e 1 1 (EI 1$8). The consul i n T h u r i n g i a was s i l e n t ^ , and so was our r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t Mannheim i n Baden. But 'Consul Balck a t Nuremberg i n B a v a r i a probably speaks w e l l f o r a l l south Germany; he says: "There can be, I t h i n k , no question t h a t the compulsory m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e causes a number of young men t o emigrate, who appear t o p r e f e r a separation from f r i e n d s and o l d a s s o c i a t i o n , r a t h e r than undergo the d i s c i p l i n e i t engenders f o r three years" (EI 212). The consul i n S t u t t g a r t reported s i m i l a r l y (EI 2U2). J . H. Smith speaks from Mayence (Mainz) f o r Hessia and the southern p a r t of the Rhine West: "A wish t o escape m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e d r i v e s many away, but the great body who emigrate 99 have already served their time as soldiers" (EI 208). The only voice from farther north that declared Germans did not flee army service was that of Wm D. Warner at Colognes "There are, no doubt, some instances where the compulsory military service has led to emigration, but generally speaking the military service i s not objected to, but even liked by the majority of high-spirited young men" (EI l6i|) 0 Three other consuls from the northern Rhineland are silent on the subject, and D. J. Parte11o at Dusseldorf discounts military service as a cause of emigration (EI 175)$ but Joseph Falkenbach at Barmen says squarely: "Hundreds of young men in Rhineland and Westphalia emigrate annually in order to avoid compulsory military service, as appears from o f f i c i a l announcement of the penalties and punish­ ment to which they have been sentenced" (EI II4.7)* The consuls at the sea­ ports of Bremen and Hamburg speak: with the most authority not only for neighboring Hanover and the other states of the northwest, but for many who came from far to ship from these c i t i e s . At Hamburg, Wip W. Lang speaks thus: "The greater part of the emigrants are free of military ser­ vice, yet there are some who owe military duty and seek to evade i t by emigrating . . . . It i s estimated that the desertions from military service by emigration numbered 10,690, of which,U,503 were agricultural workers" (EI 185)• His exact figures indicate a confidential German source. Albert Loening at Bremen speaks without statistics but with considerable insight: "The young men . • . emigrate to escape compulsory military service . . . . Another hardship i s the calling in of young men (who have served) for military practice of some fifteen days or more, and then from four to six weeks each year to the f a l l maneuvers. The young man who has a position as clerk or workman often loses his position or job by being called off to military practice in the midst of this work, or the young 100 farmer i s called off to the maneuvers for a period of four to six weeks just at harvast time, when he least can afford to go" (EI l£2). He adds under the heading of gevernment attempts to prevent emigration; "Fouf government special agents stand at the gangplank and examine each emigrant. As many as ten or twelve young men a week are caught trying to escape from future military service. Therefore most of these young men go via Antwerp or Rotterdam!1 (EI 15U)* The remarks from Saxony and Cologne indicate that in certain regions social stigma was attached to escape from military service. Loening implies the contrary for north Germany. Certainly upon arrival i n the United States escapees suffered no stigma at a l l , and certain subscrip­ tion biographies made much of having escaped to the "land of the free," where such nefarious laws were unthinkable. For the decade 1862-l8?ij. Moenckmeier presents figures from Prussia. He explains the high percentages of the last years as the result of the application of the obligatory service law in the "newly conquered provinces," Hanover and Hesse-Nassau and to the increase of the period of service from two to three years. Year No. deserters sentenced % of total emigration 1862 1,648 8.8 1863 1,782 9.3 1864 2,764 14.7 1865 2,666 10.3 1866 2,694 10.3 186? 3,297 5.9 1868 3,946 6.7 1869 6,225 11.7 1870 7,464 18.4 1871 7,424 19.3 101 5>1.0f> Bismarck's Kulturkampf (1871-1887) was the only p o l i t i c a l event affecting religion that played any part in emigration from Germany. It was directed against the Catholic Church. The two features of i t most affecting emigration were the laws forbidding the members of religious orders to teach in any schools and the suppression of a l l seminaries training priests. These measures did not of course produce any great number of emigrants directly, but the nuns and the prospective priests forced out very often found their way to the United States, sometimes to Kansas, and furnished a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative element among the Catholic clergy here. The Franciscan colony at Burns, Kansas, was an ex­ ample. The Catholic l a i t y also added a religious motive to other reasons making them leave Germany. Ludwig Windthorst, who before becoming the leader of the Center Party in the Imperial Reichstag had been Minister of Justice in Hanover, was Bismarck's chief opponent, and the settlement at Windhorst, Kansas, which originated in Cincinnati i s one testimony to the honor attached to his name and to the bitterness aroused in Catholic Germans by the Kulturkampf. The practical defeat of Bismarck was evident in the early eighties and thereafter emigration was not affected. 3>1.06g Emigration f e l l off in small part because practically a l l Germans became sure that the imperial government with a l l i t s imperfections was a superior thing with which government in the United States compared unfavorably. The laws passed in the l880's to assure social security accentuated this feeling. The bitterness i n almost a l l Schleswig-Holstein, in Hanover, and i n Hesse-Nassau f i n a l l y melted away. Bismarck's policy of just so much liberalism as to make the new efficient government establish conditions that were better than those which existed i n the past s t i l l e d angry voices i f i t did not win admiration, and a growing enthusiasm for Germany 102 "ttber a l l e s " was cemented to the p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y c a l l e d the Empire* F i f e from p e r s o n a l experience shows how t h i s c o n v i c t i o n a f f e c t e d emigration. He says: "In 1908 and again i n 1911, the w r i t e r t a l k e d w i t h people i n var i o u s p a r t s of Germany • . . and met * . * always the same answer: f¥e are b e t t e r o f f hereJ We are q u i t e contented; America doesn't mean to us what i t o nee d i d . ' The causes assigned f o r t h i s i n some cases r e f l e c t e d sharply on the flaws of our government * • #, but beneath i t a l l l a y a great confidence i m the i n d u s t r i a l f u t u r e of Germany and i n the growth of a l i b e r a l s p i r i t of government" (F 8U, 85). The b e l i e f i n the " l i b e r a l s p i r i t " probably was i n l a r g e p a r t evoked from informants by F i f e ' s own enthusiasms, but such statements d i d not come from discontented mouths. 51.10 Though r e l i g i o n was an unimportant f a c t o r as a cause of nineteenth century emigration from Germany, the r e l i g i o u s composition and c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s of the country g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d German l i f e . At the time of the F o r t y - e i g h t e r s f r e e t h i n k e r s were numerous among the Germans, but though powerful,, they found themselves i n a m i n o r i t y among those a l r e a d y here and were submerged by the r e l i g i o s i t y of the great numbers fetill t o come. Both C a t h o l i c s and P r o t e s t a n t s were sincere devotees, and the P r o t e s t a n t s were possessed of a z e a l f o r t h e o l o g i c a l d ispute t h a t s p l i t them i n t o groups almost as h o s t i l e t o one another as t o C a t h o l i c s . The l i f e i n Germany d i d not t r a i n them t o c a r r y such h o s t i l i t i e s to the p o i n t of i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e i r economic l i f e . A f t e r the T h i r t y Years War toleration was accepted, and i n the c i t i e s , c o - h a b i t a t i o n of sects was amiable enough t o a l l o w many to $o±n s o c i e t i e s where those of other f a i t h s might be found, many, but h a r d l y a m a j o r i t y . In general the northeastern two-thirds of Germany was P r o t e s t a n t and 103 the south and the estern fringes were Catholic, but there were dist r i c t s where this generality did not hold. Many of the emigratns from Wurtemberg and Baden were Protestant* Many Catholics were to be found in those parts of Oldenburg, Hanover, and Westphalia where a l l three states l i e close together. City states that had long been ruled by bishops l i k e Muenster remained f a i t h f u l to Catholicism. The Protestants were for the most part, practically a l l those in the north, Lutherans who remained in approximate unity as long as they were in Germany. The Protestants in the South were largely Reformed, that i s , Calvinists. The Prussian government tried to unite these Protestant elements into a Prussian state church, and a certain number of peoole accepted i t , but most Protestants would not compromise a principle by adhering to the hybrid. The f i r s t measures for unification were taken in 18 17 . Strict regulations on the subjects were enforced in the I83O fs. Separate worship was allowed after I8J46 A number of unified churches persisted. The Unierter were scorned by a l l faithful Lutherans, and at least looked on with suspicion by the Reformed. Together with these generally accepted faiths, Pietists who found the established practices too laden with liturgy and form existed. They were given to separate devotions untrammeled by pastors with set ways. "In 1817 thousands of Separatists and Pi e t i s t s , who were in conflict with the rationalistic church regime, emigrated from Wurtemberg to North America or especially to the Orient" (FS 36l). The movement did not die in 18 17 . There were also remnants of sects, lik e the Baptists, that had arisen in the 1 6 t h century. Particularly among the well-established denominations, the pastors ruled almost despotically. By custom they were consulted on a l l matters affecting their people and their opinions or decisions were accepted with l i t t l e question, with the result that their parish usually acted as a unit. Since ioU p a s t o r a t e s c a r r i e d w i t h them so much p r e s t i g e there was no dearth of p a s t o r s and there were many t r a i n e d and h a l f - t r a i n e d young men ready t o emigrate. They were almost without exception en t h u s i a s t i c a l l y ^ G e r m a n , ready t o champ­ i o n the language of the Fatherland, p a r t i c u l a r l y as they knew i t s t h e o l o g i c a l vocabulary and found no other t h a t could convey the meanings they intended. Because of t h e i r great i n f l u e n c e w i t h t h e i r f l o c k they were a most con­ s e r v a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c f o r c e . Everywhere the language of r e l g i o n f o r emigrants was Standard German without any conscious i n t r u s i o n of d i a l e c t * Even those who were otherwise unschooled were t h e r e f o r e f a i r l y p r o f i c i e n t i n Standard German, ready to c i r c u l a t e i n any German community. 51.1]^ Mennonites i n Germany were r e l a t i v e l y a very small group, but they deserve s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n because of t h e i r importance i n the s e t t l i n g of Kansas. They came t o Kansas from the South and Rhine West, s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the P a l a t i n a t e and from the Northeast, from the area near Danzig. Mennonites of v a r i o u s types formed a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the P^Latine emi­ g r a t i o n t o Pennsylvaniai i n the l a t e 17th and the 18th c e n t u r i e s . They a l s o came t o southeastern Iowa (Donnellson) and t o the p a r t of I l l i n o i s across from S t . L o u i s (Summerfield) j u s t a f t e r the middle of the nineteenth cen­ t u r y and thence to Kansas a t Halstead and t o the north of i t . They f u r ­ nished p a r t of the a t t r a c t i o n of Kansas to the Russian Mennonites. Dutch Mennonites, refugees from p e r s e c u t i o n , were numerous i n the neighborhood of Danzig and up the V i s t u l a by the middle of the s i x t e e n t h century. With t h e i r experience i n Holland they were able t o r e c l a i m unoc­ cupied swamp lands and became a numerous people w i t h much wealth, not too w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d by the 19th century. They had by then l o s t t h e i r Dutch tongue or a i j l e a s t adapted i t t o the Low German d i a l e c t s near by and had accepted High German as t h e i r c u l t u r a l language. Dutch c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 105 remained, however, e s p e c i a l l y i n a r e l i g i o u s s p l i t i n t o Flemish and F r i s i a n groups; s t i l l they were German . The a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e i r t e r r i t o r y by P r u s s i a w i t h the attendant m i l t a r i s t i c pressures a g a i n s t t h e i r p a c i f i s m along w i t h overpopulation determined, t h e i r emigrations t o the Black Sea area (q.v.) and V o l h y n i a (q.v.) i n the l a t e 18th and e a r l y 19th c e n t u r i e s . The m i l i t a r y up:sweep that accompanied the v i c t o r y over France and *the formation of the German Empire i n 1870 d i s t u r b e d some t h a t were l e f t , even among the p r o s ­ perous, and w e l l - t o - d o farmers emigrated i n 1876 e s p e c i a l l y from the Heubuden Congregation i n the V i s t u l a D e l t a t o Whitewater, Kansas, and B e a t r i c e , Nebraska. T h e i r Danzig area settlements were u l t i m a t e l y destroyed as p a r t of the p o p u l a t i o n displacements during and f o l l o w i n g the Second World War. 51.2 V i l l a g e s or towns of no great sige a t the beginning of the nineteenth century contained the v a s t m a j o r i t y of Germans. "In 1815 the t o t a l popula­ t i o n of the twelve towns which i n 191U were the greatest of the German Empire was about 750,000 . . . . In 1850 the twelve towns contained 1,3U0,000 people" (C 32, 82). In 1815 of the 750,000 there were 200,000 i n B e r l i n and 100,000 i n Hamburg and i t s suburbs;:which leaves an average of 35>000 f o r the next ten. "In 1871 only 26$ of the new Empire's forty-one m i l l i o n s were r e s i d e n t i n c i t i e s of more than 5>000 p o p u l a t i o n , and i n l y 36$ i n p l a c e s exceeding 2,000" (S 198). U r b a n i z a t i o n went on a l l during the nineteenth century but f o r many years i t s pace was slow. On t h e other hand, a system of i s o l a t e d farm houses e x i s t e d only i n eastern Germany and near the southern Dutch border. C l e a r l y German emigrants were ready t o f i t i n t o small town American l i f e and not r e s i s t e n t t o becoming urban. On the other harid, most of them were farmers, e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y or as a side l i n e t o being c r a f t s ­ men. They r e a d i l y s a c r i f i c e d v i l l a g e l i f e i n favor of residence upon the l a r g e holdings of the American countryside. As a whole German emigrants 106 could enter freely into any level of American society willing to accept them. And compared with most Europeans of the nineteenth century they were mobile. The man who was exclusively a farmer was not, but a great section of the population was influenced by the tradition of the Wanderjahr. Many young men emigrated with no expectation of settling down immediately. In Germany this habit had made for wide use of Standard German as an auxiliary to dialect. In America i t was a force for Engl-izing. In both countries i t contributed to destruction of local patriotisms. There was l i t t l e that resembled the campanilismo of the Italians, especially in the days of the great exodus. The linguistic result in American towns was a chaotic mixture of dialects and standard German which a new generation would reject. $1.3 The propensity of Germans for organizing social clubs was 'greater than that among Europeans in general* The only line that i t was d i f f i c u l t to cross for acceptance into such societies was that of class. A single common taste drew people together from many areas, most usually music or gymnastics. &s to gymnastics, " i t was Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), s t i l l revered' as the 'Father of Gymnastics1 who brought home to Germany the importance for young and old of gymnastic exercises on scientific prin­ ciples. He f i r s t introduced the practice in Berlin in 1311. Gymnastics, turnen as i t i s called, forms an important part of the curriculum of every school. . . The gymnastics club (Turnverein) i s also a popular institution, to be found i n every town and i t s exhibitions and contests are events of unfailing attraction* There i s even a national athletic meeting once a year, in which clubs from a l l parts of the Empire take part" (D 185). William Harbutt Dawsom, who wrote the words above in 1901, speaks too of music: "The stalwart gymnasts of the Turnverein sing son^ which good old 'Father 1 Jahn, their patron saint l e f t them, as they march to the d i s t r i c t 107 festival 1 1 (D 183) . Dawson goes on to show how every group of Germans, assembled for any sort of purpose, broke into song. "Song i s the l i f e of the German.11 Along with a l l this incidental singing there were organ­ ized groups; maennerchor for instance abounded. Choral singing, gymnastics and other rhythmic mass movement in groups were of great appeal. D r i l l under armSSf§,8ften a delight. "Boys whose ages range from eight to thirteen may be seen forming themselves into military companies, forming in li n e , deploying as skirmishers . . . displaying a native military genius that i s truly astonishing" (EI 15>9)i this from Chemnitz, Kingdom of Saxony in 1886. The south, less military, showed similar tendencies in aesthetic domains. Unorganized pleasure taking was l i k e l y to be pursued in large groups too. Beer halls and gardens in the towns were large. Scores or even hundreds were accomodated at once. Gemtfblichkeit was best maintained in company, numerous company. Such group harmony makes for sudden about- faces in linguistic areas as well as elsewhere. But the groups bound to­ gether were frequently not the whole community; church rows were the b i t ­ terer when the pastor lost control because nobody was on the fence. The suddenness of tbe shift to English in 1917-8 in the United States and the storms accompanying the shift are as much to be explained by these attitudes as by the pressure of American hysteria. $l+kO The economic push was, in Germany as everywhere, the great cause of emigration, and the weakening and f i n a l disappearance of that push was thiee primary cause of emigration's cessation. The push was the result of over­ population in a territory that was not through much of the nineteenth cen­ tury possessed of economic resources for maintaining an expanding popula­ tion. Germany was fortunate in having latent resources both in technique and materials, and in developing them somewhat more rapidly than the Scandi- 108 navians so that after the high tide of the sirly 1080!s emigration in Germany became much more rapidly unattractive than in Sweden and particularly Norway* By 1900 she was i n some sort a competitor with the United States in absorbing the peoples of the New Emigration. The thin stream of emigration that con­ tinued, thin in comparison with times past, was based on a factor of American p u l l rather than on push from Germany except that the inflation of German currency after the F i r s t World War which reached i t s c r i s i s in 1923 caused a brief push of considerable force. 51.U1 Agriculture occupied three-fourths of the Germans in l8l£, 67#5$ in 1871, $9% in 1880, kP% i n 1910. The farming population furnished most of the emigrants throughout the nineteenth century. The area that i s now the German Federal Republic was in the organization of i t s rural l i f e different from the territory to the east. Everywhere except in the extreme east the farmers lived i n villages, but the villages were of different types. The villages of the west, usually hodge-podge, were surrounded by open fields made of small holdings arranged equally hodge-podge so that no one had a l l his holdings contiguous to each other. 51.U2 In the east there were several types of villages but frequently f i e l d arrangement was better suited to cultivation by a small proprietory more of his land would be easily accessible. Along the Baltic Sea, lands reclaimed from marshes were frequent and colonies from the North Sea coast had occupied them. Such were the Mennonite colonies near Danzig that provided the emi­ grants to South Russia and also the Elbing^Whitewater settlers i n Kansas. The land of these people was presumably sold in accordance with a pattern common throughout the old Prussian kingdom. The great landlords bought out the smallj the states increased in size and a landless population became numerous. The growth of this group for whom the landlords substituted cheap 109 seasonal labor from Poland accounts for the great increase in emigration from the East during the decades following the American C i v i l War. The displacement farther west along the Baltic i s of more interest to Kansas. In the early days i n Kansas Germans from Mecklenburg (chiefly in the towns) and from Pomerania (important for instance on Lyon Creek) were not uncommon. On these provinces Clapham comments as follows: ftThe Dukes of Mecklenburg had protected the peasants in their own domains but either they had not been strong enough, or had not tri e d , to check the very extensive Bauernlegen [ among ] their subordinate gentry. In parts of Pomerania things had gone so far that the true peasant, who lived by his holdings, had almost disap­ peared" (C 37)o Mecklenburg was also a land of great estates (SW 13). The process became the easier with the emancipation of the peasant from feudal servitude. During the Napoleonic era appropriate laws were passed, but they went into action slowly, and when they were applied the peasant had to buy his release from feudal dues. He gave up part of his land to have the rest clear and his freedom, but thereby he lost income so that he was in a d i f f i ­ cult situation. He also lost his rights to use of the common land, because commons were abolished. "One hears of the resultant hardships particularly in Pomerania where the laboring class was most f u l l y developed" (C U8). Sometimes he sold out what remained to him and moved to town.(S l £ 0 ) . "The gentlefolk were glad to be r i d of the poor people and to take over their property cheap" (FS 362). Emigration as a remedy for i t also became pop­ ular after I8I4.8 (C 1*6)• The departure of the Lyon Creek settlers from Pomerania for Wisconsin may thiis be explained. 5>l.U3g In the west, eviction and consolidation of estates was much less prac­ ticed. In Hanover and Bavaria particularly (C 36) this lack of Bauernlegen was true. However in Hanover the commons were sp l i t up (C £0). What the 110 small p r o p r i e t o r gained as h i s share was more or l e s s balanced by payments to buy o f f f e u d a l s e r v i c e * The d i v i s i o n of the commons took p l a c e mostly i n the mid-nineteenth century* But, as i n other c o u n t r i e s , increase of p o p u l a t i o n made ho l d i n g s inadequate,*in p a r t s of Bavaria and i n the South and West, i . e* i n most re g i o n s , because h e i r s s p l i t up the p a t e r n a l r e a l estate,-dn Hanover and "Old" Bavaria where holdings were of moderate s i z e because the c h i l d r e n not i n h e r i t i n g l a n d were l e f t w i t h only a compensating payment t o balance t h e i r l o s s * Such a system meant t h a t the farms c o u l d maintain a population of the same s i z e from generation t o generation without degradation of the standard of l i v i n g , but t h a t younger sons r a t h e r than be­ come h i r e d hands, the a l t e r n a t i v e , would emigrate* The tendency e x i s t e d i n Hanover and was the more marked among the sons of the smaller but poorer c l a s s of v e r y small landholders* "It i s recognized t h a t the Heuerlinge C day laborers] , Hausler [ p r o p r i e t o r s w i t h a b i t of ground], and K o t t e r [ c o t t a g e r s ] provided the main contingent of the emigrants" (M 122). Thus Hanover discharged i t s surplus p o p u l a t i o n , and maintained the r e s t r a t h e r w e l l . The Hanoverian pressure t h a t r e s u l t e d d i d not l e a d to d i s t r e s s as fearly as i n the South because the Hanoverian l a n d l e s s had not become too numerous before the century began, whereas i n much of the South the h o l d i n g s were a l r e a d y more or l e s s microscopic. Emigration from t h i s southern area had been of importance i n Ithe 18th century. The peasants of the South had a l s o o f t e n become ob l i g e d t o e x e r c i s e a h a n d i c r a f t t o eke out t h e i r income, and w h i l e the i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n was very slow i n becoming e f f e c t i v e i n Germany, even a l i t t l e competition began t o deprive f a m i l i e s of v i t a l income and^as i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n progressed^affected a great many. Emigration as a s o l u t i o n was already i n the mores of the people. I l l f>1.50 Those w i t h b i t s of land were i n better p o s t i o n to emigrate than the l a n d l e s s because they possessed c a p i t a l t h a t could be turned i n t o passage money. And these people t h i r s t e d f o r more l a n d , and the l a n d l e s s a M the common people i n general shared t h i s appetie: "To possess one's own l a n d and s o i l has long been the goal of the German shopkeeper, handicraftsmen, peasant, and l a b o r e r , the most important c a t e g o r i e s among the emigrants" (M 20). The p u l l of America as l o n g as l a n d could be obtained cheaply was greater than the p u l l of i n d u s t r i a l j o bs. I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t emi­ g r a t i o n d i d not shrink down beyond the numbers i n the e a r l y waves u n t i l a f t e r a l l homestead and r a i l r o a d l a nd i n the United S t a t e s had been occu­ p i e d , whereas the h e a v i e r emigration i n the e a r l y l880fs took place when i n d u s t r y i n Germany was already absorbing l a r g e numbers. 5l.£lg Another element of p u l l was very potent i n the l 8 8 0 f s . Germans a l r e a d y .- i n America sent money home to b r i n g over t h e i r r e l a t i v e s . The potency of t h i s motive can be judged from the .American consular r e p o r t s of 1886 on emi­ g r a t i o n from Germany. Ten of the twenty-one consuls r e p o r t i n g named money from America f o r passage as a reason f o r emigration. No one spoke of r e m i t ­ tances home f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a f a m i l y as was o f t e n the case among "new" immi­ grants ( I t a l i a n s , S l a v s , Greeks, Lebanese). The ten consuls were r a t h e r w e l l s c a t t e r e d over Germany, but the Consul-General at B e r l i n and the four consuls i n Saxony made no comment on t h i s phenomenon. The South, the i n d u s ­ t r i a l west, the Northwest and the East — T h u r i n g i a too ~ sent i n r e p o r t s on t h i s d e t a i l t h a t are f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t . The number a f f e c t e d i s set the highest by one who was i n a p o s i t i o n to be w e l l informed, Consul Loening a t Bremen. He says of the emigrants: "Over $0% have p r e p a i d t i c k e t s sent them by t h e i r f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s " (EI l £ 3 ) . The consul a t Dusseldorf mentions $0% as induced t o come by f r i e n d s or r e l a t i v e s " o f t en advancing 112: means s u f f i c i e n t " (EI 17$). The consul a t Mayence reduces the p r e p a i d t i c k e t h o l d ers t o o n e - t h i r d (EI 211), Others use such phrases as "many" or " l a r g e numbers." T h i s p r a c t i c e of the r e l a t i v e s was as widespread i n Kansas as anywhere, perhaps more widespread, f o r the boom of the l 8 8 0 f s there provided the money. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y the importance of t h i s p r a c t i c e was the c l o s e connection of the newcomers with those a l r e a d y here, which meant that the e a r l i e r a r r i v a l s were sure t o keep up t h e i r German. Conversely when the p r a c t i c e p r a c t i c a l l y ended with the hard times of the n i n e t i e s i n America, the stock a l r e a d y here was forced t o r e l y on i t s own resources f o r the p r e ­ s e r v a t i o n of German. The consuls note i n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s the s e n s i t i v e n e s s of the remittances to f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the United S t a t e s . The consul at E l b e r f e l d on the Westphalian border of the Rhineland mentioned as p a r t i ­ c u l a r l y a f f e c t e d by the p r a c t i c e "the farming p o p u l a t i o n of the northwestern provinces of Germany" (EI l 8 l ) . Observations i n Kansas v e r i f y t h i s s t a t e ­ ment. The consul a t Stefcin speaks s i m i l a r l y f o r Pomerania and East and West P r u s s i a . Kansas was l e s s a f f e c t e d by the p r a c t i c e t h e r e . t ^1 . 6 0 A g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y increased g r e a t l y i n Germany during the n i n e ­ teenth century, by a m u l t i p l e of three of f o u r , but only the bases f o r l a t e r development — pioneer a p p l i c a t i o n of a r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l i z e r s , much improved notions among the well-informed on crop r o t a t i o n , i n t r o d u c t i o n of new crops such as sugar beets — were l a i d before the Empire was s e t up. The great landowners p r o f i t e d f i r s t by the improvements, f o r they i n v o l v e d c a p i t a l f o r experimentation.*^ Consequently, the push f o r emigration was not, u n t i l q u i t e "Clapham demonstrates the slowness of the peasant t o respond by com­ p a r i n g two areas of approximately the same f e r t i l i t y , Mecklengurg-Schwerin where l a r g e h o l d i n g s p r e v a i l e d and B a v a r i a , where small holdings were general. The yj§$lds per acre were much higher i n Mecklenburg i n the p e r i o d 1902-1911 113 "when peasant education had done i t s best" (C 2 19) , n e a r l y $0% higher i n the case of wheat, about a t h i r d f o r b a r l e y and oats, a f o u r t h f o r potatoes, an eighth f o r r y e . l a t e , g r e a t l y reduced by such improvements; i t might even be augmented, f o r the great landowners found investment i n more l a n d p r o f i t a b l e , and were the r e a d i e r t o f o r c e out the small farmer. N a t u r a l l y , areas where a l l h o l d i n g s were small or even medium i n s i z e p r o f i t e d by imporvements l a s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y the South, though development i n Hanover and Westphalia was l a t e . £l.6l In these circumstances unfavorable weather c o n d i t i o n s , or competition f o r markets was c e r t a i n t o make German farm l i f e more d i f f i c u l t . Both these f a c t o r s helped determine the p u l s a t i o n of emigration. A d i s a s t r o u s crop year i n I 8 l 6 ( c o l d and wet) brought famine i n c e r t a i n areas and drove people abroad. Very few of these emigrants l i v e d l o n g enough to reach Kansas, but t h e i r sons and daughters d i d . There were more bad crops i n the l830fs, and emigration grew. The potato b l i g h t t h a t was so d i s a s t r o u s f o r many European c o u n t r i e s i n I8I46 was no l e s s a misfortune i n Germany and pushed many abroad. These people, mingled w i t h the F o r t y - e i g h t e r s a f t e r a r r i v a l i n the United S t a t e s , provided the German p o p u l a t i o n i n the United S t a t e s when the t e r r r i - t o r y of Kansas was opened i n 185U. Again i n 18^3 there were crop f a i l u r e s , and a r i s e i n departures. Crop f a i l u r e i n Germany occurred r e g u l a r l y i n years of excessive r a i n f a l l , and Moenckmeier demonstrates g r a p h i c a l l y how such years brought on departures (M 7l)# These c r i s e s were genera l ; there were other bad developments a f f e c t i n g p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s . For instance the r e l a t i o n of the s i z e of the l a b o r f o r c e to the l a n d and i t s d i s p o s i t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y unfavorable i n the wine growing area of the Rhine v a l l e y and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s . "The v i n e growers l i v e d worst; i n l8Ul there were 19,000 f a m i l i e s l i i i or 11*7$ of the a g r i c u l t u a l p o p ulation of Wurtemberg, who worked only upon l . i | l # of the land used f o r a g r i c u l t u r e " (SW 121 , see a l s o M U3). A p a r t of these people reached Kansas and i n the h i l l s f l a n k i n g the M i s s o u r i V a l l e y t r i e d t o c a r r y on the type of c u l t u r e f o r which they were t r a i n e d ; they were among the e a r l i e s t s e t t l e r s * 51.62 The great improvement i n a g r i c u l t u r a l technique began by the s i x t i e s and, w i t h p o p u l a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l expansion^ demand f o r .field products increased so t h a t there was here a p e r i o d i n which the push f o r emigration lessened* But i t remained considerable among those w i t h small or even mod­ e r a t e l y l a r g e holdings because farming now r e q u i r e d investment of more c a p i t a l f o r f e r t i l i z e r s and t o o l s than these men possessed. A l s o i n Hanover where great l a n d l o r d s l e t out p a r t of t h e i r h o l d i n g s f o r cash r e n t (C 109), w i t h modernized methods the owner became capable of handling the land more p r o ­ f i t a b l y w i t h day workers or e l s e put pressure on t h e tenant t o make expen­ d i t u r e s t h a t were overgreat f o r him. 5l.63g The a g r i c u l t u r a l depression of the l880fs, general i n Europe, became severe i n Germany e a r l y beginning i n 1878,because that year was one of heavy r a i n f a l l * The depression had a t i t s r o o t , however, low farm p r i c e s t h a t r e s u l t e d from the f l o o d i n g of European markets w i t h g r a i n from America, and, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Germany, from Russia* Improved t r & p o r t by r a i l and water together w i t h new su p p l i e s of wheat grown on the p l a i n s of the American West and South Russia and the f a r Volga country f u r n i s h e d the g r a i n * To a l l e v i a t e the competition, Bismarck i n 1879 i n s t i t u t e d a t a r i f f and i t was increased p r o g r e s s i v e l y as the f l o o d i n g continued. This p r o t e c t i o n r e l i e v e d a g r i c u l t u r e sooner than i n some of Germany's neighbors, but i t d i d not become e f f e c t i v e f a s t enough to prevent the great wave of emigration of the e a r l y e i g h t i e s , s u b s i d i z e d by money from America made from the v e r y wheat causing t r o u b l e 115 i n Europe. 51.70 The i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n Germany which f i n a l l y cut o f f emigration by supplying jobs at home developed increased impettts as the century advanced. I t d i d not i n the beginning absorb much personnel, nor was the pressure, which i t exerted on home manufacturing and craftsmen immediately perceptible«• Indeed f o r two decades craftsmen increased i n number because of increased demand f o r t h e i r product and because the g u i l d laws which had r e s t r i c t e d the number who could enter a trade were i n general abolished (SW 227)• The d i s t r i c t s where t e x t i l e workers c a r r i e d on t h e i r home manufacturing s u f f e r e d f i r s t from f a c t o r y competition, northern Westphalia and southern Hanover f o r i n s t a n c e . Emigration became great i n the f o r t i e s (M I4.6) among these peo­ p l e . E a r l y s e t t l e r s i n Kansas from t h i s area were n o t i c e a b l e i n number. Along the Moselle v i n e growing and wealzdng had f l o u r i s h e d together. Between iQkh and I8I48 11,100 persons moved away from T r i e r ; 7,18° l e f t Koblenz. There were e a r l y Kansans born i n Koblenz. The emigrants from T r i e r who u l t i m a t e l y a r r i v e d i n Kansas d i d not leave home t i l l the e a r l y l870's (Andale- Colwich Germans). In the 1850!s "Competition from machine i n d u s t r y began to be overpowering and i n j u r e d not only home i n d u s t r y but a l s o craftsmen; a sharp c r i s i s arose i n both. . . . This time the handcraft p o p u l a t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y hard put t o i t and d r i v e n to emigration" (M 51). 5l«71 The workings of the business c y c l e i n Germany continued t o cause bad peri o d s as w e l l as good even a f t e r the craftsmen had been disposed of; a pe r i o d of depression thus engendered beganiin the mid-18701 s (M 57, P 10J>) and combined w i t h the c r i s i s i n a g r i c u l t u r e t o t r i g g e r the mass departures of the e a r l y e i g h t i e s . 5lo72g Minor Forces f o r Emigration. America was b e t t e r known to Germans a t the beginning of the nineteenth century than t o most c o u n t r i e s of Europe. 116 Consequently a l e t t e r from America d e s c r i b i n g c o n d i t i o n s there was not so pre c i o u s as i n Scandinavia, but there i s common agreement t h a t one of the most important m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of p u l l from America was success s t o r i e s gen­ e r a l l y c i r c u l a t e d . Immigration and steamship agents a l s o played a s i g n i f i ­ cant r o l e w i t h fewer complaints of abuses on t h e i r p a r t than from other d o u n t r i e s . The c a l l of r e l a t i v e s has alr e a d y been considered. Consul Loening of Bremen a l l e g e d a reason f o r emigration as common which a l l others n e g l e c t . I t i s i m p l i e d however i n enough s u b s c r i p t i o n biographies c o n t r i ­ buted by immigrants t o "albums" to j u s t i f y n o t i c e being given i t . Loening says: "Another cause of emigration i s the p e c u l i a r f e e l i n g and p r i d e of c l a s s which i s evident everywhere, and the unfortunate who i s compelled by n e c e s s i t y , e t c . , t o work a t anything below h i s s t a t i o n i n l i f e . . . a t once emigrates, as he would r a t h e r starve than work here a t what h i s asso­ c i a t e s would c a l l d i s g r a c e f u l l a b o r . . • • The carpenter, who can f i n d no employment a t h i s t r a d e , emigrates t o the United S t a t e s , and d r i v e s a s t r e e t car or chops wood . . ., or the German army o f f i c e r , having t o r e s i g n h i s commission on account of i n a b i l i t y t o pay a gambling debt a t once emi­ grates t o America, and can be found . . . tending bar i n New York or herding c a t t l e i n Texas" (EI 1$2). Such people may not have r a i s e d the moral l e v e l of t h e i r compatriots i n America, but they u s u a l l y r a i s e d t h e i r c u l t u r a l l e v e l . A l l these were but instruments f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g the r e a l p u l l , t h a t of p r a c t i c a l l y f r e e l a n d , higher wages, and unhampered opportunity to become entrepreneurs. 51.8 "When there were no more homesteads i n America, when r e a l wages i n Germany compared f a v o r a b l y w i t h those i n America i n the l 8 9 0 f s and govern­ mental treatment of s o c i a l s e c u r i t y was more fa v o r a b l e to the poor i n Ger­ many when American bankruptcies were numerous during the hard times, America 117 exerted no more p u l l . Upon the r e t u r n of p r o s p e r i t y to America other and cheaper sources of l a b o r than those provided by the Germans offeree^ there was no push from Germany and immigration t o the Stat e s rose only s l i g h t l y . S t i l l i t must be remembered that enough Germans a r r i v e d during the e a r l y t w e n t i e t h century to keep a l i v e a sense of belonging t o Deutschtum and sharing i n i t s g l o r i e s . Only a great war could smash the sense, and give a m a j o r i t y of Germ^ a d e s i r e t o hear no more German. 51.90 The s e c t i o n s of Germany f u r n i s h i n g immigrants to Kansas were essen­ t i a l l y the same as those f u r n i s h i n g immigrants t o other p a r t s of the United States except t h a t emigration from northeast Germany never became very im­ portant i n Kansas. Future Kansans born i n Germany, i n the great m a j o r i t y of cases, came from what became i n 19U5 West Germany, the Federal German Republic. There are exception?, and some are s i g n i f i c a n t ; the most impor­ t a n t element among both Lower and Upper Lyon Creek Germans was Pomeranian; p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the c i t i e s there was a m i n o r i t y from the area t h a t was organized as Communist Germany, the Democratic German Republic; but except f o r the Mennonites from Danzig a t Whitewater, a few n a t i v e s of Posen, p a r ­ t i c u l a r l y Jews, and a very few S i l e s i a n s , almost no one came t o Kansas from the t e r r i t o r y east of the Oder, which was j o i n e d t o Poland a f t e r the Second World War. 51.91 The published data of the United States and Kansas censuses a i d l i t t l e i n determining regions of o r i g i n of Kansas Germans, and the census-takers 1 own records are of l i m i t e d h e l p . The a n a l y s i s of i860, reproduced i n V o l ­ ume I , page kr r e f l e c t s q u i t e f a i t h f u l l y the data l o c a l l y c o l l e c t e d f o r the l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l u n i t s * Since i t records t h a t U77 persons out of 1007 from Germany who s p e c i f i e d t h e i r region of b i r t h were from B a v a r i a , Baden, Wurtem~ burg and neighboring H e s s i a , i t b r i n g s out very c l e a r l y the f a c t that the 118 southwest c o n t r i b u t e d h e a v i l y t o the e a r l y German quota i n Kansas. But i t does not t e l l us how many of the 530 P r u s s i a n s were from the western p r o v i n c e s , the Rhineland and Westphalia, and how many were from Branden­ burg and the a d j o i n i n g p r o v i n c e s . I t a l s o f a i l s t o r e c o r d any f a c t s con­ cerning the northwest, Hanover, e t c . 5l.92g The p l a c e s of b i r t h other than "Germany" or " P r u s s i a " recorded i n the Cutler-Andreas H i s t o r y of Kansas, 1883, by 229 Germans i s of s i g n i f i ­ cance, though t h i s r ecord does not do f u l l j u s t i c e t o the P r u s s i a n element, and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o the Rhinelanders and Westphalians who were q u i t e apt to s p e c i f y simply P r u s s i a as t h e i r p l a c e of b i r t h * P l a c e s of B i r t h of Germans Noted i n Andreas-Cutler H i s t o r y of Kansas P t . of Atchison ( c i t y ) W i c h i t a Wyandotte Co* Doniphan Miami Labette Germany Leavenworth F t . Scott Douglas Brown Neosho Waubunsee Harvey South 17 33 5 3 6 7 7 k - 5 6 5 6 10U Rhine 10 10 1 3 3 3 1 7 6 - 1 8 - 53 west Northwest 6 1U 1 - - 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 5 Inner 5 9 1 2 « U 3 - - 1 - 1 1 2 7 north East 2 2 - 2 - 3 1 - - - - 10 T o t a l s U0 68 8 10 9 22 15 12 7 7 8 15 8 229 The persons recorded by Andreas-Cutler had of course been i n America lohg enough t o prosper s u f f i c i e n t l y t o provide the fee f o r a b i o g r a p h i c a l e n t r y , t h a t i s , they had nea r l y a l l a r r i v e d by 1873* The m a j o r i t y of t h e i r dates of emigration from Germany f e l l i n the l850fs and l a t e l860fs, and they had u s u a l l y been born between 1825 and 1855» Almost a l l those a r r i v i n g 119 before 1Q$0 had accompanied t h e i r parents as c h i l d r e n . The p r o p o r t i o n of immigration from south Germany seems l i t t l e a l t e r e d f o r 1870 over i860, but f o r the l a t e r p e r i o d the Hanoverians, Oldenburgers, e t c . do not show up as w e l l as they should. They were farmers not y e t ; ready to spend money f o r v a n i t y ' s sakej and t h e r e f o r e the Andreas h i s t o r y was c l o s e d t o them. I f the people i n Washington, M a r s h a l l , R i l e y , D i c k i nson, and Barton Counties had achieved wealth and f i g u r e d i n the same way as those of Wabaunsee County, the r e c o r d would have been a l t e r e d i n f a v o r of the northwest. As i s set f o r t h i n the Hanover, Kansas, settlement h i s t o r y , the 1885 census f o r t h a t town and i t s a d j o i n i n g township r e v e a l s the preponderance of Hanoverians and Oldenburgers there, t h a t i s , of people from Germany's northwest w i t h people from the Rhine West n e a r l y as numerous, w i t h a number from the south, a few from the i n n e r North and none from the ea s t . The s t a t e of a f f a i r s as i t i s revealed by s e v e r a l s u b s c r i p t i o n county h i s t o r i e s a few years l a t e r i s shown i n the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e : 120 -=f O H O r-j f>- -d" ON 1 A H H CM "OS I t rH rH C\J ON ON * NO OX CM CvK H H VO I X A 1 CM cr\ CM H H ON -P O X ) "d 00* These states received l a t e immigrants* In 1900 Ohio with 12,000 was just y i e l d i n g i t s f i r s t place to New York, and C a l i f o r n i a was s t i l l behind* In 1890 Ohio had 11,000, I l l i n o i s 8,000, Missouri and Wisconsin i n the neigh­ borhood of 7,000, and Pennsylvania over 6,000* Large settlements of Swiss, r e l a t i v e l y pure, are those at Berne, Indiana, New Glarus, Wisconsin, and Ohio communities i n Wayne and Putnam and A l l e n counties* A less known Ohio Swiss 122 settlement was i n Monroe County at Switzer on the upper Ohio River* That at Highland, I l l i n o i s , i s somewhat older but more penetrated by other Ger- l i n g s * At Hartford, Wisconsin, the Swiss have been a minority among Germans, but very Swiss* The Swiss east of Peoria, I l l i n o i s , are also intermingled with Reich Germans* At Helvetia, V i r g i n i a , the Swiss were using t h e i r d i a l e c t deep into the 20th century. The Swiss i n Pennsylvania, there i n c o l o n i a l times, p a r t i c u l a r l y at Allentown, Philadelphia and Pittsburg, are worthy of remark; so are those i n the d i s t r i c t about New York, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Bronx of older times, and i n Passaic, New Jersey. In Philadelphia a Swiss Benevolent Society has existed since i860 (SRII70)* Four other Swiss Societies existed there i n 1930 (3Rl£U)* 5>2*.llg Swiss arrived i n America as soon as other Germans but the immigration of the nineteenth century i s that of importance for the present purpose* The data presented i n #50*30 show that the rhythm of a r r i v a l s from Switzerland was very similar to that from Germany but that the proportion from Switzerland rose* In the period l8i|l-70 Swiss immigration was only about 3% of the German; i n the period 1880-188U i t had r i s e n to $% and these years saw the high tide of emigration both from Germany and Switzerland* In the period 1890-9U i t was 6%; period 1900-U — % y period 1910-U — 12$. In other words during the period of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and stable government i n both countries, the i r eStraining effects upon emigration were less marked i n Switzerland than i n Germany. 52*20 Swiss history before the Napoleonic wa^B interests us only because of i t s r e l i g i o u s features discussed below and, i n a negative way, on account of one other feature: The r e l i e f f o r own-population was lar g e l y accomplished by sending mercenary iregiments abroad* The Swiss soldiers who served other countries usually did so under contracts made by th e i r own governments thus 123 strengthening the Swiss economy i n much the same way as remittances from abroad have l a t e r helped I t a l y , Greece and Slavic lands* In the nineteenth century, however, the Swiss were no longer w i l l i n g to be mercenaries* After Napoleon's f a l l , the Swiss Confederation was for some time so loose i n char­ acter that each canton was very nearly an independent state* The various cantons frequently disagreed with one another and within cantons there were also struggles. Sometimes these movements reached revolutionary proportions* There was even a b r i e f c i v i l war, i n 18U7, that of the Sonderbund. Govern­ mental i n s t a b i l i t y was thus a push for emigration* While the rest of Europe i n I8I4.8 was overturning existing governments, Switzerland too gave i t s e l f a new constitution, and unlike the other new creations of the period t h i s one was durable. The push for emigration after 18)4.8 cannot be regarded as p o l i t i c a l * 52.21g The Reformation did not make a l l Switzerland Protestant. A core of cantons i n the center of the country remained Catholic as w e l l as Fribourg and the Valaiss Catholic emigrants from Switzerland to the United States joined other German-speaking groups; purely Swiss settlements i n America have been the work of Protestants, Reformed or Mennonites. The Reformation brought about among other things the b i r t h of Anabaptist sects, including the Mennonites. A l l other r e l i g i o u s groups disapproved of them to the point of driving them out by persecution and they were disseminated both to the north and to the east, to the north i n neighboring regions of Alsace, that part of France contiguous to i t , the Palatinate, and the Netherlands; to the east, i n early days, to Moravia, i n l ? 8 l , to G a l i c i a after stays else­ where, and thence i n large part to Volhynia (now i n the Northwestern Ukraine). From both G a l i c i a and Volhynia Mennonites came to Kansas as w e l l as i n small numbers d i r e c t l y from Switzerland (to Whitewater)*, There were Swiss Mennonites 12U among the f i r s t Palatine immigrants to Pennsylvania i n the early 18th cen­ tury. The emigration of Bernese Mennonites to America was very heavy i n the f i r s t h a l f of the 19th century. The Mennonites of Pennsylvania are of Swiss o r i g i n , nearly a l l .from the canton of Bern, but some from Zurich. Emigration from the Emmental and the Jura was also very strong i n 1830- 80. Those Mennonites settled c h i e f l y i n Ohio, Indiana, and Ontario (MEXV 676)* In the nineteenth century economic motives rather than r e l i g i o u s persecution prompted Mennonite departure. 52.3 Economic motives, except for the e a r l i e r Mennonites, provided the powerful motive for leaving Switzerland. The depression following the Napoleonic Wars was most severe there because other countries took pro­ tective measures to shut off the sales of Swiss goods i n competition with t h e i r own. The s e t t l e r s who came to Switzerland Township i n the northeast- corner of Monroe County, Ohio (62-279) i n 1817 were driven out by famine conditions. The Mennonites who came to Wayne County, Ohio (62-2U7) l e f t Switzerland i n these hard times. The crises that affected the rest of Europe bore as hard upon Switzerland as elsewhere. The settlement at Highland, I l l i n o i s (60-100) of people from Lucerne (EI-337), canebe Explained by economic conditions about l 8 3 0 j the New Glarus, Wisconsin, settlement (6l-26l) d e f i n i t e l y owed i t s foundation to the distress of the mid-l8I»01 s. The wave of emigration that swelled through the l 8 7 0 fs to become strongest i n the early l 8 8 0 fs was caused by the same a g r i c u l t u r a l distress that sent men from most of western Europe to America. The economic c r i s i s had much to do with foundation of the Kansas settlements of the Swiss. 52.Ug The parts of Switzerland providing emigrants to Swiss settlements i n America were mainly i n the Northwest, i n the cantons of Bern and Basel, and Solothurn. Even the French Swiss settlement at Neuchatel, Kansas, i s 12£ C-from the Northwest. An important exception i s the #ase of Glarus which sent i t s people to Few Glarus, Wisconsin, and i n every community there would be other exceptions, p a r t i c u l a r l y for the cantons of Aargau and Zurich, In Kansas as x^ell as elsewhere t h i s preponderance i s true; Bern and New Basel deserve t h e i r names. 52.50 Alsace, part of France from the beginning of the period of German emigration to America u n t i l 1870, and part of the German Empire during the rest of i t , produced i n the United States no exclusive settlements of i t s own that have achieved note. Alsatians were part of the German element i n American towns large enough to have a d i v e r s i f i e d German population* The exodus from Alsace did not, after the province became part of the Empire, follow the same chronological pulsations as that from i t s neighbor, from the Palatinate or as from the Empire as a whole. In l 8 ? l 1*3$ of t o t a l o f f i c i a l emigration from the Empire was from Alsace-Lorraine; i n 1881 when German emigration was at a peak itwas only .3$* After 1890 when the depar­ tures were slacking off the proportion from Alsace-Lorraine rose. In 1900 i t stood at 2.2$. Since other factors were similar to those i n the Pala­ t i n a t e , the explanation must be sought i n p o l i t i c a l conditions, most pro­ bably the d i s l i k e of army service. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y , the integration with France before 1870* while i t made for. exaltation of standard German by those who were discontented with France, tended to give Alsatian d i a l e c t a role even greater than that played by dialects elsewhere, and consequently among immigrants i n America there existed a certain readiness to accept English for public purposes, since no other language was c u l t u r a l l y rooted. After the transfer to the German Empire the d i s l i k e for the new masters also made the Alsatians ready to abandon th e i r c u l t u r a l language for another. 126 52.51 Luxemburgers, though they were only i n a few cases strong enough numerically to form settlements i n the United States separate from other Germans, tended to do so more evidently than the c i t i z e n s of any German state that ultimately became part of the German Empire. In Kansas Gonner i n 1881 l i s t e d ten settlements containing ten to twenty families of Luxem- burgers (GL 313)» A l l are Catholic German settlements where the Luxemburgers l i v e d with people from other regions, most frequently the Hhineland, and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t the v a l l e y of the Moselle. They were Parsons Creek (295-1, 20), Marysville (197-1, 11), Seneca- St. Benedict (213-1, 5 ) , Tipton (205-1, 6)* Burns (193-1, Ellinwood (89-1* 18), Ost (2U7-I, 11), St. Mark (269-1, % St. Paul (215-1, h).m We may add two very small groups, one at Kimeo (295-1, 21) i n southeastern Washington County (P2) and the other at Le o v i l l e (117-1, 12) on the l i n e between Decatur and Sheridan counties (F3 and 6) are t h e i r best representatives. As inferred above, the Luxemburgers are s o l i d l y Catholic, very f a i t h f u l at the s o c i a l l e v e l s furnishing emigrants. Their d i a l e c t was i n some sense sacred to them, but i t has never reached l i t e r a r y status. Luxemburg, after the Napoleonic Wars was a part of the Netherlands. In 1839 the French speaking section went to Belgium and the Grand Duchy i n i t s present propor­ tions remained attached to Holland through a personal union; the King of Holland was the Grand Duke of Luxemburg; independence became complete only i n 1867. The push for emigration, i n the period of union with the Netherlands was p a r t l y p o l i t i c a l ~ high taxes, m i l i t a r y service. Later FN Gonner does not always use the names here l i s t e d . He depended on reports, presumably from p r i e s t s , and he makes some misinterpretations, for instance he says Marion County i s west of Barton County. He probably made no such mistabkes for areas he knew personally^ eastern Iowa and Wisconsin. 127 the economic push was very severe (GL 127). Though Luxemburgers were to be found early i n America, emigration to the United States became important only i n the l8Lj.0fs, for B r a z i l attracted those leaving t h e i r country e a r l i e r . New York and Ohio received many beginning i n 18U2.. The settlement at and near Port Washington and Belgium, Wisconsin, 30 miles north of Milwaukee on the lake, began i n l8i*5>» The Wisconsin, I l l i n o i s and Iowa settlements became p a r t i c u l a r l y important. Also i n Minnesota there were sizable set­ tlements not discussed elsewhere i n t h i s work. They are mostly i n t e r ­ r i t o r y containing many other Germans along the M i s s i s s i p p i below Minneapolis and i n the counties surrounding the c i t y . They are most numerous i n Stearns County,: seventy miles up the r i v e r from the metropolis. The inner eastern part of the county i s heavily Catholic German with a high pro­ portion of Luxemburgers, 2l£ families i n h i s time, says Gonner (GL 302). Gonner estimates that i n the l 8 6 0 fs from four to f i v e thousand Luxemburgers came to the United States (GL 116). He guotes Luxemburg s t a t i s t i c s for l a t e r years — 1871-1380 - -U037; 1881-1888— £265* The Grand Duchy had a population of 217,381* i n 1887 (G L 120,128,130). £2.52g The second generation of Luxemburgers learned the i r fathers 1 d i a l e c t much better than usually happened i n small settlements. Even the t h i r d generation i n Wisconsin persisted i n upholding i t . Gonner !s discussion i n 1889 on language, i n which i t i s d i f f i c u l t to separate statements s p e c i f i c a l l y for Luxemburgers from those for Germans i n general, i s so pertinent to the present work that large portions of i t are here trans­ l a t e d : "When we Luxemburgers i n the United States use the English language i n d a i l y intercourse, we do so only when and i f we must i n order to make ourselves understandable to those who are masters only 128 of the language of the land or who employ t h i s language easier than another.A Luxemburger usesHigh German more w i l l i n g l y than English. The language i s closer to him, and he knows that he belongs to the great German family of peoples just as much as Low Germans, or Tyrolese or Sil e s i a n s or Badenese . • . In general he speaks the standard l a n ­ guage no worse than a Swiss or a Pomeranian. Preferably though the Luxemburger uses his home d i a l e c t . To be sure he can employ the di a l e c t only with those of his own stock, but with them i t i s h i s best l e t t e r of recommendation; i t recommends more quickly than pass­ port or c e r t i f i c a t e , brings help i n word and deed i n time of trouble, gets work, which used to be hard to f i n d , and everywhere secures the best services. Anyone ashamed of his d i a l e c t ...denies h i s kind and loses h i s fellows 1 respect. • . Any one who rejects h i s language i s not far from heaving overboard other good things: R e l i g i o n , honor and morals. How deeply German a Luxemburger i s becomes c r y s t a l clear abroad. As soon as he steps off the steamer on to the A t l a n t i c shore any adhering French mannerisms of speech or behavior disappear as i f by magic. . . Any man here who t e l l s a Luxemburger, even one who has worked f o r ten years at cabinet making i n the Faubourg StAntoine i n P a r i s , that he i s a Frenchman i n s u l t s him. • . He no more wants to be a Frenchman than a Prussian. + + A l l those well acquainted with the situation of Luxemburgers i n the United States know that i n the northwestern states they l i v e gathered into groups i n settlements, where they often are the majority of the inhabitants of a county, more frequently of a township. • . In the d i s t r i c t s most t h i c k l y populated with Luxemburgers, the Luxemburg dia l e c t i s almost exclusively employed for d a i l y use. • • Even where families are most closely united, i t must, as conditions require, give way to High German, rather though to 129 English, c e r t a i n l y to the l a t t e r i n the second generation" (GL 185-6). He finds i t natural that English i s the source for new words, even that English words l i k e "box" and "cider" should replace German equiv­ alents. He thinks High German can " i n general" be permanently main­ tained, and though the example of Penn-German encourages, d i a l e c t w i l l disappear—perhaps after one or two hundred years i n places but already i n places "even i f [the younger generation] s t i l l understand t h e i r f a t h e r s 1 tongue, they no longer speak i t with a f f e c t i o n . . • People want to s t r i p off the "Dutchman" and put on the Yankee; they become ridiculous and advance the defeat of the tongue of t h e i r fathers" (GL 188)* £2o60 P o l i s h Germans, exclusive of Jews, may be divided for the present purposes into three categories. Those resident i n Volhynia are treated with Russian Germans. Those resident i n the Pdiilsh rcorlddor of the per­ iod between the two World Wars are considered part of the Reich Germans. Those resident i n the western part of the Congress Kingdom of the period before 191U merit b r i e f separate consideration. They were usually a r t i ­ sans, able to exercise t h e i r s k i l l s because the Poles neglected to learn the trades, or farmers who, l i k e the Mennonites on the V i s t u l a , were given advantageous conditions by the Rftish kings or by noblemen when th e i r l i b e r t i e s were curt a i l e d or t h e i r economic postion became disadvantageous i n Prussia. The stresses that they were subject to were similar to those described elsewhere for the Poles under Russian rule. Their numbers were not great among emigrants, and i n Kansas the p r i n c i p a l points at which they made a s i g n i f i c a n t element i n the population was i n the Gorham German Conglomerate (263-1, f>) i n western Russell County, and i n the Mennonite Johannestal settlement north of Hillsboro i n Marion County (192- I , 9 ) . 130 $2.61 The old Germanj settlements i n Moravia furnished emigrants to Kansas. (Few seem to have come from the Sudetan'areas, nor from the rest of Bohemia.) The settlements i n Kansas are i n Barton County, Odin and Olmita (89-1, 10,11). The l a t t e r name suggests where the s e t t l e r s there originated; those at Odin (named for a town i n Illiiiois^iQame from near Brunn (Brno).- A few were from Budweis (Budejovici). These people are the descendants of Germans settled i n Moravia after the withdrawal of the Mongols and Cuiftans i n 12I4I and 12£2. They may w e l l have been reenforced by r e l i g i o u s refugees of the sixteenth century (Anabaptists). The Germans were established i n townships and given special p r i v i l e g e s so that they preserved t h e i r heritage i n t a c t . Protestantism was suppressed by imperial e d i c t " i n 1628, though i t persisted. However, Jesuit missionaries reaped a harvest i n the neighborhood of Brunn and Qlmitz and i n a few other places after the Thirty Tears War. In any case a l l Kansas immigrants were Catholic. The nineteenth century resurgence of Czech culture did not cause such severe struggles i n Moravia as i n Bohemia, and the Germans were on f r i e n d l y enough terms with t h e i r neighbors, so that the Kansas Olmitz community i s i n part Czech. Economic pressures, doubtless brought on by overpopulation, caused the emigration, speeded i n i t s l a t e r phases by the r i s e of Czech nationalism. The German townships could not be expanded. 52.62 The Hapsburgs, Maria Theresa and p a r t i c u l a r l y her son Joseph I I , adopted a p o l i c y of German colonization beginning i n 1763 for the lands recently acquired or suffering from war desolations. In order to a t t r a c t immigrants, the Austrian imperial house offered inducements very similar to those advertised by Catherine I I i n Russia (see. 000). Indeed Maria- Theresa was from 1763 to I768 bidding competitively against Catherine for 131 s e t t l e r s to place i n Hungary. At the time the Russian Black Sea s e t t l e ­ ments were organized Joseph with h i s Galician and Bukovinan enterprises was again i n competition with her* The current of s e t t l e r s was strong from 1782 t i l l 1787* I t tapered off t i l l interrupted for long years by Napoleonic troubles. Immigration was resumed i n the 1820 fs and con­ tinued i n general t i l l about mid century. 5>2.63g These s e t t l e r s i n Austria-Hungary were called Swabians (Schwaben), and hailed l i k e the Volgans i n Russia from a variety of regions i n central and southern Germany. Their sense of unity, and indifference to geo­ graphic location was expressed by a Swabian i n Vienna on his way elsewhere ca. 1785 ! t E i , ttberal wo!s Herr Gottle huset, do kann no a l l i v i l a Schwable sein P l a t z l e hantf (E 5 ) . "Wherever God dwells, a Swabian can f i n d h i s l i t t l e corner too. t f As i n the case of the Protestant Volgans, t h e i r dialects varied about a norm which approximated that of Hessia, and t h i s norm became the accepted point of departure for the development of speech. Beyond the Carpathians there were also Sudetansj a few of these reached Kansas at E l l i s . 52.70 Bukovina was the most remote of the areas i n the Austrian empire receiving German s e t t l e r s y some four hundred miles east of Vienna i n the same l a t i t u d e . This province ( c a p i t a l Czernovitz) i s between 50 and 75 miles i n diameter, and l i e s just beyond the Carpathians i n t e r r i t o r y that since the Second World War has been part of the Ukraine near i t s western border. During the wars of the eighteenth century t h i s b i t of the decaying Turkish empire was repeatedly overrun and plundered by armies (KB 1-13) so that when the Austrian emperor acquired i t i n 177U i t was underpopulated (6 inhabitants per square kilometer, KG72) and i n many places wasteland. Ruthenians (Ukrainians)• Rumanians, and Poles 132 were at hand to f i l l the void, and the Ruthenians eventually became the preponderant population, but the Austrians settled Germans there also. These were both Catholics and Protestants and elements of both confes­ sions usually were to be found i n the same v i l l a g e . There was a gen­ er a l s p i r i t of tolerance. Their settlement a t E l l i s , Kansas, also con­ tains the two elements. £2:»71g G a l i c i a f e l l i n t o Austrian hands i n 1772 two years before Bukovina. I t s density of population, 30 inhabitants per square kilometer, was much greater than Bukovina fs at that time, but the Hapsburgs i n i t i a t e d German colonization there too. The Germans were not too welcome either to the Poles or the Ruthenians i n the area and prospered primarily as artisans i n the towns. For further information on conditions there see the t r e a t ­ ment of the Poles there. Our primary interest i n G a l i c i a i s with the Mennonite Colonies. Colonization of Germans began i n 177U, but was l i m i t e d almost exclusively to Catholics u n t i l 1781 when Joseph I I came to the throne, then i t : broadened and continued u n t i l h i s death i n 1792. The d i s ­ t r i c t chosen for Germans was some 15 to 60 miles south of Lvov (Lemberg) on the plains just below the Carpathians (KKII5)« This part of G a l i c i a had mostly Ruthenian (Ukrainian) population. The immigrants were mostly Protestants, from Wurtemberg and the Palatinate, but a l l southwest Germany contributed population. The Mennonites, Swiss i n o r i g i n , arrived i n 173lt-6. Some of them moved on i n t o Volhynia, and they never became very numerous i n G a l i c i a , 600 i n 19l!u Those who were l e f t i n 1939 were moved out with other Germans when the Russians took over. One of t h e i r f i r s t v i l l a g e s was E i n s i e d e l , and i t s name was borne by the Kansas congrega­ tion at Hanston (Hodgeman County; I67-I, 3) from 1885 to 1952. Two thirds of the emigrants of 1885 settled i n Minnesota. In Kansas among the Swiss 133 Mennonites at Mound Ridge there are "Austrians" (no Mennonites i n Austria proper). Not f a r from the Concentrated Mennonite d i s t r i c t emigrants of the 19th century settled at Arlington (2U7-I, 8) i n Reno County. 5>2.8 The push for emigration from G a l i c i a and Bukovina developed f i r s t i n G a l i c i a , where the p o l i t i c a l situation of Germans l i k e that of Ruthenians became d i f f i c u l t with the accession to power of P o l i s h landlords i n 1867 and where overpopulation became evident soon. Indeed from G a l i c i a came part of Bukovina fs German population. The movement for exodus spread to Bukovina and reached i t s apoge i n 190U-6. 52.9 In Hungary the vacant lands along the Danube, both crown lands and the possessions of noble houses were opened up to German immigrants, again mostly Swabians, beginning i n the middle of the eighteenth century. For Kansas the settlement of most direc t importance was just downstream from Vienna i n the County of Sopron around what the Germans called New Se t t l e r Lake (Neusiedlersee). The v i l l a g e s here were some Catholic, some Protes­ tant with minorities of the other confession i n each v i l l a g e . They l i v e d on r e l a t i v e l y good terms with each other so that i n Herndon, Kansas, the people from t h i s area could center upon one community, though, as i n Hungary, there grew up a predominantly Catholic and a predominantly Luth­ eran d i s t r i c t . The largest German settlement i n Hungary was at the other extreme of the country i n the Sevm T f ' M f f i l \\ n (Siebenbur^en) area across the r i v e r from Belgrade. People from here went to the Black Sea s e t t l e ­ ments i,n Russia and thus samples of the stock were eventually to be found at St. Francis, Kansas. 13^ 53*00 The Russian Gernams who emigrated to Kansas case from colonies which were established during the reigns (1762-1796 and 1801-1825) of Catherine II (b • 1729) and her grandson Alexander I (b* 1770)• The earlier colonies from Germany settled in Russia on the Volga, the later ones near the Black Sea* The Russian Germans fi r s t came to Kansas from both regions in the 1870fs, Volgans most notably to E l l i s and Russell counties, Mennonites mostly to Marion and McFherson counties, Black s eamen principally to Cheyenne and Trego Counties* (For more detail on location in Kansas see^40»^)# The Volgans were almost a l l either from purely Catholic villages or from purely Protestant (Lufteran) villages; the Black Sea people were largely Mennonites* tHinqaforth, when there are no other qualifiers, the terms Mennonites and Russian Mennonites will refer to people of this sect from what is now the southern Ukraine* Other Germans from this region will be called Blackseamen. 53»QL Locations in Russia* The settlements on the Volga River were above and below the city of Saratov , close to the river between the latitudes of 50° and 52°* The Black Sea colonies were between the mouths of the Danube and the middle of the Sea ^olf J^m^^n mostly above the Crimea* There were also small groups in the province of Volhynia, which has usually been regarded as part of Southwestern Poland; i t is now in the Ukraine. 53*02 When Catherine came to the throne the Black Sea country was not part of her empire and the lower Volga, a l l its southern course, was not yet truly frontier country* 53*03 The Tatar Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, at either end of the southflowing Volga, had been conquered in 1586, but the country had been lef t almost completely to the nomadic tribes, though a few forts were set up to protect commerce on the great river* Saratov was one of their strong places, analogous in function to the early forts in Kansas* In its shadow Cossacks established themselves, but when in 1?32 the line of protective forts was moved somewhat further east, the country was s t i l l essentially unsettled and so remained during a l l the reign of Elizabeth H* 53*0k Catherine II fs ambitions to expand her empire at the expense of her Polish and Turkish neighbors receives notice in even the briefest accounts of her reign, but her earlier and more legitimate measures to become power­ ful by colonizing and strengthening Russia fs eastern frontier country are frequently neglected* She had no sooner installed herself firmly upon her throne than she issued invitations to immigrants (December kf 1?62). The immediate results were negligible, and on July 22, 1?63* she published a manifesto, offering specific privileges* At the same time she set up elaborate machinery for the recruitment of immigrants* She named as ••directors* a half-dozen adventurers with French names indicating real or assumed aristocratic origin, who worked under contract, and remained a handicap to the colonists in their f i r s t days settlement (see par­ ticularly Ca 319-321)• 53*05 The ••Directors* and also the Russian diplomatic staff in Germany sent out a swam of greats» some with prison histories, who recruited emi­ grants by means of roseate stodbs* The agents did not operate in Prussia and Austria where the sovereigns were distrustful of Russia and were engaged in settlement programs of their own that absorbed the mobile population of their realms• 53«06 In the smaller states of middle and south Germany, however, the Palatinate, Hessia, Saxony, Baden, Wuertemberg and Bavaria, also to a lesser extent in Switzerland and Alsace, the agents found fertile soils for their 136 seeds of propaganda?3^ The Seven Tears* War had just ended, and the misery and economic exhaustion then prevalent particularly disposed toward emigra­ tion a people that had been disseminating itself for some time* Some had become Pennsylvania Dutch. So many emigrants heeded the agents that the German states became increasingly hostile and a decree by the Austrian emperor forbade emigration in 1?68 (BV 25)* Immigration iiPt° Russia had already been choked off by the glutting of the means of transportation, and in 1?68 Catherinefs energies became absorbed in the Turkish War* 53*07 The Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-177** gave Catherine ti t l e to the northern li t t o r a l of the Black Sea* Okly nomads inhabited i t , and i t offered a better object for the Empressfs colonizing endeavors than the Volgan frontier* More of its land had rich soil, the climate was less severe, and most important, Catherinefs empire would, by its settlement, become firmly established upon the sea, and provide a solid basis for fur­ ther pressure upon Turkey* Colonization could not begin at oncet however* 53*08 Except in a few strong places, the Turkfs rule over this region had been only nominal* It was the realm of the Black Sea Tatars. Besides, the Crimea continued to be Turkish until 1783* When the Tatars on the Volga had submitted to Russia almost 200 years before, the more southern Khanate had found in Constantinople a protection against the advancing Slavs. 53»09 The Tatar boundary had remained more or less floating, but the Cossacks had exerted constant preslm», and in the 18th century the frontier was sta- •In accounts current in Kansas, particularly because of Laingfs dependence on Bauer, Captain J. Ovon Kotzer is portrayed as the chief of the agents. He was one of Beauregard1s lieutenants (BV 20). 137 bilized along a band of rather unfertile territory 100 to 150 miles north of the Black Sea. With the Turk eliminated, the Tatars had no protection against Catherine. She dallied with them almost a decade, but by 1783 they were driven from the territory or contained in limited regions. It seemed that colonisation could begin, but further hostilities against the Turks rendered the Southern area unsafe, and colonization after a start in 1?89 was not resumed until after her death and after the murder of her son Paul in 1801. Alexander I renewed his grandmother's plan, endeavoring to make the administration of i t more systematic. As i t turned out, the main change was the replacement of ^directoss* who were entrepreneurs by group leaders during travel eastward, immediately succeeded by government supervisors in Russia t i l l communities were under way. The officials were no great improvement over the directors. The acquisition of Bessarabia in 1812 furnished new territory for settlement and the end of the Napoleonic wars made emigration from the west more possible. Active participation by the imperial government ended with Alexander^ conversion to reaction. After 1822 there were few new arrivals except in Bessarabia, and immigration was shut off in 1857. 53»10 Catherinete and Alexander's second recruitment of immigrants was widespread, and southern Russia became as much a melting pot as the United States. We are interested, however, in the Germans, the only element of the population that later came to Kansas. As had been done a score of years earlier the Empress sent agents in 1784 into Germany; they found willing ears. Frederick H s t i l l forbade emigration; only after his death in 1786 did the fi r s t emigrating parties gain unwilling permission to leave Prussia. Russian immigration agents were again operating in 1804 in the Palatinate (BV 26). Intermittently immigration went on in the 19th century, particularly into 138 the Black Sea country, though in 1853 Mennonites began to appear among the Volgans. 53.11 The offer made to colonists by Catherine in 1763 was unchanged throughout her reign; Alexander's renewal in 1803 was nearly the same. It may be summarized thus: (BD 10-15 gives a German text of Catherinefs pro­ clamation of 1763; Pi 108 f f . gives the Russian text.) A. 1. free transportation 2. i n i t i a l grants of land practically free 3« freedom from taxation for a limited period (10 to 30 years) 4. loans to aid in making a start, both agricultural and other­ wise B. 1. local self-government after a pattern of their own choosing (They remained Germans) 2. religious toleration and self-government 3. control of their own schools 4. freedom from military service The conditions listed under A are of interest to the present work only because of striking similarities between Catherinefs procedure and that followed by the various agencies endeavoring to attract immigrants a century later in the U.S. The privileges listed under B are of much greater interest, 1) because they in part explain the completely German character of the immigrants that came from these settlements to America a century later; 2) because their abridgment furnished the immediate causes for emigration. 53*12 The imperial government remained approximately faithful to its covenant to the German colonists until the decade beginning in 1870. The great reforms of the 1860fs did not affect the Germans directly, though the underlying prin- 139 ciple of equality of #rli citizens before the law was sooner or later bound to find i ts application against privileged foreign minorities (BV 107)• The freeing of the serfs in 1861 also made Russian population much more mobile, and the restlessness of the German colonists thereafter was in part doubtless occasioned by the movement and ferment in other sections of the population. 53*13 The German population in Russia expanded phenominally a l l through the nineteenth century. The total number of immigrants is estimated at 100,000. The need for more land became pressing in both the principal areas by 1840. Population kept increasing a l l during the period of emigra­ tion that began in 1873* The increase between 1897 and 1914» while emigra­ tion was in f u l l swing amounted to approximately half a million persons, more than Z$$. In 1897 the count for a l l Germans in the Russian Empire t>y r e l i ­ gions affiliations was Lutherans 1,360,943 76.(# Roman Catholics 242,209 13.5* Mennonites 65,917 3.7* Reformed 63,981 3.6^ Baptists 19,913 1.1$ Greek Ortn^ ox 13,360 •7* Other Christians 1,411 ,1$ Jews and non-Christians 22,855 1.3# This included a considerable German population along the Baltic (about half a million)* 53«1^ The result of the special conditions under which the German colonies existed was a cultural solidity resistant to surrounding Russian influences. The Russians had very few points i n common with the Germans through which cultural characteristics could penetrate. The government, the religion and 140 the instruments of education were a l l totally different; the economic structure was such that i t rarely mixed Germans and Russians, and when i t did, the Russians were usually playing the role of cultural inferiors. They were har­ vest workers or other unskilled laborers on the rare occasions when the hard working Germans needed outside aid (BV 106). Thus the German settlements remained completely independent. When they became overpopulated they were for some time able to find new areas for set­ tlement farther east of the Volga in nomadic territory, in the Caucasus, or in Crimea. In general they were prosperous by the middle of the 19th century, sometimes wealthy, though there were variations in individual settlements which wi l l sometimes require our attention. In 1870, then, the German settlements in Russia represented practically autonomous states. The settlers rarely knew any Russian, used German exclusively, and regarded their language as part of their religion, the eternal as opposed to the evanescent, that i s , the Russian and the eastern church. 53*15 Csar Alexander U (ruled 1855-1881) began as a liberal and ended a conservative, more or less embittered. Both phases of his reign worked to the disadvantage of the German colonists. His reforms tended to level pri­ vileges and inequalities, his reaction tended to be severe on everyone. The Polish rebellion of 1863 exasperated him against Roman Catholics and against non-conforming subject populations. The power politics that followed the unification of Germany including the Turkish war of 1877 set him on the path of armament and increased armies. He and his successor Alexander III came to feel that they were nurturing a potential domestic enexny by continuing the privileges of very considerable populations which remained openly German. The obvious rememdies were two: to weaken the dissidents by pressure, and to convert them into real Russians, in other words persecution and Russification. 141 (See BV 104 f f . for an exposition of this matter from a somewhat different pdint of view.) Through the I860fs and early 18?0fs the political privileges were curtailed. Finally i t was the turn of the most highly prized of a l l the privileges, the exemption from military service. Recruits to the Czarfs army served before 1870 for as long as they were a military asset, 15 or 20 years, and they lived such an abominable l i f e in the army that terror-stricken Russian youths, threatened with impressment, often took refuge in German villages. Germans, because not Orthodox Catholics, had fewer privileges than the ordinary soldier. There was no effort to deal with them in their lan­ guage. There were thus many excuses for the brutal punishments ordinary to the service. 53»l6 In 1871 the Czar announced that Germans were to lose their privileges of self-government, and that they were no longer to be exempted from mili­ tary service. Inductions began in 1874. In 1875$ the Mennonites were granted permission to do labor under the Minister of the Interior. Many of them considered such service as inconsistent with their principles; those on the Volga, however, generally accepted i t (BV 110). Service turned out to be the more objectionable from the point of view of parents and a l l those who remained at home because the German recruits were scattered into widely distributed units to aid in their Russification, which was to some extent successful. The proclamation of I87I contained a clause which«s given l i t t l e publicity by the Caarist regime. It permitted emigration from Russia without loss of property t i l l 1881* M * Fixing a terminal date for emigration Teems to have been a way of siying that the abolition was not technically a violation of the terms of Catherinefs manifesto of I763 which had guaranteed freedom from military service according to the German version ••during their total period of residence tin Russia].11 The Germans could terminate their 142 residence i f they did not wish to conform. American immigrants insisted upon the revocation of freedom from military service as the chief motive for emigration. Their descendants agree, and cite the brutality of the Russian ariay to explain their own willingness to conform to the American draft laws as contrasted with their forefathers1 stubbornness before a similar situation in Russia. Hatred of ariry service was doubtless the impetus for those who left in the mid-seventies. Bauer speaks thus on the matter to explain the point of view of the majority who remained behind on the Volga: ^It must be recognized that the colonists proved that they were valiant patriots, and not only without grumbling, but with a feeling of duty, undertook this service. To be sure, subsequently, the introduction of military conscription served certain colonists as a pretext for emigration to America, but this readiness to quit Russia i s rather to be ascribed to the wanderlust at one time innate in a l l Germans11 (BD 175) # This provision, when i t came to the attention of the Russian Germans, encouraged the well-to-do to leave early. Such men were in fact in larger proportion among the f i r s t emigrants than among those arriving later. Suigration to America began in 1873 and was large for several years. The government at fi r s t put only routine bureaucratic obstacles in the way of those departing. Then i t tightened up briefly. After 1881 l i t t l e property left Russia, but no serious obstacles were put in the way of person^ leaving the empire. The Russification enthusiasts were not displeased to see the country rid of a discordant element. In 1888 the Minister of the Interior Durnovo even declared the necessity of a ^ com­ pletely clearing Russia of every foreign element.11 53.17 There were later waves of emigration, for which the Russification ukases of 1884 and 1892 were partly responsible. The unrest occasioned by 143 the Russo- Japanese War, the First Revolution, and fear of the on-coming First World War also were political factors of importance in emigration. Finally after the First World War before the United States put into effect i t s immigration quota system in July 1921 there was another surge to this country. Later emigration to escape conditions in Soviet Russia were to Canada and South America where colonies had begun as soon as those in the United States. In 1940 Stumpp gives as an estimate that there were Russian Germans outside Russia as follows: United States 350,000 to 400,000 Brazil 250,000 Canada 200,000 Spanish America 187,000 (Stp 31) 53*18 Governmental institutions were very similar among Volgan and Black Sea Germans. In the tradition of both West European and Slavic peoples they were founded on the village, but because of the remoteness of the seigneur the Germans in Russia had a degree of independence rare in late medieval and post-medieval times. The settlements were originally a l l on crown lands and the Czar was the only lord; he did not multiply his local agents of administration. The village was governed by a small council (on the Volga), or a l l family heads (on the Black Sea). Its executive and magistrate was a mayor ( a Schulz. Black Sea; a Vorsteher, Volga). The villages were organized into larger units (Gebiet, Black Sea; Kreis, Volga), presided over by an Oberschulz or Obervorsteher. These units were in turn subsidiary to a central authority at Odessa and Saratov respectively (Fursorge-Komitee, Black Sea; Comptoir, Volga, abolished I876) whose main function, besides maintaining a sort of Supreme Court,was to deal with the imperial government at St. Petersburg. Independence was greatly reduced in the last decades of the nineteenth century (ScR 26). The officials in the m upper units were usually Germans, ••colonists11, often rapacious because uncontrolled. The German settlements were thus until 1871 crown colonies for which Russianizing political influence was minimum. Territorially the German v i l l a g e s made up compact units which were not interspersed among Russian villages, or among villages of other origins (Catherine drew immigrants from several sources) except for the many marginal colonies found in the mid- 19th century. They never formed, however, continuous unbroken entities over great stretches of territory. Either by design or by force of circum­ stances the territorial distribution was not such as to include easy develop­ ment into provinces independent of imperial power. When the Czar1s pleasure was to alter conditions the colonists had no real powers of resistance. 53*19 Culturally a l l the colonies were, at least until shortly before emigration to America began, very conservative. They clung to their heritage, but did not greatly develop i t . They preserved their religions, growing rather than diminishing in zeal. They kept up schooling sufficiently to transmit their traditions and carry on their affairs. Linguistically they remained almost exclusively German. Few of them learned to speak Russian, and their contacts with Russians were so limited that only a very small number of Russian words entered their vocabulary. for llackeeaaen the number i s negligible; for the Volgans Rupenthal (Ru 525) found only 50 words; Laing9s l i s t (la 522) Is even shorter. They developed no institutions of importance. This fact i s partly to be explained by the long duration of frontier conditions and the allied paucity of urban l i f e , and partly by the colonists 1 suspiciousness of the outside world. This latter characteristic may be regarded as the most important influence of their Russian environment. They felt themselves to be constantly surrounded by inferiority, hostility and a thirst for exploitation, and along with evil they shut out, atileast until emigration began, many salutary stimuli that might have penetrated among them* Though much alike the two groups of German colonies in Eussia each passed through a history that has affected later evolution in Kansas. 53*20 As has been said, the Volgan Germans settled around the town of Saratov which then numbered some 10,000 inhabitants. The Volga flows toward the city from the northeast and then goes on to the south. Its western or right bank rests against a bastion of h i l l s beyond which in mesa fashion l i e the steppes cut for a short distance by valleys leading to the river, but soon draining westward through the Medveditsa into the Don. This country i s called by the Volgans the Bergseite (the H i l l or Mountain Side); opposite on the left bank lies the Wiesenseite (the Meadow Side), where the country rises only gradually away from the river and meadows imperceptibly become great steppes. In imperial times tie river was the border between the government of Saratov (Bergseite) and Samaz^ . (Wiesenseite). 53*21 The original colonies were founded on both banks. On the Wiesenseite some 60 air miles upstream from Saratov near where the Big and Little Karaman flow into the Volga the city of Katharinenstadet (now Marxstadt) was founded in 1764 or 5 *ad villages were spaced at very short distances up along the three rivers - up the Volga for some 25 miles. Along i t , below the new city, no Germans settled from near Katharinenstadt until 20 miles below Saratov. This area on both sides was reserved for Cossack and other Slav population. Below this preserve, hugging the river, the succes­ sion of German villages was resumed and continued some 30 miles. 53*22 On the Bergseite the villages were, a l l but one, downstream from Saratov opposite the lower German stretch described above. They were not 146 on the river except to touch i t at the two extremes, but formed a rather narrow band parallel to the river in the shallow valleys ont the mesa* 53*23 Ultimately the settlements pushed away from the great river, not much further on the Bergseite, but for some sixty miles on the opposite bank. The daughter colonies from the Bergseite when they were blocked in settlement farther west, went into the southeast part of the territory on the other bank; the Wiesenseite expansion was farther north. Usually, new lands were acquired from the government, sow©times from great land­ owners. There were in 1769* 44 villages on the Bergseite and 60 (Qrlowfs report, see BV 129-130) on the Wiesenseite; in 191<^ 60 on the Bergseite and 116 on the Wiesenseite (BV 121-122). The names of the villages offer a complicated pattern; the majority have more than one name. The Germans most often called their original settlements after the principal leader of the village (Pfeifer 12-43 $ etc.) who usually became its f i r s t Vorsteher, or sometimes after the ••directors* or their agents. For Monjou were named Ober- 72-6 (Upper) and Nieder-(Lower) Monjou, in Kansas Munjor perpetuates the name. In atJLeast one case a pious name received popular acceptance, Maiaenthal 72-13 • Occasionally the "directors* used names of their inven­ tion. These were derived from towns in the west, usually in Switzerland sometimes in territory neighboring the Rhine (Strassburg). The colonists often spoke of these villages called after towns they had left by the name of their leader but sometimes they retained the names chosen by the directors. When Russian officialdom got around to name the villages that had been built they reported them by a series of names derived in large part from the names of the streams upon which they were located, attaching Russian words to show different parts of the water course, such as ®verzhny* (upper), "nizhny* (lower), *ust*, (mouth). At times they retained the names 111? that were given by some of the "directors 1 1 • Mien further colonizing took place i n the 19th century, the new v i l l a g e s were named by pre f i x i n g "Neu" to the name of the mother colony or by inventing descriptive names such as Liebenthal [72-15] , or pious names of the same character as Marienthal, already mentioned* The govern­ ment usually accepted the c o l o n i s t f s names for the new settlements. A further complication came with the soviet regime which abolished names r e c a l l i n g imperial times. Thus Katharinenstadt became Marxstadt. American historians using the Russian names have usually adopted German tr a n s l i t e r a t i o n s found i n t h e i r sources. Thus, sometimes the historians even write Wolga for Volga. Map makers i n the United States, on the other hand, adopt t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s founded on English spelling habits. 53*2U These habits have reacted on Kansas nomenclature. The examples chosen above a l l appear i n Kansas. Because they were accustomed to o f f i ­ c i a l designations, the Volgans did not i n t h i s country i n s i s t on l e g a l adoption of t h e i r names* For instance, the name V i c t o r i a , i n Kansas, won out over Herzog [72-11]. 53*25 The s e t t l e r s on the Volga were on the whole much less fortunate than t h e i r brethren i n the south. In the north the f i r s t ten years were so hard that i n both 1769 and 1775 the Germans counted only about 23000 ( i n t e i j a l i a BV k0) fewer despite b i r t h s and large reinforcements by thousan^l^fti the f i r s t year of a r r i v a l . And almost no one had gone home,FN ^ C h r i s t i a n Zuge was an exception. He has l e f t a 2 volume account "Der russische Kolonist" (1802). Zuge hlad a low opinion of h i s fellow co l o n i s t s , qualifying them as KLiederliches Gesindel", "disorderly vagabond rabble"; however, they seem to have been of as good stuff as most successful f r o n t i e r communities. The e v i l times tore many men loose from t h e i r moorings, giving 148 them only temporarily the characteristics of s o c i a l f a i l u r e s • The majority of the colonists were undoubtedly of decent, industrious stock. though a few t r i e d . The w i l d steppes lay behind them as Dell as before them. They were not t r u l y residing upon a f r o n t i e r ; they had been dropped into the midst of a wilderness, a bead upon the Volga suspended i n space. The government which controlled a l l shipping arranged that very few should ascend t h i s l i f e l i n e to the past. 53#26 The hardships of the colonists were of a l l sorts. S o c i a l l y they were not w e l l f i t t e d for the l i f e that was now t h e i r s . Half of them were artisans and c i t y people. They had expected to continue t h e i r former careers, but here they could only become farmers. Neither they nor the government had provided them with equipment] and i n the f i r s t miserable years they made l i t t l e attempt to procure the tools that would allow them to p r o f i t by the methods of the west, for they were a l l f a n a t i c a l l y con­ vinced that they would soon leave t h i s t e r r i b l e land (see p a r t i c u l a r l y B 26). Of course there was also the weather with i t s cold and drouths. There were also h o s t i l e men. Brigands had already established them­ selves to prey upon the commerce of the Volga. They plundered the colonists frequently, p a r t i c u l a r l y on the Bergseite. Then there were the Kirghiz to torment the people on the Wiesenseite. Their raids persisted over a considerable period sometimes small and merely thieving, sometimes destruc­ tiv e of many l i v e s and much property. The most notable was i n 1776 (BD 67; 1774 say others); Marienthal, which furnished emigrants to Kansas, was the vi c t i m worst hit.FN ^Numerous kidnappings accompanied t h i s and other r a i d s . Some of those carried off escaped from t h e i r slavery. The memoirs of Joseph I&nenberger published i n the translation of Louise Rylko i n 1955 at Hutchinson * Kansas^ as Grandfather^ Story by Helen Linenberger H a l l recount the adventures of h i s grandfather who was carried off i n the r a i d of 1776. The country was al s o i n the path of the pretender Pugachev as he traveled toward Moscow, and the plundering by h i s forcesms grievous i n 177U or 1775* 53*27 Doubtless, t h e i r hardships would have been great i f they had had a l l the aids possible, for nowhere i n Germany were there conditions l i k e those in*hich they found themselves. There were not only the long cold winters, but a l l the conditions that go with a wheat country. There was no one to say that t h i s was wheat country, where the good and the bad years would under the best of management produce pa i n f u l contrasts. 53*28 The Volgans became reconciled to t h e i r residence only when the younger generation that had not known or that had forgotten the west was i n charge. In agriculture, they adjusted to the new conditions. They learned some things from the few Slavic pioneers who were around them, invented somethings and underwent the influence of the more prosperous Moravian brethren who as Missionaries had settled (in 1753) at Sarepta, some 230 a i r miles below Saratov. 53*29 In the middle of the 19th century when they had reached a r e l a t i v e l y prosperous state, Baron Von Haxthausen was not well impressed by t h e i r eeon- omy, saying, " t h e i r agriculture i s not f i r s t rate; although superior to that of the Russians, i t cannot serve as a model to them" (Ha I I , 39j see also I 350). The Baron was probably more severe than he should have been, for he admired intensive farming, and here was a land where exten­ sive methods were better j u s t i f i e d , but es s e n t i a l l y he was r i g h t , because i5o the land holding system hampered extensive farming. In any case t h e i r methods at l e a s t i n some areas ultimately improved so that certain late emigrants f e l t that agriculture was comparable to that i n Kansas. 53»30 The 23,000 people present i n the colony i n 1775 did l i t t l e more than hold t h e i r own for twenty years. Then they began to multiply as shown by the following table: 1808 1*0000 1816 55000 1835 175499 186? 259478 1906 494405 1910 ca.600000 ca* 1931 425000 (BV 6 6 , 122 and ED 76-77; for 1931 Brockhaus) The v i l l a g e s came to vary a great deal i n s i z e . The older ones obtained and held a population as high as 15*000. Some never achieved more than 3*000. The younger ones began with very small populations and became large with 3*000 souls. Kathaiinenstadt was an a l l German c i t y with over 10*000 Lutherans i n 1914* Saratov was more t r u l y urban with a mixed population which i n 1914 contained 12,000 Protestant Germans. There follows a count of the souls i n a number of Protestant v i l l a g e s i n 1914 of importance i n the emigration movement to America:- 151 Bergseite Wiesenseite Jagodnaja Poljana 929k Donhof 867U Rab 2831 Pobotschnaja Walter 7000 Schafer 3120 Norka 1UU76 Frank 12300 Eckheim 2603 B a l z e r 11677 Galka 3563 Neu S c h i l l i n g 1096 Messer 5633 Dobrinka 5678 D i e t e l 67U7 Neu Norka 2088 (G lU6ff} Analogous data for the Catholic v i l l a g e s would be of comparable magnitudes. 53*31 The conditions of land tenure offer one of the most s t r i k i n g contrasts between the Volgan and Black Sea colonies. In the south private ownership of farmlands obtained, but not among the Volgans. To begin with, 30 des- siatines (ca. 70 acres) were assigned to each family. But the families were f i r m l y integrated into v i l l a g e organizations. I t was the v i l l a g e and not the family that held t i t l e to the land, as f a r as the imperial govern^ ment was concerned. V i l l a g e t e r r i t o r y was i n e l a s t i c and when conditions permitted an increase of population the holdings decreased i n size so that before mid-century the v i l l a g e s could not support the i r population. Bonwetsch (BV 15>2) says that the family holdings were decreased from 30 dessiatines to 20 i n 1793 and to l£ i n 1840. The share per "Revisions- seele T I (males recorded i n the census) was 1790 - l 5 . 5 j I8 l6 - 10.U; 1834 ~ 5*7j 1850 ~ 3.8$ 1869 - 1.5 dess. or less than 2 acres per person (males and females) (BV 66; BD 76-77* ScR 28), With no revolution i n a g r i c u l ­ t u r a l methods possible, either the workings of the Malthusian law would have to l i m i t the population or more land must be found. The government about 1840 provided more land on the eastern edge of the t e r r i t o r y and l e f t to the colonists the problem of s e t t l i n g i t (DV 88ff SCR 28) . The 162.. separate communities thereupon developed techniques of migration that encouraged the less prosperous to seek opportunites i n new settlements. Like bees, v i l l a g e s or rather pascal c i r c u i t s , swarmed and established new colonies on the eastern and southeastern borders of the domain. This bee-like method of expansion was s t i l l going on i n the l 8 ? 0 !s and had become nearly enough a fixed pattern so that i t greatly influenced l a t e r settlement i n America. For our purposes i t i s the more important because each v i l l a g e , i n i t s i s o l a t i o n , had developed d i s t i n c t d i a l e c t a l t r a i t s . 53*32 The v i l l a g e s also acquired land for c u l t i v a t i o n at considerable distances. This method of land-holding developed p e c u l i a r i t i e s that were l a t e r imitated somewhat i n Kansas. Because the v i l l a g e s i n the Volga domain were located very near each other, the land-holdings of each were i n narrow s t r i p s running back long distances and some of them were i s o l a t e d far from the v i l l a g e . Neither were a l l the f i e l d s assigned to a family, contiguous. "Thus work i n the f i e l d s with return home i n the evening i s excluded. At the beginning of the plowing season and of harvest the labor force of every family must leave the v i l l a g e and move out on the land for several weeks with a l l necessary goods. From land s t r i p to land s t r i p the caravan goes farther and farther. In t h i s manner many a f a t i i l y had to put 35 or kO miles behind them twice a year"(BV 53)• Toward the end of the 19th century the mir system without being abandoned was i n various ways weakened. The poor then disposed of t h e i r lands, used up t h e i r money, and were among those who emigrated most re a d i l y . The phenomenon became more notable after 1906, when dissolution of mirs became l e g a l l y possible (BV 126). Mirs were s t i l l the common method of landholding i n 191U (GF 37-8\ however. £3.33 Toward the end of the eighteenth century by the workings of b i r t h and death i n each v i l l a g e great i n e q u a l i t i e s i n holdings had developed, and the poor demanded equal d i v i s i o n . This they obtai ned by the i n t r o ­ duction of the Russian mir system. Land was re-distributed p e r i o d i c a l l y anong the families on the basis of the number of males (sometimes of females) i n i t . The v i l l a g e became a unit almost as important as the family, but the family remained very strong. 53•3U 'h-6 custom of assigning the land to families according to the num­ ber of males of course encouraged the rate of human reproduction, which hardly needed the stimulation. Child mortality was so high that the t r a d i t i o n i s that no one counted a c h i l d as a permanent member of the family u n t i l he was past eleven; s t i l l every family brought enough pro­ geny into the world to maintain constantly i t s claim to a large section of the v i l l a g e domain, apparently oblivious to the results of such com­ p e t i t i o n . The r e s u l t i n g push for emigration i s evident. 53«35 Children were regarded as such a good investment that three gen­ erations would be kept together as a pa t r i a r c h a l unit under one roof, a custom obviously productive of l i n g u i s t i c conservatism. To be a good investment, the c h i l d , besides furnishing a claim for land, was early set to work* -with the r e s t of the family. This habit, which persisted i n America with important results, waslhe easier to maintain because of the long sojourns at farm work i n the back country i s o l a t e d from other peoplee The stays away from the v i l l a g e also meant so c i a l sanction of irr e g u l a r school attendance or even no school at a l l , another condition that had i t s effect on l i f e i n America, 53*36 The land system, by demanding many children encouraged marriage at a very early age. The custom thus established persisted i n the United States at a time when the American custom was quite d i f f e r e n t . By these phenomena a family head had a corps of trained workers made up of h i s children when he was s t i l l comparatively young. He could and very f r e ­ quently did become primarily an administrator, giving up labor while he was s t i l l vigorous, ultimately, with those co=eval, forming the le i s u r e class i n his community. He was uncultured because of the way he had had to spend h i s own youth, not read i l y accessible to educational influences himself and ho s t i l e toward providing them for others* 53»37 The system also encouraged the m tent ion of a l l males within the a g r i c u l t u r a l framework. To s a t i s f y the need for artisans i t appears that certain families t r a d i t i o n a l l y kept up pa r t i c u l a r non-agricultural s k i l l s in.addition to t h e i r farming a c t i v i t i e s . The avocations were probably handed down from the immigrant ancestors who were not of peasant stock. In addition the v i l l a g e s developed other mercantile or handcraft sp e c i a l ­ i s t s , who were at the same time farmers and frowned so much upon those who l e f t to become traders at Saratov or elsewhere that these stragglers had l i t t l e l a t e r connection with t h e i r families. They did, however, remain German, at once expl@#iing their former comrades as l i a i s o n agents with the Russian world, and sowing the seeds of c u l t u r a l advancement anong them (ScR 29)* 53*38 The adoption of the mir was a necessary step forced upon the Volgans by the i n a b i l i t y to expand beyond their t e r r i t o r i a l l i m i t s u n t i l the Czar so w i l l e d , but besides the effects described*ove, i t had others which ha l f explain the a g r i c u l t u r a l technique of these Germans. Haxthausen as already quoted, c a l l e d t h e i r methods backward; Bonwetsch (p, 52) and the Bauers are scarcely more complimentary about conditions as they wrote i n the f i r s t decades of the twentieth century. 155 Gottfried Bauer, the father, wrote h i s history of the German s e t t l e r s on the Volga between 1885 and 1888, His son of the same name published t h i s h istory i n 1908 and wrote an introduction i n which he said: !t¥e must adrn.it that on the whole the German population on the Volga has remained at the same stage of i n t e l l e c t u a l development at which i t was at the time of settlement; materially i t has i n general even receded 1 1 (BD i i i ) . His father expressed himself on the subject too (BD 92) , Bonwetsch, who published his work i n 1919 and was ce r t a i n l y writing a f t e r 1909 says5 "None of the s e t t l e r s has an interest i n improving the s o i l , "Why should he put manure or special efforts of permanent value upon ground which w i l l f a l l to the l o t of another i n a short time. I t i s thus that the economic structure of the mir l a t e r proved i t s e l f a s i g n i f i c a n t obstruction to sound develop­ ment and progress" (BV 52)• Apparently both these statements referred to conditions existing i n areas where the mir held on *he longest; l a t e r reports were more favor­ able (see 53*91)# Perhaps there were other influences than the Mir which contributed to the development of the t r a i t s described above, but t h i s Russian i n s t i ­ t ution i s probably largely responsible for certain t r a i t s which d i f f e r e n ­ t i a t e d Volgans not only from Germans i n Germany, but also from Blackseamen, 53«38 One Slavic t r a i t which they acquired was a l i k i n g for d i s t i l l e d l i q u o r and the a b i l i t y to consume i t without s o c i a l degeneration. The Blackseamen frequently replaced the beer of t h e i r homeland by wine as a customary drink, but the Volgans farther north could not make the same substitution, Russians taught them l i t t l e but, "The f i r s t thing they learned"from them was to drink hard li q u o r i n the Russian manner" (BV 29)• (See also 156 Z 123-7). 53*39 The h i s t o r y of government on the Volga was not without i t s i n c i ­ dents and changes, but for the present purposes i t need only be said that the descriptions of i n s t i t u t i o n s given above apples most accurately "k° the middle of the 19th century. 53*UO Church history was a matter of importance throughout the history of the colonies, and continued to be so i n America. The f i r s t emigrants from Germany to Russia were both Catholics (25$) and Protestants (75$)* Heterogeneous i n both t e r r i t o r i a l and r e l i ­ gious o r i g i n s , the emigrants made t h e i r f a i t h even more than the i r s e n t i ­ ments of l o c a l patriotism the basis for grouping and settled i n v i l l a g e s exclusively of one confession or the other. The minority Catholic v i l ­ lages did not a l l accumulate together, however, but were scattered i n groups of three to s i x i n f i v e d i s t r i c t s of the Wiesenseite and one on the Bergseite. The Protestants were i n part Lutherans and i n part Reformed; the two denominations drew apart into separate v i l l a g e s or at least each colony came to be unified denominationally. In 1785 there were 10 pastoral c i r c u i t s , of which three were Reformed, a l l rather close together on the Bergseite, The sense of d i s t i n c t i o n between Reformed and Lutheran seems to have been sharp only i n the settlement deliberately founded as a c i t y , Katharinenstadt. In that town the two Protestant denominations and the Catholics, too, each had s i g n i f i c a n t establishments. Ultimately, i n 1820, a l l Protestant churches were gathered into one con­ si s t o r y , and the troubles within i t were not primarily occasioned by i n t e r ­ denominational f i g h t i n g . Throughout Volgan histo r y church d i f f i c u l t i e s , both Catholic and Protestant, were caused p r i n c i p a l l y by the small number of the clergy and by the poor quality of many of them. Both of these 157 imperfections may be ascribed to the Volgan i n a b i l i t y to provide r e c r u i t s for the work.^" Each Protestant Kirchspiel had but one minister, and the number of t h e i r parishioners was enormous. As examples, four c i r c u i t s which sent emigrants to Kansas numbered parishioners as f ollows i n 1910 (BV 121) and 1913 (GF lU6-l5U)„ i'.:amo No. of No. of of 1910 Preaching 1913 Preaching K i r c h s p i e l No. of souls Places No, of souls Places Bergseite Norka 23179 3 20861 k Dietel 15667 7 18175 6 Wiesenseite Beaurgard 16731 h Eckheim 12733 7 1H939 10 The number of preaching places was comparatively small among the old v i l l a g e s , (as i n the case of Norka and Beaurgard), large among newer settlements (as at Eckheim and D i e t e l ) * The preaching places heard the pastor i n turn, one per Sunday, Thus any advantage of attention accruing from the smaller numbers of souls i n the Kirchspiele with many preaching places was n u l l i f i e d by the small amount of pastoral care, for the pastor ra r e l y s t i r r e d from his p r i n c i p a l v i l l a g e except on the designated Sundays, and weather might then detain him -at home. The D i e t e l and Eckheim c i r ­ c u i t s lay on the edge of the German t e r r i t o r y . The Eckheim group was made up of daughter settlements founded i n 1865* These two c i r c u i t s represent then the less populous areas, Norka and Beaurgard the more populous. ^The lack of r e c r u i t s for the clergy was not owing to s p i r i t u a l i n e r t i a , as proved by the history of the group i n the United States. I t was probably caused i n part by the retention of a l l farmers sons i n the mir. 158 53»50 Naturally under these conditions a pastor was removed from h i s people by sheer lack of contact, ^e was also separated from them by his o r i g i n s , and by h i s status as an o f f i c e r of an established church. In the l a t t e r capacity he was i n close r e l a t i o n with the area government which was some­ times quite favorable to him. Even when i t was h o s t i l e , the parishioners i d e n t i f i e d him with i t the more because, by means of l e g a l l y extracted church dues, hi s economic status was superior to t h e i r s . His pay was so modest t h a t he had d i f f i c u l t y sending his sons and daughters to proper schools, but he l i v e d in luxury compared to the rest of the-community. 5>3«5l Even bad pastors had, however, a very great influence upon t h e i r community, both because of the t r a d i t i o n a l power of German pastors and because of th e i r relationships with the governments. Besides, by no means a l l pastors were poor servants of the Lord. Some were the best leaders that the Volgans had. Through most of the nineteenth century the Protestant ministers were usually products of the Dorpat seminary on the B a l t i c , men who were at least educated i f not the best produced by their schools. The best would naturally secure parishes l e s s f a r from c i v i l i z a t i o n . Linguis­ t i c a l l y they were a very conservative influence, discouraging t h e i r par­ ishioners from learning Russian for fear of the influence of the Orthodox Church (BD 159). 53*52 The pastors were indeed the element i n Volgan l i f e most closely con­ necting i t with the outside world. They came from a l l over Germanic western Europe prima r i l y , however, during the l a t e r period from among Germans l i v i n g on the B a l t i c Sea. Some of them were>in the middle of the 19th century, of the Basel school of p i e t i s t s . These, scorned by other pastors at f i r s t , though ultimately f i t t i n g into the behavior pattern of established clergy, sowed the seed of pietism. 159 The f i e l d for pietism was f e r t i l e , not only for the usual reasons i n an established church, but also because the parishioners were very frequently forced to r e l y on themselves f o r direction of t h e i r worship and because of the mixture of Reformed and Lutheran elements which, though soldered together, were never f u l l y amalgamated. The Bruederschaft (Brotherhood) movement which led to the establishment of small prayer groups was strong on the Volga about the time of the f i r s t emigration to America (Sa 55) • I t had of course a centrifugal effect and met pastoral opposition. In the new colonies, after 1859 especially, Baptists, "Springers," and Adventists sent i n missionaries who were successful i n carrying whole communities i n a very few places (BV 92) . For Kansas Strassburg, Baptist, i s important. I t i s i n the southwest corner of the German region. By means of these missionaries i n Russia the readiness to s p l i t up into many denominations i n America was prepared^ a phenomenon which we s h a l l see has i t s l i n g u i s t i c importance. 53*53 Another factor contributing to s p l i t t i n g was the appearance of a cetain number of Mennonites from the Danzig area i n the middle of the 19th century who founded separate colonies which ultimately numbered eleven ( f i r s t Koppental, 1853, ScR 29, BV 9h)* These people also had their economic influence; as compared with t h e i r neighbors they prospered quicklyj to them i s ascribed betterment of farming methods, the beginnings of the abandonment of the mir system at the opening of the 20th century, and the introduction of great improvements i n agriculture. Most important for the present purposes was the proselytizing success of the Mennonites on the Volga. Peter Eckert made many converts. A large part of them found t h e i r way to Kansas with Peter and contributed an element to the Mennonite settlements here distinguished from the others i n various ways, including 160 material poverty on a r r i v a l and a difference i n speech characteristics* (Sm 125, 127, 152, 2£2)• In the Volgan region the focus of Mennonite a c t i v i t y was on the upper Tarlyk, south southwest from Saratov some I4.O miles, around O r l o f f , I t was almost i n the center of the Wiesenseite as i t f i n a l l y developed but was on i t s eastern f r o n t i e r when the Mennonites a r r i v e d , 53«5Ug In spite of a l l i h e unfavorable conditions the Christian zeal of the Volgan Protestants was at the time of their emigration very high. The lack of a l l other i n t e l l e c t u a l stimulation made s p i r i t u a l l i f e more fervent. Such a statement i s true to at least as great a degree for the Catholics, 53*6 The history of the Catholic settlements i n the Volga region had many analogies to that of the Protestants, There were the same d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s i n acquiring a numerically adequate and properly equipped group of pastors, and very similar problems brought on by the very great number of parishioners per p r i e s t . The Catholics, however, maintained consistently the unity of f a i t h that they had i n the beginning, and remained i n such i s o l a t i o n from t h e i r Protestant neighbors that they were completely untouched by the p r o s e l y t i z i n g and disruptive influences of the mid-nine­ teenth century. The most fortunate thing that happened to the Volgans was the papal suppression of the Jesuits i n 1779> which was followed by the i r acceptance i n Russia, They did not reach the stranded Germans u n t i l the beginning of the next century, but i n the twenty years following u n t i l the Czar banished them from h i s domain after the re-establishment of their order by the pope, they did excellent work,and remedied deplorable conditions, Poles furnished the pri e s t s for the next f i f t y years, mostly those cast off at home. During t h i s period the Catholics were even more out of 161 sympathy with t h e i r clergy than the Protestants, but the Jesuit t r a i n i n g had been so thorough that there was no f a l l i n g off of devoutness, though apparently a groining b e l i e f i n the potency of mechanical obervances, When the Poles f e l l into imperial disgrace a f t e r the uprising of 1863, the Bavarian Franz von Zottmann became the guiding voice i n the diocese of Tiraspol established i n 18U7, and he became bishop i n 1872. Tiraspol was near the Black Sea German colonies, but there x^ rere no Germans and no Roman Catholic church i n the town. The diocese was at f i r s t administered from Odessa where there were Catholic Germans, but after a few years the see was at Saratov (Ko 179) • ZottmannTs u p l i f t i n g influence was for us most important i n the f i e l d of education. He did h i s best to b u i l d up the seminary established at Saratov shortly after the erection of the diocese* Through i t only were a few Catholics, p a r t i c u l a r l y f u ture teachers, enabled to secure something better than the most rudimentary education. Former students of the i n s t i t u t i o n were among the leaders i n tie emigration to Kansas, P a r a l l e l Protestant schooling beyond the rudiments was i n a similar state, 53*70 A secondary school was established at Katharinenstadt i n 1833 and another on the Bergseite at Grimm soon a f t e r . These were under govern­ ment supervision and fear of Russian influence, especially by the pastors, strengthened the c o l o n i s t f s reluctance to lose good hands for such an unprofitable occupation as study. The attendance, bolstered by a scholar­ ship program provided i n general by the burgers of Katharinenstadt, was s u f f i c i e n t , however, to t r a i n a l l the future teachers that the colonists were w i l l i n g to maintain. The teachers, as a contrast to the pastors were then mostly of l o c a l o r i g i n , either from poor families or the sons of other teachers, "In l a t e r years the colonists themselves began to appreciate the 162 benefit of the schools and many were anxious to send th e i r own sons there" (Am 73)• But the schools were of course ready instruments for R u s s i f i c a ­ t i o n , and pressure for the use of Russian as the language of ins t r u c t i o n i n even the v i l l a g e schools became great i n the l 8 9 0 fs. Educational i n s t i t u t i o n s m u l t i p l i e d always with intrusions of Russian, The Soviets followed the p o l i c y of the Empire with progressive invasions and shortly before the Second World War German was completely ousted from the e l e ­ mentary school system (ScR 35)• 5>3«71g Elementary schooling among a l l the Volgans l e f t a very great deal to be desired. I l l i t e r a c y never reached nearly as high a percentage as among the surrounding Russian population, but u n t i l the twentieth century at l e a s t i t was high. Each colony had a teacher, ca l l e d by the o l d - fashioned term, Schulmeister rather than Lehrer, but no matter how large the community became, i t never had more than one Schulmeister who was given at most onehelper, ca l l e d the teacher. At Norka 1100 pupils were taught i n two s h i f t s i n one room (BV 79)• Direct r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for these conditions l i e s upon the community, at once poverty stricken and niggardly by habit i n prosperous t i m e s , ^ The teacher was almost always so i l l p a i d ^ that he was a farmer i n addition. He was also the sexton, the choirmaster, the purveyor of news through h i s f a c i l i t y i n reading the written word FNit was not u n t i l the twentieth century that the Russian govern­ ment employed a means of nationalization which did so much service i n the United States, Then, i t began to set up schools which children might attend without t u i t i o n , (BV 125)* ^ % t Jagodnoje i n 190U the annual salary of the teacher, who there had 100 pupils, was 120 rubles. (Jagodnoje sent colonists to Kansas.) (3V 12U) 163 and the substitute for the pastor (either Catholic or Protestant) on the many occasions when the pastor could not v i s i t a v i l l a g e . He was chosen by the v i l l a g e , though the pastor^ with more or less support from the government, t r i e d to have a hand in h i s selection. He might be chosen because he was cheap, or very frequently, because he had a good voice, and choral competition between v i l l a g e s was keen. The Schulmeister fs status i n the community seems to have varied greatly* He was always a man apart, sometimes despised because of the lowliness of h i s functions as a teacher, often dominant i f he were a man of a b i l i t y who knew how to manipulate h i s various o f f i c e s so as to control people, always the crea­ ture of popular whim. He and the pastor were very frequently jealous of each other, each disposed to blame a l l the woes of the community upon FN the other. Schooling was hindered not only by a l i m i t e d teaching s t a f f , and inadequate f a c i l i t i e s , but very greatly by i r r e g u l a r i t i e s of attendance brought about by the s o c i a l l y sanctioned -importance given to child labor on the farms. Presence i n the f i e l d s was more important than at school. The transfer of a l l these attitudes to America greatly affected l i f e here. 53.30 The Volgans resisted learning Russian over a much longer period of time ;than the Blackseamen. For a long timm they had few neighbors, and when Russian settlements grew up around them they s t i l l l i v e d in* s o l i d German speaking areas that were more extensive by far than those in'the FN Bauer, a teacher and the son of a teacher, and Bonwetsch, the grandson and probably the son of administer, express i n i h e i r books the prejudices of the group to which they belong. Bauer i s b i t t e r ; Bonwetsch i s l o f t y . 16U south. Furthermore for many years the Russians were endeavoring to i s o ­ l a t e them rather than assimilate them. Laws forbade contracts with Slavs without specific authorizations; there were other hindrances to business r e l a t i o n s . 'When Russian was introduced into school c u r r i c u l a , i t was f i r s t necessary to in s t r u c t the instructors. Beratz declared i n 1915 that i t was fundamentally impossible for the children to learn the lang­ uage by the methods used. "The Russian language • • • because of the location of the colonies and t h e i r great distance from Russian s e t t l e ­ ments can be learned by the colonists only i n school, not by the easy p r a c t i c a l way of p r a c t i c a l use i n d a i l y intercourse with Russians" (B 29U)» 53*81 L i n g u i s t i c a l l y , there seems to have been a perceptible difference between the German of Catholics and Protestants. Bonwetsch, a Protestant, speaks thus: "Thus the hereditary p.e c u l i a r i t i e s of d i a l e c t , manners and customs were gradually fused together. There arose a mixed idiom, Colonist German, i n which Hessian was predominant" (BV 8I4.)* Stumpp, a Protestant, remarks that on the Volga there are purely Hessian v i l l a g e s ins and that i n determin - d i s t r i c t s of or i g i n i n Germany of Volgans, "research on d i a l e c t i s often h e l p f u l " (Sta 15). I I These di a l e c t studies show that the people i n the southeippart of the Bergseite came from the area around Heidelberg and the back-country Palatinate, that i n the northern part of the Bergseite they came from the Hessian mountain country, that on the Wiesenseite the northerners came from western Middle Germany and the southerners from eastern Middle Germany. In other words v i l l a g e s were established near other v i l l a g e s speaking similar d i a l e c t s (SPK 36U). A l l these German d i s t r i c t s were to the north of the area from which the Catholics came. 165 53»82 The Catholic 3ishop Zottman wrote: "Among these sons there are of course Bavarians; I recognize t h i s i n the speech of the pupils i n our boys 1 seminary . . • Indeed, I often hear words and expressions there, which I have heard no where else but i n the neighborhood of Anbau" (369). Other testimony indicates, l i k e Zottmann1s, that the di a l e c t s of the Catholics were Swabian. I t i s natural that the manners of speech should be divided because, among the regions from which the Volgans were recruited i n Germany, Catholicism predominates i n the south and Protestantism i n the more northern section. Bonwetsch's a l l u s i o n to a "mixed idiom" i s true of Volgan speech as compared with German of the Reich, but there i s ample evidence that l o c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s between v i l l a g e s developed before emigration from Russia. 53 »83g Similar statements may be made for f o l k customs that play such an important part i n accounts of Volgans both i n America and i n Russia, Marriage customs, for instance, preserved a pattern bespeaking old Germany i n general, but each community had small shades of difference. Organized societies played l i t t l e part i n Volgan l i f e . 53*90 The tableau of l i f e on the Volga set forth above describes the society from which the immigrants who came to America i n the 1870's issued. For a l l but the economic side, the picture remains e s s e n t i a l l y v a l i d for the whole period of emigration before the F i r s t World War (See p a r t i c u l a r BV 119-120), The s o c i a l consequences of the great changes which began with a period of a g r i c u l t u r a l misfortune during the l 8 8 0 !s and early 1890 fs and continued with the rapid evolution i n economic organization that followed had hardly become s t a b i l i z e d before the cata­ clysmic events resulting from the v i c t o r y of the Bolsheviks overturned and then destroyed German l i f e on the Volga-. Before the middle of 166 the twentieth century t h e i r settlements there. e1?I A^M.story of the colonies under the Soviets does not interest us deeply however. 53.91 We must look more closely at economic conditions between i860 and 191U because immigration to America and to Kansas was thereby affected* Bad drouths a f f l i c t e d the Volga region i n l8?9 and I 8 8 O . Crops through the eighties were generally poor^ p a r t l y because the older land was becoming productively exhausted. Between 1889 and 1892 there was p r a c t i c a l l y no r a i n f a l l . Thereafter the weather relented at l e a s t i n part of the years,for only the crop f a i l u r e i n 1908 was an outright calamity.- The speed with which the Mennonite colonies recovered from t h e i r bad years convinced the rest of the population that they should change t h e i r farming methods. River transportation was g r e a t l y improved and a r a i l r o a d reached Saratov so that wheat could be turned into money. The region came as a whole to be r i c h . But the old conditions of land tenure had changed and the new agriculture demanded c a p i t a l . The w e l l - to-do became r i c h , and the needy became poverty-stricken (see p a r t i c u l a r ­ l y ScR 29-30). The l a t t e r provided a large part of the reservoir for emigration i n the decades at the turn of the century. The e a r l i e r immi­ grants from the Volga were not r i c h , but there were a few who had some c a p i t a l ; the la t e comers were usually brought over through credits extended by r e l a t i v e s already i n America, frequently themselves risking thus t h e i r whole savings. (For these events i n Russia see BV 110 f f . ) During early days some were not without c a p i t a l , but had no cash because they had not •been able to dispose of t h e i r share i n the s t i l l existent mir. Many a v i s i t home was made to be present when the new d i s t r i b u t i o n of f i e l d s took place (BV 1 1 8 ) , c l e a r l y a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative force. 167 53*92 Chronology of Emigration. The fuse that set off emigration from the Volga region was, as has been said, the revocation of the c o l o n i s t s 1 freedom from m i l i t a r y service. S t i l l , economic and other p o l i t i c a l pres­ sures had much to do with the emigrant movement even at the beginning and s t i l l more to do with i t s continuation. Discussion of the p o s s i b i l i t y of emigration began as soon as the intention of the Czar !s government i n the matter of m i l i t a r y service was made known i n 18 71* At least two sources of knowledge about America as a destination were available to the Volgans. At Eckheim in the Southwest a Protestant minister was serving who had been a missionary among the Germans in Missouri and Kansas i n the l 8 6 0 fs (Sa 31)* In the Catholic seminary at Saratov there was, also i n the l860's, a geography professor named S t e l l i n g who had been born of a German U9er on the P a c i f i c coast and who talked to h i s boys of America*. The agitation was wide spread. By 1873 Protestant scouts were sent abroad. The minister spoke here and there. In the spring of 187U, 3>000 colonists met at a Catholic v i l l a g e ; a few weeks l a t e r , the f i r s t emigrants were on the way (Kansas got i t s share), and the next year a r e a l exodus began which continued i n waves t i l l past the period of interest to us. 53*93 A record of the years of group departures from Galka has been pre­ served. Part of these immigrants went to Southern Russell County, Kansas. The following table, l i s t i n g , with the Galka data, a r r i v a l dates of immi­ grants to Protestant Russell County and to Catholic E l l i s County shows that the a c t i v i t y at Galka corresponded to general emigration currents in the Volga region. 168 Groups l e f t Galka Years i n which 5 or more Russo- Corresponding German survivors s t i l l l i v i n g i n E l l i s Co. .South Russell County i n 1925 came to the U.S. (underlined 10 or more) 1875 revocation of 1875 army service 18?6 1876 p r i v i l e g e had lb77 occurred 1878 IB7H IH79 THBO large 1886 1886 1887 1887 1889 1889 1890 large 1892 bad crop years 2891 1891 prSceded 1H9? 1892 1899 1899 1900 1900 1900 1901 1902 1902 1903 1905 1906 1907 1907 1907 1908 1910 53«9U Areas of Settlement i n the United States* Kansas settlements of Volgans were contemporary with the e a r l i e s t settlements of any size made i n America. In a few cases Kansas was selected by the immigrants when other states were bidding f o r them (sometimes Kansas l o s t ) . Certain l a t e Kansas groups are derived from outstate agglomerations, Volgan settlements i n contact with Kansas exi s t i n Nebraska and Colorado, and to a lesser degree i n Oklahoma,, The beginnings of those i n Nebraska were as early as those i n Kansas. The settlements i n these three states as w e l l as those i n I l l i n o i s , Wisconsin and Ohio are treated i n the sections of t h i s work dealing with Germans i n those states. As contrasted with 169 Blackseamen few Volgans went to the Dakotas, and the settlements i n Minnesota and Iowa were minor. 53*95 Catholic Volgans i n Kansas almost a l l came d i r e c t l y to the state from Russia, but the i r choice of t h i s part of the United States was la r g e l y determined by reports concerning Nebraska §nd Arkansas made to them at home. In 18?U the Catholic scouts sent out from the old colonies on the Wiesenseite spent only ten days i n the United States and examined farming conditions primarily i n the neighborhood of the Blackseamen who had already settled at Sutton, Nebraska (La U92)* The report was favorable and at t r a c ­ ted the s e t t l e r s to the trans-Mississippi region. The settlements i n E l l i s County were the outcome of the v i c t o r y of the Kansas P a c i f i c over the advo­ cates of railroads i n Nebraska. The Protestant v i l l a g e of Doenhof on the Bergseite sent a small contingent of set t l e r s i n 187U to L i t t l e Rock and Rogers i n Arkansas. Though these s e t t l e r s ultimately moved to Kansas because of the fever i n Arkansas, i n their f i r s t days they sent a glowing America l e t t e r home which circulated among the Catholics as w e l l as Pro­ testants on the Bergseite and also helped to turn the f i r s t s e t t l e r s to the Trans-Mississippi. The e a r l i e s t Protestant Volgans i n Kansas (Marion) arrived d i r e c t l y from Russia, but the Nebraska settlements served as way stations to many a r r i v i n g l a t e r . 5>3*96g When the beet sugar business developed about 1900, the growers speedily found that the Volgans (not the Blackseamen) had the charac­ t e r i s t i c s which they wished i n f i e l d workers, hard work by every member of large families completely controlled by t h e i r heads. The importance of c h i l d labor was great because much could be done even better by c h i l ­ dren than by adultsj i n the f i e l d s the only #ay to administer such labor 170 was through the family* Therefore Colorado beet f i e l d s soon absorbed great numbers of Volgans. With the opening of the sugar factory at Garden C i t y i t s proprietors, following the pattern set i n Colorado enlisted a labor force of Volgans. Ultimately t h i s was supplied from Kansas Catholics. 5U.00 The Mennonites were the f i r s t of the Germans of interest to the present work i n the Black Sea area.~x~ They came from the Danzig d i s t r i c t "The Mennonites i n Russia are here more b r i e f l y treated than would seem proper considering t h e i r great importance i n Kansas. This i s because a profusion of e a s i l y accessible works i n English deal with them. Mennonite Sncylopedia i s the most extensive of these xtforks. A l l facts set forth i n th i s study dealing with, the Mennonites are treated i n the Encylopedia. The interpretation of these data has been influenced by two works of C. Henry Smith, h i s Story of the Mennonites and Coming of the Russian Mennonites, and to a lesser extent by a r t i c l e s i n the journal* Mennonite L i f e , as well as by the works s p e c i f i c a l l y referred to i n the present discussion. on the southeastern B a l t i c , and se t t l e d i n two areas r e l a t i v e l y close together i n South Russia. The f i r s t settlement was made i n 1789 at Khortitza across the Dnieper River from Alexandrovsk, now called Zaporozhe, at the farthest east downstream point on the r i v e r . The second settlement, made i n iSOlj., grew to be the most important. I t was on Milk River, i n Russian the Molochnaya, which for convenience sake i s called i n t h i s work after the custom of American Mennonites the Molotschna. This stream reaches the northwestern shore of the sea of Azov just beyond Melitopol and comes from the northeast. Halbstadt, the c a p i t a l of the Mennonite 171 area, located i n the northwestern part of i t on the r i v e r , i s about 30 miles from Melitopol and 55 or 60 miles south southeast of Khortitza. In time daughter settlements were made farther east and i n Crimea. The settlements near Simferopol i n Crimea provided Kansas with a :few c i t i z e n s . The great majority of the Black Sea Mennonite emigrants to America came from the Molotschna settlements, some, but few to Kansas, from other daughter settlements of the Molotschna people, only scattered individuals from the Khortitza colony. The people from Khortitza went la r g e l y to Canada. £U»01 Agitation for emigration among the Danzig d i s t r i c t Mennonites was the r e s u l t of the p a r t i t i o n of Poland and the consequent Prussian threat of m i l i t a r y service. Overpopulation had already caused establishment of colonies up the V i s t u l a River, and the less fortunate of the Mennonites were leading an economically depressed existence as urban workers i n the c i t y of Danzig. S t i l l the p a c i f i s t i c r e l i g i o u s tenets of the Mennonites have repeatedly been a primary push for emigration. "Whenever they are threatened with m i l i t a r y service, there are among them many who elect to move. Even when m i l i t a r y obligations are reduced to service i n non-com­ batant units, not a l l Mennonites f i n d such p a r t i c i p a t i o n acceptable. But scruples are more apt to affect Mennonites who are not r i c h . So i t was i n 1737 at Danzig. To be sure, the Prussian government would issue pass­ ports only to the poor because the others were more productive f o r the state than any replacements would be, but the elders opposed emigration, and the elders, who served without pay, were necessarily chosen from among those who were s u f f i c i e n t l y well off to f i n d leisure for t h e i r Godly duties. In those days, then, when going into South Russia meant a leap into the unknown, these leaders were presumably doing l i t t l e to per- 172 suade the Prussian o f f i c i a l s to permit departures. At any rate f i f t e e n years l a t e r when people who were propertied elected t o take t h e i r chances i n the new and developing land, they were allowed to leave upon paying a 10% emigration tax. The Russian agents assembled 228 families and i n 1788 wintered them deep i n Russia. They were without r e l i g i o u s leaders because elders could have no passport. The wintering of immigrants i s naturally depressive of morale; the r e l i g i o u s situation was more ao, and the news that because the Turks were too active i n the neighborhood of the lands, f l a t l i k e those at Danzig, which t h e i r representatives had selected, they must sett l e i n the h i l l y country at the mouth of the Khortitza farther inland, so discouraged them that for several years t h e i r behavior was not admir­ able. They were mostly not farm bred, and t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l performance was at f i r s t not good. S t i l l , they recovered from shock much more quickly than the Volgans and the other Blackseamen, p a r t l y because thei r connec­ tions with home were not completely severed. By 1797 there were U00 emigrant families therej i n 1819 the d i s t r i c t that developed contained 2^888 inhabitants, i n 1910 12,000. By then there was here a center manu­ facturing a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery. 51|.02g The Molotschna Mennonite settlement had i t s o r i g i n i n 1803. I t s pioneering years were easier than those of the Khortitza group, p a r t l y because Khortitza furnished a base of operations and a source of exper­ ienced advice, p a r t l y because the newcomers were on the average better off f i n a n c i a l l y at the start and also more la r g e l y farmers, and p a r t l y because the land was better, and being f l a t l i k e that around Danzig required less adjustment i n methods of working i t . New immigration con­ tinued u n t i l 1835; 365 families arrived i n the period I 8 0 3 - I 8 Q 6 . In 173 1835 there were 1200 families and a population of 6000, In 1905 the membership ( t o t a l souls) of Molotschna Mennonite churches was 221;U53» Thanks i n large part to the a c t i v i t i e s of Johann Cornies (1789-18U8) r the Mennonites made very great advances i n farming methods which were communicated to the other Germans i n South Russia, l a t e r to those on the Volga, and to a lesser degree to other national groups. The r e s u l t was great productivity, and much wealth accumulated among the people of the Molotschna d i s t r i c t . 5 l u l The accompanying increase i n population brought d i f f i c u l t i e s . Instead of shrinkage i n the size of landholdings as occurred on the Volga with the mir system, the South experienced troubles because the land holdings by law remained i n t a c t . As a consequence there arose a great body of landless men. They were the more numerous because common lands were not broken up, but rented to those who had cash to pay, that i s , those who were already well-to-do. The problem at Khortitza was l e s s , and so was the consequent latent push for emigration to far places. At Khortitza industry developed, but not on the Molotschna, and Khortitza began establishing daughter colonies sooner. The problem was i n part solved by i860 through obtaining l e g a l permission to s p l i t some holdings and through governmental pressure leading to the sale of common lands. Also the establishment of daughter colonies began. But when the time came that the Czar declared there must be m i l i t a r y service, there were r i c h and poor among the Mennonites on the Black Sea as there had been at Danzig. 5U»20 The r e l i g i o u s organization of the Mennonites, while i t contained no paid clergy before the twentieth century, established i n some sort a theocracy. There were preachers chosen by the congregations, and there 17U were elders chosen among the preachers, normally consecrated by another elder. The leadership of the elders was seldom questioned as long as the members of the congregation were agreed on theological tenets. The respect for the elders 1 authority was probably not greater than that for Lutheran pastorsj but the elder was usually a successful farmer and businessman, and h i s s k i l l i n economic management was such that he could act as a community director without there being much resistance to h i s competent performance i n t h i s area. Because t h i s quasi-theocracy existed, emigrating groups normally had a leader upon whom they depended and to whom they clung. The i n s t i t u t i o n allowed them to act as a un i t i n strange surroundings with less c u l t u r a l shock and greater a b i l i t y to p e r s i s t i n t h e i r own ways.> including use of German. As was noted above, one of the early misfortunes of the Khortitza people was deprivation of re l i g i o u s l e a ­ dership, while i n t r a n s i t . In dissident r e l i g i o u s groups, the r e l i g i o u s leaders were sometimes i l l - t r a i n e d i n economic l i f e . Such groups s t i l l entrusted themselves to these men, and i f these leaders turned out to have nothing but s p i r i t u a l competence, which might be visionary, the resu l t s were unfortunate. But even among such groups the s p i r i t of d i s ­ c i p l i n e usually i n the long run brought a successful outcome. 5U.21 Guidance by leaders in emigration i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by two con­ gregations i n the main church body* Alexanderwohl was founded i n the Molotschna in 1821 by 21 families from one congregation on the V i s t u l a (Schwetz) under Elder Peter Wedel. Others from the V i s t u l a joined them. In I87I1 Elder Jacob Buller l e d his v i l l a g e to Kansas where they formed two comgregations, the Alexanderwohl (192-east of 19) headed by Buller and the Hoffnungsau (188-15) under D i e t r i c h Gaeddert, respectively two road miles northeast of Goessel i n southwestern Marion County and twenty 175 miles west, at a point eight road miles northeast of Buhler. In Russiato the east of the Molotschna settlement, daughter colonies had grown to a mass of 2000 to 3000 persons i n what was known as the Bergthal d i s t r i c t near Mariupol. Their v i l l a g e s made up one congregation. Gerhard Wiebe was t h e i r elder, and he led them p r a c t i c a l l y a l l to Manitoba. 5U«22 Dissenters to the usual Mennonite practices appeared, though not h e r e t i c a l on what outsiders would regard as e s s e n t i a l doctrines, ^o one questioned pacifism, for instance. But differences on questions of be­ havior and manner of worship developed. The Kleine Gemeinde originated i n I8II4. Because of t h e i r great asceticism i n d a i l y l i f e they never became a large group. "When they emigrated to America part of them established themselves i n Canada and much l a t e r to Mexico. Others set­ t l e d i n Jefferson County, Nebraska, on the Kansas border, just north of the Pre-¥est, and elements from t h i s colony and from Canada established the Meade settlement (Meade, B) i n Kansas. Eventually the congregations i n the United States have been absorbed by other branches of Mennonitismj the group has been conservative i n use of German as w e l l as i n other respects. 5U»23 The Krimmer Mennonite Brethren are another dissenting group which originated i n Russia — as the name indicates, i n Crimea — at Annafeld near Simferopol to be precise. They did not come into existence u n t i l 1869, and were closely related to the Kleine Gemeinde. In I87U they p r a c t i c a l l y a l l emigrated to establish Gnadenau i n Kansas^ 2 miles south of what became Hil l s b o r o , Kansas. This was the Kansas Mennonite s e t t l e ­ ment receiving most p u b l i c i t y from others than the M e n n Q n i t e s themselves (see Concentrated Mennonite D i s t r i c t Settlement History). The Gnadenau congregation became part of the Mennonite Brethren church i n 195Uj other congregations perpetuated the Krimmer Mennonite Brethren as an established 176 church u n t i l i n I960 they too followed the Gnadenau example* 5U.2U The Mennonite Brethren were i n Russia, and have been i n America, the most vigorous of the separatist movements among Mennonites. Their church was the outgrowth of the p i e t i s t i c movement that swept a l l Russian German settlements ±h the middle of the nineteenth century* The greatest impulse i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n came from outside the Mennonite body. Edward Wust who came to Russia i n 18U5 was a great awakener among a l l Protestants and had as great an influence among the Mennonites as among t h e i r Lutheran neigh­ bors. Organization i n t o a church of the brotherhoods established i n the following years occurred i n i 8 6 0 . Families from among the group began to emigrate to the United States i n 187U* but they achieved no organization here u n t i l Elder Abraham Shellenberg came to establish the Ebenezer Congregation east of Buhler, Kansas, i n 18?9» To be sure Peter Eckert from the Volga area had established the Ebenfeld congregation of similar b e l i e f s i n 18?5> ten or f i f t e e n miles to the north, but i t adhered to the M.B. organisation only l a t e r . There were early congregations also i n Nebraska, and eventually i n a l l the Russian Mennonite regions of the New World5 of pa r t i c u l a r interest for those i n Kansas are the settlements i n Oklahoma (q.v.). 5>U*2£g Education among the Mennonites i n the Black Sea area, though i t reached no higher l e v e l s , was i n general carried on more e f f i c i e n t l y than on the Volga or i n other Black Sea groups. A p r i n c i p a l reason was the a c t i v i t y of Johann Cornies. As an a g r i c u l t u r a l expert, Gornies gained the confidence of the Russian government, and he and his a g r i c u l t u r a l asso­ c i a t i o n were given Imperial backing when they entered domains other than that of growing crops and stock. Cornies became something of an enlightened despot, f o r instance, forcing the intolerant main body of Mennonites to 177 accept l e g a l l y the Kleine Gemeinde. In education he intervened authori­ t a t i v e l y i n the interest of better schooling and after h i s death h i s Association formed a central directing body more active than any unit : manned by Russian Germans elsewhere. One r e s u l t was the preservation of l i t e r a r y High German as an established c u l t u r a l language, more r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the d a i l y speech, Low German, than the dialects of other Russian Germans were from the standard language. In America the re s u l t was asw i t h other groups. When school i n s t r u c t i o n i n standard German ceased, the c u l t u r a l language was l o s t . The wealth and r e l a t i v e l y high degree of education among the Mennonites made them regard the Russians who gathered around, them as an i n f e r i o r people, and there was l i t t l e temptation u n t i l after the p r i n ­ c i p a l migrations to the United States to delve into Russian culture. Very few learned to speak Russian. 5U.30 Mennonites from Western Europe settled i n Volhynia as well as near the Black Sea coast. Volhynia, now i n the western part of the Ukraine and, before the p a r t i t i o n i n g , part of Poland, was uhderpopulated at the ' beginning of the nineteenth century when i t was under Russian r u l e , underpopulated i n part because there were great uncultivated estates belonging to P o l i s h nobles. The native r u r a l population was mostly Ruthenian (Ukrainian). Instead of promoting the spread of these people who were not then as e f f i c i e n t as farmers as westerners the nobles frequently preferred t o bring i n Germans as tenants, and the settlements thus o r i g i ­ nated. The f i r s t considerable immigrations were i n 1816. After the P o l ­ i s h revolts of 1831 and 1861 there were other waves. The wave of 1861 was increased by the abolition of serfdom, which deprived the nobles of cheap labor and made land sales a necessity f o r nobles with reduced income. 178 Emigration to the United States and s p e c i f i c a l l y to Kansas from t h i s region was almost a l l from among the Mennonites. The conditions of economic prosperity and of morale anong the Vdhynian Germans were so diff e r e n t that two types of settlements must be considered* 5>lu31 The Swiss Volhynians #10 came to Kansas i n 187U were at the time of emigration located almost exclusively at Kutusufka (various spellings, one i s Kotozuka) or i n i t s neighborhood* This v i l l a g e , located 25 miles northwest of Zhitomir, at approximately 29° E longitude, 51° K l a t i t u d e , had been settled i n 1861-62 by people under the leadership of Elder Jacob Stucky* Since approximately 1791 they had l i v e d i n three other locations i n Volhynia or nearby leaving, sometimes, with other Mennonites remnants of t h e i r group as they moved, but never losing t h e i r Swiss i d e n t i t y * During t h e i r thirteen years at Kutusufka, although they were far from r i c h , they had made progress and t h e i r morale was good* Stucky led almost a l l h i s congregation i n e x i t when army service threatened, and they established i n Kansas the Hoffnungsfeld congregation (189, I* 16) west of Mound Ridge* They soon prospered* Others from settlements i n the same Vohlynian area settled i n South Dakota. At the time of emigra­ tion t h e i r d i a l e c t was s t i l l Swiss but perceptibly d i f f e r e n t from that of Swiss Mennonites who arrived i n Kansas from Canton Bern. 5U*32 The Volhynians who were generally c a l l e d P o l i s h by t h e i r fellows came to America from a number of v i l l a g e s most of which were situated near Ostrog something over 100 miles west of Zhitomir. These people by various stages and at various times a f t e r 1791 had come mostly from the s e t t l e ­ ments i n the Danzig area or daughter settlements. They were not pros­ perous i n 1870, and were s t i l l p r imarily renters, who received no ch a r i ­ table consideration from t h e i r landlord when they wanted to move. In 179 187U they arrived i n America very poor with exceptionally low morale* Their fellow Mennonites thought that they had been spoiled by their P o l i s h Associations* Some of them located i n South Dakota; others founded the Bergtal Mennonite Ohurch near Pawnee Rock (23.1 > I> 205) and Lone Tree Church ( l 8 9 , 9) i n HcPherson County* The Bergtal people f i n a l l y reached prosperity sooner than the Lone Tree people* Their d i a l e c t produced no p a r t i c u l a r remarks among other speakers of Low German* Another congre­ gation l e d by Johann Schroeder moved out of Micholin near Machnovka southwest of Kiev, and established themselves as the Gnadenberg (Grace H i l l ) church (5 , I , 10) east of Newton, Kansas, near the county l i n e * They had come from the Danzig area (Graudenz) beginning i n 1791• They were not r i c h . 5U.33 As noted elsewhere there were Mennonite groups from G a l i c i a , Switzerland, and Germany who came to the United States and s e t t l e d i n Kansas from 187U on, but the majority of Mennonites were from the Molotschna d i s t r i c t , frequently from v i l l a g e s other than those c i t e d , frequently not under leaders, but r a r e l y forming viable groups unless they joined com­ munities with leaders whose authority was at least i n part already estab­ li s h e d i n Russia. The continuance of the system of forming daughter c o l ­ onies i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by Mennonite settlements i n western Kansas and i n Oklahoma. 5iu3Ug The world d i s t r i b u t i o n of Mennonites after the establishment of communism i n Russia shows how important the United States had become to the sect. The following estimate was prepared by the Mennonites of south­ ern Germany i n 1925 (N 286): Europe Asia Switzerland l r 5 0 0 S i b e r i a 30 r000 Germany 12,500 Turkestan 1,500 Danzig 6,500 Missions 8,000 Poland 2,300 Total 39,000 France 3,000 Holland 68,000 America Russia 80,000 United States 250,000 173,800 Canada 5o,ooo Mexico 3,000 Total 303,000 Displacements since t h i s estimate was made have enlarged the comparative numbers i n America,though not i n the United States. Refugees from Russia i n part found shelter i n western Europe, largely i n Canada and South America, notably Paraguay. (See further #5U«90). 5!uii.O The chronology of emigration of Mennonites from Russia to the United States, a&^een abundantly shown already, begins i n 187U# Smith (Sm 107) quotes the 1875 report of the Mennonite Board of Guardians as d i s t r i b u t i n g thus: The Destinations of Mennonites A r r i v i n g from Russia, 187U Dakota 200 families Manitoba 230 families Minnesota 15 families Nebraska 80 families Kansas 600 families Remaining i n East 150 families Emigration continued vigorously for a few years, but after the panic con­ cerning m i l i t a r y service had subsided and non-combatant service i n the 181 army or i n forestry had been accepted the Mennonites d i d not f l o c k to the New World l i k e the Volgans or the other Blackseamen. The imported habits were strengthened to only a very l i m i t e d degree by incoming r e c r u i t s . When the United States had closed i t s doors to immigrants after the F i r s t World War, Canada and South America received the great i n f l u x i n the 1920 fs of Mennonites fleeing Soviet severity. The refugees a f t e r the Second World War had simi l a r destinations. 5U.Ulg. In the United States we have seen that the Mennonites from Russia went prima r i l y to Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota, and l a t e r to Okla­ homa (see #5>7.76ff)• The thr i v i n g group at Mountain Lake, Minnesota, needs mention. The town i s 30 miles north of Iowa, three-fourths of the way west from the eastern border. They were here some 125 miles east of the settlements i n South Dakota, one group of which were farther south, another farther north, with centers at Freeman and Marion ftjther south and Huron to the north. Many settlements i n South Dakota were Hutteritej t h i s v a r i e t y of Mennonite i s not to be found i n Kansas. Mennonites began settlements i n North Dakota i n the l890*s coming up from the south. The most important settlement i s near Munich about 35 railes from Canada and 80 from Minnesota. They are not far here from one of the p r i n c i p a l Mennonite t e r r i t o r i e s i n Manitoba. The "West Reserve11 l i e s against the American border farther east than Munich but west of the Red River. The "East Reserve 1 1 i s northeast across the r i v e r (centers respectively, Winkler and Steinbach). Winnepeg, on the r i v e r , i s farther north. 5!u50 The Dniester River was the western l i m i t of the Russian Empire near the Black Sea u n t i l 1812. Odessa, some twenty-five miles from the Dniester, was the seaport around which most of the foreign settlements which were founded about I80I4. clustered. There were also settlements i n 182 the G r k e a # Somewhat l a t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y between 1816 and 1822, there were more non-Mennonite German settlements to the north of the penin­ sula, but emigration from them did not reach Kansas, nor i n general, the United States. After 1822 there was no government-sponsored immi­ gration east of the Dniester, though individuals arrived to some extent. After Bessarabia beyond the Dniester became Russian i n 1812 settlements were planted i n i t too. Besides the settlements made by immigrants from the west there were established a great many daughter settlements as those f i r s t founded became overpopulated. These new creationsaid not occupy d i s t r i c t s as s o l i d l y as the Volgan daughter settlements, f o r they were usually established by making purchases from the great absentee land­ owners and were thus located wherever a hard-pressed magnate could be found. Besides, i n South Russia, groups of other types flocked i n for settlement so that Germans might f i n d land contiguous to t h e i r early holdings already occupied by others. Thus Blackseamen did not have as ingrained a tradition of s o l i d a r i t y as the Volgans. Nor were they sup­ ported by as long a history of successful resistance to outside forces. They were however, la r g e l y of similar o r i g i n s , Swabians or Hungarian Germans receht|.y Swabianj 1000 Swabians, mostly from Wurtemberg, set off for Russia i n I 8 l 6 ; lUOO families from the Black Forest followed i n 1817 - the exodus to the east from Wurtemberg was reported to be 9000 i n that year (M6). Mother settlements, founded at about the same time, existed near the Mennonite settlements presented above, but most of the emigra­ tio n of Blackseamen to the United States was from Kherson, "the province which contains Odessa; there were also emigrants from Bessarabia, some of whom found t h e i r way to Kansas. The Kherson settlements were divided into four areas. F i r s t , there were the Old Colonies, the Gross Liebental 183 d i s t r i c t , a compact group to the west and southwest of the port^half way to the Dniester. This group of nine v i l l a g e s , half of which were Catholic, provided Kansas with the Catholic Blackseamen at Park* Those at Collyer of came from the neighboring Kuchurgan d i s t r i c t *six v i l l a g e s farther back from the coast,some 25 miles to the northwest of Odessa* Farther inland s t i l l some 85 miles from Odessa i n the same dir e c t i o n was the Gluckstal d i s t r i c t (near 7U-1) containing the v i l l a g e of that name* Many came to St. Francis, Kansas, from t h i s d i s t r i c t * F i n a l l y there was the Beresina d i s t r i c t named for the r i v e r , an area containing eleven v i l l a g e s , which contributed somewhat to the population of the St* Francis area i n Kansas* The center of t h i s d i s t r i c t was located about 65 miles northeast of Odessa* 5U«5l The Old Colonies as said above sent some of t h e i r Catholic c i t i z e n s to Park i n Kansas; they were from Franzfeld, Mariental, K l e i n Liebethal, and J o s e f s t a l , (7Ur7j 8, 9, 10)* These people had come la r g e l y from the Palatinate and Alsace (Stp 16)* Jacob Stach reproduces with "a few not too extensive^" s t y l i s t i c emendations11 (St 13U) h i s t o r i c a l sketches sub­ mitted i n 18U8 by eight of the Old Golonies for government record. These are a l l from Protestant v i l l a g e s ; the Catholic v i l l a g e s were hard by* The early days were nearly as distressing as those of the Volga colonists* The cold was s t i l l a problem, though not so great; marauders di d not execute major r a i d s , but there was constant thieving* Disease was devas­ ta t i n g — over and over, but p a r t i c u l a r l y at the sta r t * In 180U they were herded into barracks, so crowded that an epidemic, once started, was beyond control* E l senach'quotes a doctor: "People l i e a l l mixed together, the healthy, the sick, and the dying; they are a l l moaning, wailing and 18U pleading f o r help. A horrible and heartrending sight J11 (Eis 31) • The authorities, who doubtless had no resources aren i f they had had good w i l l , b r u t a l l y rejected t h e i r appeals. The scorn heaped upon them was i n part deserved. The immigrants, l i k e those on the Volga, were for the most part not farmers and showed the same ineptitude i n agriculture dur­ ing the early years. Some account of the troubles i n one or two colo­ nies w i l l i l l u s t r a t e the point. Gross Liebental that l i e s very close to Catholic K l e i n Liebental (7U-10), whose Palatines furnished residents to Kansas, was founded some twelve miles southwest of Odessa i n 180U by immigrants who had spent the winter i n that c i t y . There had been an ear­ l i e r attempt by others to s e t t l e t h i s r u r a l s i t e , but the Germans found the land "unpopulated and a wilderness" (St 135)• The number of e a r l i e s t s e t t l e r s i s unknown, but there were signal accretions by immigration i n 1817. The h j | o r i c a l sketch of 181*8, signed by the mayor, two counsel members, and the town clerk says of early fellow-townsmen, "Most were poverty-stricken, coarse and immoral people, lacking i n the i n t e l l i g e n c e and prudence necessary to found an advantageous settlement for themselves and t h e i r descendants. The few who provided an exception had no i n f l u ­ ence upon the whole group. They were a l l artisans with no understanding of agriculture. In the year 1807 the Crown erected a large building so as to set up a cloth m i l l i n i t , but the colonists seemed as l i t t l e i n ­ clined to manufacturing as to farming. Nothing came of the weaving pro­ j e c t , and the building stood unused f o r a long time. In the same year, 1807, the Crown b u i l t the f i r s t church i n Gross Liebenthal. In the years 1806 to 1810 the colonist who was then D i s t r i c t Superintendent, Franz B r i t t n e r , took over h a l f of the land belonging to the community, since he maintained that i t was his property, which the simple c i t i z e n s , who were 185 making no use at a l l of t h e i r other h a l f , straightway believed" (St 135 )• Behavior did not become better f o r many years. With good crops i n the l a t e l 8 3 0 fs there was some improvement and i n the l8U0*s with a new admin­ i s t r a t i o n , evidently that of those who signed the report, r e a l prosperity arrived. The severity of judgment expressed i n the Gross Liebental r e ­ port may befpart pharasaical, but the Duke of Richelieu, who i n the f i r s t period of the nineteenth century was i n general charge of South Russian settlement, wrote i n 1806, "The Mennonites are admirable, the Bulgarians incomparable, and the Germans intolerable" (Kl hh)* He added that be­ cause of crop f a i l u r e s the Germans would have nothing to l i v e on i n the year he wrote. We must conclude from what we have already read and from the record of l a t e r prosperity and r e l i g i o u s f a i t h that these were people of sturdy stock, but with morale temporarily destroyed by misfortune and the disappointment of exaggerated hopes. Peterstal was founded some twenty miles west of Odessa on the banks of the Baraboi from which a h i l l rose on the far side. I t was f i r s t s e t t l e d i n 1805* I t s town clerk i n his h i s t o r i c a l sketch was not so severe as the town clerk of Gross Liebenthal, but he could not offer unstinted praise of the pioneers. He said, "Our forebears, 10 or 12 families a l l together, journeyed here from the Siebenburger region i n Hungary without forming a party or having a leader. A few families came on separately, but were at once incorporated into the Liebenthal d i s t r i c t . Only three or four men brought to Russia any noteworthy property; i t i s now impossible to say how much; the others brought along so to speak nothing whatsoever. The former could then plow, sow crops, and r a i s e c a t t l e , just as they l i k e d . They reaped r i c h har­ vests from the f i e l d s covered with t a l l grass, and soon possessed a f i n e herd of c a t t l e and f l o c k s of sheep. The men without property on the other 186 hand f e l t urged on by the fact that everything that was to be produced must be gained through t h e i r farming. They were content with the sim­ plest fare of barley meal and potatoes, f o r which they had brought along some seed eyes from home. Instead of boots they bound pieces of rawhide on t h e i r feet with small strings. By such economy they improved t h e i r status so that they could soon provide themselves with better food and clothing. There were also fr i v o l o u s people who attached l i t t l e value to morality, agriculture and c a t t l e r a i s i n g , remained very poor, and tempted others to immorality and d r i n k s . On t h i s account and because of ignorance of s o i l conditions here, a g r i c u l t u r a l progress i n the f i r s t decade was slow despite good harvests and r i c h meadows" (St 1J|3-U)« The incoming s e t t l e r s eventually numbered UO or $0 heads of f a m i l i e s j i n 18U8 there was a pop­ ul a t i o n of 61 f a m i l i e s . In April,-1821, Alexander I , during a journey to the South, paused b r i e f l y at an estate four or f i v e miles northwest of Freudental which was i n i t s turn three miles north of P e t e r s t a l . The people of these two v i l l a g e s gathered at the estate to gaze upon him. He alighted from h i s carriage, approached a group of women, and inquired how the country pleased them. They were from south Germany and Hungary; a woman from Hungary spoke for them,, narrating that the ships upon the Danube had been overloaded, that fever had broken out, and whole ship­ loads had almost a l l died, and many were s t i l l dying i n the hospital at Ovidiopol where they had landed. Furthermore they were not receiving the money promised by the government for maintenance t i l l they could establish themselves. The Czar urged patience. There was no cheering u n t i l he l i f t e d h i s shako as h i s carriage started off (St 160-1). Two of the l a t e founded v i l l a g e s gave a complete l i s t of the resident heads 187 of families and their o r i g i n s . Gyldendorf was founded i n 1830 by gather­ ing there the inhabitants of three e a r l i e r v i l l a g e s that were being aban­ doned for lack of an adequate water supply; t h e i r provinces of or i g i n were as follows: Wurtemberg 66, Baden 20, Prussian Poland 12, Hungary 3» The Hungarians came from Franzfeld which i s not f a r northeast of Belgrade. A Franzfeld waseals© founded amongotM ©Id Colonies and from there came many of the Catholics at Park, Kansas. Helenental was founded i n 1838 by persons drawn from other colonies, notably P e t e r s t a l , 18 heads of families out of 2$. Fifteen of the heads had been born in the Black Sea colonies, h i n Wurtemberg, 3 i n Alsace, 2 i n Baden, 1 i n the Hungarian Banat. The great preponderance of South Germans, generally reported i n other works and by informants, i s here supported by s t a t i s t i c s . There was, however, a small element from north Germany in some colonies. The establishment of Helenental indicates a push for emigration i n the various colonies as early as I838. The push would obviously become much greater as the years passed. 5>Iu5>2 The Catholic Kuchurgan v i l l a g e s which provided some of the ci t i z e n s of CoUyer, Kansas, were Strassburg and Selz (7U-2, 3)* These Catholics were mostly from the Palatinate, Alsace, and North Baden (Stp 1S>). The Protestant v i l l a g e s i n the Gluckstal D i s t r i c t of most importance to Kansas are Neudorf and Bergdorf (on 7U to the north of 1). Their inhabitants were from several South German provinces with a much smaller element of people from the south B a l t i c coast (Mecklenburg and Pomerania). Hoffnung- s t a l on the Khadshibai River to the east w as almost purely made up of Wurtembergers. In the Beresina d i s t r i c t Worms and Rohrbach (7U-11 and this v i l l a g e closest) sent a few to Kansas. These Protestants were South Germans with some from the South B a l t i c i n Rohrbach. 188 5U*53 Bessarabia provided a small portion of the Russian Germans of Russell County and s t i l l smaller portions i n Marion County and i n Chey­ enne County. The Russian e f f o r t to f i n d s e t t l e r s for Bessarabia began as soon as Napoleon was on h i s way to Elba. By 1816 German v i l l a g e s were established. Those who came to Kansas, however, were mostly among the l a t e s e t t l e r s , though a few came to Marion Courtty from near the mouth of the Dniester, from Shaba founded, i t seems, i n 1822 (MR $90)* The other were p a r t l y from the v i l l a g e of Flotzk (75-5)* apparently named f o r a town on the V i s t u l a i n Poland; the Bessarabian Plotzk was sett l e d by Germans mainly from Poland and Bavaria i n 1839 (MIR 583)• The v i l l a g e , eighty miles southwest of Odessa, i s at the southeastern edge of a complex of German v i l l a g e s ; for these land was found by displacing the Tatars, who remained troublesome neighbors, l i k e l y to waylay wagons transporting wheat to K i l i a and Ismail, kh miles to the south, and constantly invading the v i l l a g e s to s t e a l . There were other d i f f i c u l t i e s from epidemics and from f r o n t i e r changes re s u l t i n g from the Crimean and Russo^Turkish wars. S t i l l the area was prosperous i n the l a t e 19th century and emigration was l a r g e l y the r e s u l t of economic pressures from a very high b i r t h r a t e . 5U«5Ug Economic conditions among the western Blackseamen though i n general t r a i l i n g those of the Mennonites, were as a general r u l e prosperous by the middle of the nineteenth century. The land was r i c h , farm machinery was introduced early; farming methods improved. There were, however, i n these wheat lands as i n other wheat country, years of crop f a i l u r e . Stach says nothing whatsoever was produced i n 1833, 1850, 1867, 1873, 1882 and 1899$ and that harvests were small from 18U0 to l8l|8 and i n 187U and 1875 (St 206). The bad years i n the 1870 fs and the calamities of 1882 and 1899 have a direct Relationship to emigration to the United States. S t i l l the 190 resentatives to Kansas were: Gross Liebenthal 2,721 Strassburg 1,998 Selz 2,6k9 Neudorf 1,997 Kandel 2,U97 Klein Liebental 1,997 Rohrbach 2,3*8 Worms 1,669 Hoffnungstal 2,3U9 Bergdorf 1,368 Josefstal 1,12k Mariental 1,0*9 5U«60 Religion among Germans i n the Black Sea area showed very nearly the same characteristics as on the Volga. Protestants were more fcumerous than Catholics but not i n the province of Kherson. In 1911 the German Black Sea population was r e l i g i o u s l y d i s t r i b u t e d as fo l l o w s : Protestant Catholic Mennonite Total Bessarabia 57,931 U,9lU — 62,SU5 Kherson 66,663 99,072 3,578 169,313 Taurida 56,581 27,050 50,293 133,92U Iekaterinoslav 26,811 U8,109 1*8,21*0 123,160 The parishes were far too large for one pastor, especially among the Pro­ testants (Eis U5), there weretthousands of souls per minister (St 82). Reformed and Lutheran congregations tended to become fused and cal l e d Lutheran, by the same processes as on the Volga, but Reformed v i l l a g e s or at l e a s t v i l l a g e s with a strong Reformed element existed: Neudorf, Worms, Rohrbach, Glueckstal, Kassel (DB 2,130). The d i f f i c u l t i e s and the imper­ fections of the pastors were similar i n north and south. Very soon they were the product of the schools on the B a l t i c , outsiders. The various P i e t i s t i c movements seem to have been much more active i n the south than i n the north. Among the f i r s t s e t t l e r s a number of these people were to 189 main push was that from population increase. In 1859 the Germans i n a l l South Russia numbered 128,652 (Eis 27). At the outbreak of the F i r s t ¥orld War there were over half a m i l l i o n * The count i n 1859 i n the Ger­ man d i s t r i c t s of the provinces of Kherson and Bessarabia was as follows: Tear of foundation Number of colonies according to according to Number of Stach Eisenach Stach(p2U) Eisenach(p27) inhabitants(Eis 27) Kherson Gross Liebenthal D i s t r i c t (The 1803-5 180U-5 Old Colonies) 10 11 11,902 1808 1805 Gluckstal D i s t r i c t k 6 7,999 1808 1808 Kuchurga D i s t r i c t 5 6 7*333 1809 1809 Beresina D i s t r i c t 9 13 13,226 1782 & 180U 1782 "Swedish" D i s t r i c t k 6 2,356 Totals 32 k2 1*2,8l6 Bessarabia 181^-22 17 25 2U,066 Total h9 67 66,882 In the province of Kherson the number of colonies had risen to 139 i n 1890, to 237 i n 191U; i n Bessarabia to 67 i n 1890, to 111 i n 191U (Eis 28). None of these colonies attained the size of the larger colonies on the Volga. Swarming became necessary sooner because the areas at a v i l l a g e f s command were smaller, and i t became possible more e a s i l y because landed estates for sale were much more common than i n the colder Volga region where nobles had had no great ambitions to procure for themselves wide stretches of steppe. In the early years of the twentieth century the pop­ ul a t i o n of some v i l l a g e s i n Kherson either mentioned above or sending rep- 191 be found (SPK 360). They were among the most prosperous from the s t a r t , i n part, because they had been impelled t o emigrate to escape a hos t i l e environment even when the economic push was s l i g h t . They possessed a b i t of c a p i t a l to begin w i t h . In any case t h e i r prosperity gaveihem i n ­ fluence disproportionate t o t h e i r numbers and brought the improvident to time sooner than would otherwise have been the case. They also imposed upon the Black Sea settlements as a whole much more P u r i t a n i c a l behavior than German settlements o r d i n a r i l y exhibit. Their influence became notable with Pastor ¥ust i n 18U5« Baptists became numerous. The new re c r u i t s were mostly among the poorer people and consequently among those fe e l i n g the p u l l for emigration. The prosperous section of the community had i t s element tending toward indifference. Stach writin g i n 190U affirmed that while the o r i g i n a l emigrants were woefully imperfect, t h e i r sons were praiseworthy, but the t h i r d generation of h i s own time was unworthy of the preceding. Granting that he was speaking as "those of an older gener­ ation tend to speak of the next, i t would s t i l l seem that extended pros­ p e r i t y relaxed the moral f i b e r of some, and those unfavored often took refuge i n evangelistic groups. At any rate Stach says; "In the domain of r e l i g i o n there reigns i n many places f r i g i d i t y and indifference or Piet i s t i c - M e t h o d i s t i c sanctimoniousness and pious babble" (St 52) . His l a s t denigrating category i s doubtless intended to refer primarily to the members of the Bruederschaft (Brotherhood). Eisenach champions the move­ ment and remarks that about 1850 "the f i r s t awakening came to pass i n Plotzk and New E l f t " (Eis 81), the two Bessarabian towns mentioned above as sources of Kansas population. The f i r s t great r e v i v a l occurred i n i 8 6 0 ; the greatest was i n 1881. This l a s t wasthe year before the greatest 192 crop f a i l u r e . Drouth conditions may have already existed. At least Eisenach finds a correlation between r e l i g i o n and harvests i n 1892. "Pastor Jundt reports a might r e v i v a l i n the v i l l a g e s i n 1892 such as fhad never been experienced. 1 The severe crop f a i l u r e s of 1891 and 1892 brought about the revolution" (Eis 82). Klaus, commenting on Bruedersehaft, found the "germ and root" of a l l such movements "among the masses" i n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with economic conditions (Kl 28U). Religious exaltation and tendencies to eccle­ s i a s t i c a l r e b e l l i o n among Blackseamen a r r i v i n g i n the United States have here some explanation. 5U«6l The schooling of German child r e n f obligatory after 18U0, was i n the Black Sea area similar to that i n the Volga region. Here as there the v i l l a g e schools were designated as church schools u n t i l R u s s i f i c a t i o n na­ t i o n a l i z e d them near the end of the century (1892). Here as there, school attendance was f a r from perfect. The r o l e of the teacher i n v i l l a g e l i f e was sunilar. Because the Black Sea v i l l a g e s were often smaller units than those on the Volga, however, tales of classes of monstrous size are less frequent, though enrollments rose to 100 or l£0 (St 87) • Secondary schools for teacher "training were introduced into both areas at nearly the same time with the same e f f o r t to introduce the Russian language through them — with the same essential lack of success. Indeed, these secondary schools were lauded by Stumpp thus, "Above a l l the leading c i t i z e n s owe these schools t h e i r good knowledge of the German language through which t h e i r sense of national unity was preserved" (Stu 11$)* He adds that Russian was taught i n these schools, and i t was necessary for governement reports. " S t i l l , l e t i t be emphasized," he says, "that these young people remained i n t h e i r environment, were not thus divorced from t h e i r people, and l a t e r 193 exercised t h e i r c a l l i n g i n t h e i r native parishes. This cannot be said of a l l those who i n l a t e r years went to Russian urban gymnasia" (Stu 116). The pastors behaved s i m i l a r l y i n north and south. They "have defended with a l l t h e i r might the confessional orientation of the v i l l a g e school, and therefore against the wishes of the best of the colonists have h i n ­ dered the introduction of Russian into the curriculum" (St 56) . Stach i s here quoting the Russian, Kamensky. He disagreeswith the l a s t clause, but h i s reply i s defensive. At least he agrees that Russian i s resisted — by the stick-in-the-mud peasants, he says. They know the advantage of knowing Russian but r e s i s t a l l change. They send t h e i r children to school only i n the coldest months — 60 to 70 days a year f o r seven years. F i f t y per cent attendance i s usual (St 87) . Stumpp, an ardent Protes­ tant from the Black Sea country, presumably spoke of that d i s t r i c t p r i ­ marily when he wrote thus i n 196H from h i s safety i n West Germany: "The church used i t s whole influence to keep l i f e , morals, and customs German i n the congregations. No c h i l d was admitted to instruction 8 for confirmation who could not read and write German. The children beyond school age went for two years more after confirmation to fKinderlehre, 1 that i s , they practiced reading and w r i t i n g every Sunday under the super­ v i s i o n of the church elders. Thus the pastors and t h e i r representatives had control not only of r e l i g i o u s education but also of instruction i n German" (Stu 27) # The need for the r u l e upon some rudimentary knowledge of reading and writing before confirmation was real, and of course further i n s t r u c t i o n i n Sunday School would not have been required unless i t were necessary. The pastors had sometmes to be, or at l e a s t were, tyrannical i n enforcing the requirement, but such measures preserved German as a 19h c u l t u r a l language, and i l l i t e r a c y was very much lower i n incidence i n German v i l l a g e s than i n Russian. 5>U»62g Social l i f e among Blackseamen presented i n other respects charac­ t e r i s t i c s very similar to that among Volgans. Not only r e l i g i o u s and school l i f e had marked s i m i l a r i t y ; customs and d i s i n c l i n a t i o n for societies outside the church were nearly the same. There was, however, l i t t l e com­ munication between the Black Sea and Volga areas. The resemblances can i n part be explained by the fact that the same kind of p o l i t i c a l and r e l i ­ gious government was being exercised i n both places. More important was the near i d e n t i t y of stock. Both groups originated mainly i n south Germany, either immediately (the great number) or through south Germans who had emigrated elsewhere f i r s t and then to Russia. In America the Russian Ger­ mans were seldom accepted by those from the Reich, but neither did Black­ seamen and Volgans mingle very often with each other, and t h e i r position on the s o c i a l scale here was nearly the same. Blackseamen were less apt than Volgans, i t seems, to separate into groups dominated by people from a given v i l l a g e upon emigration, that i s , t h e i r l o c a l patriotism was less developed. Two factors explain t h i s difference i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . By t h e i r age the northern colonies had existed longer, which had allowed tame for the development of l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s . They were also larger, less r e s t r i c t e d geographically than the communities i n the South. The r e s u l t near the Black Sea was more mixing of the population. Not too much, how­ ever. Stumpp says, "Marriage with non-Germans was most exceptional, even among Germans marriage between the various denominations seldom occurred" (Stp 68). 1SS 5U»7 The German speech of the Blackseamen was varied, but there was not the same consciousness of differences as on the Volga. The v i l l a g e s had not existed long enough to develop p e c u l i a r i t i e s that could i d e n t i f y them, and i n a given v i l l a g e there was l i k e l y to be a variety of dialects brought from Germany, Hungary or Poland. The small admixture of people from Meck­ lenburg, Pomerania, etc., made for acceptance of marked differences. 5U«8S Blackseamen emigrated to America i n small numbers before the Volgans, from 18U7 on. Their proximity to the sea made departure easy, but u n t i l I872 they were few i n number, and scattered, except for a small group at Sandusky, Ohio. None appear to have crossed the M i s s i s s i p p i except for a small bridgehead at Burlington, Iowa. The ukase of 1871 declaring res­ t r i c t i o n of p r i v i l e g e s and array service for Germans i n Russia turned many of those seeking land from finding homes deeper i n the Russian domain as had been the almost exclusive practice during the preceding t h i r t y years. After t h e i r a r r i v a l i n the United States, the settlements at Sandusky and Burlington, and even those that began at Lincoln and Sutton i n Nebraska, — whence a few to Kansas, but the Nebraska settlements were never large — became l i t t l e more than way stations for immigrants on t h e i r way to s e t t l e ­ ments that became very large i n the Dakotas, spreading from an early set­ tlement southeast of Scotland, which i s 25 a i r miles northwest of Yankton and 20 miles from Nebraska and the Missouri River, and i n general a l i t t l e south of the Mennonite groups. They took uprmuch of the land as f a r as Yankton and by the mid-l880 fs had become a way station for s e t t l e r s on t h e i r way elsewhere (Sa lU)* a few to St. Francis, Kansas. Considerable settlements developed i n both the D a k o t a s T h o s e states received Q$% of ^Because so few Kansans came from the Dakotas no study i s i n ­ cluded of those states, but the Russian Germans i n them preserved the 196 wide use of German la t e into the twentieth century more frequently than other Ger-lings i n the United States. The Hutterite settlements with t h e i r avoidance of the world account i n part f o r t h i s phenomenon, and la t e a r r i v a l s from abroad provide most of the re s t of the explanation. Children near Sioux F a l l s , South Dakota, usually knew no English on f i r s t going to school about 1927• At Eureka, South Dakota, near the northern state l i n e , some 30 miles east of the Missouri River, the Blackseamen were i n 1951 s t i l l having services i n both German and English every Sunday. German services were s t i l l very w e l l attended, but already the attendance was f a l l i n g o f f . Near Sioux F a l l s i n 1925 German children began school knowing no English. the Catholic Blackseamen (Sa 25), but the f i r s t Blackseamen to come to the Catholic community at Park, Kansas, before immigration d i r e c t l y from Russia began, were from P l a n t e r s v i l l e , Texas, some U5 miles northwest of Houston. 5U«90 The l a t e r history of the Germans i n Russia i s a sad one. I t i s of l i t t l e d irect i n t e r e s t to t h i s study, and therefore only a few generalities are here noted. The colonies i n a l l the areas we have studied have been completely destroyed. During the F i r s t World War the accounts of the Sla v i c Russians 1 attitude toward t h e i r German fellow c i t i z e n s reveal some­ thing very similar to the corresponding American attitude. "Russification, or rather the hatred of Germans, reached a high point i n the F i r s t World War. The German language was forbidden not only i n the schools, also on the streets; even preaching might no longer be done i n German" (Stu 98) . Once the Bolshevists were i n power, there were a few amiable gestures; indeed i n 1926 t h i r t y of the thirty-nine Catholic v i l l a g e s on the Volga 197 s t i l l had t h e i r pastors* I f only l U out of kO Protestant pastors r e ­ mained i t was largely because many had elected to go to Germany (Ka 202). Soon, though^ persecution by the Russians became worse because of non-con­ formance to Communist programs. Grain stores rare expropriated so that famine i n the 1920 !s k i l l e d a large proportion of r u r a l Germans. Resis­ tance to c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n * often merely p o t e n t i a l , was punished by ban­ ishment and transportation of the men. The German population of Russia decreased very materially during the famines but i n spite of a l l d i f f i ­ c u l t i e s ms increasing again u n t i l the Second World War. Then the s e t t l e ­ ments were annihilated by transportation to S i b e r i a , central Asia and the North. The hardships i n f l i c t e d on these scattered people by both man and nature did not keep them from a gradual population r i s e . They are so widely distributed and subject to such propagandist pressures that they are more l i k e l y to succumb to Russification than i n the past. But the struggle goes on. Children below 18 cannot attend church. Stumpp lamented i n 196U, "Christmas without children^ Grown-ups r e c i t e Christmas poems and sing Christmas carols. In Zelinograd only, where the sole Protes­ tant minister i n the Soviet Union i s s t i l l active, i s there a modest chapel 1 1 (Stu 137)• In 1965 the stigma of being c o l l a b o r a t o r s was removed from them. They received c i v i l r ights on two conditions: they should not t r y to regain l o s t property, and they should not return to t h e i r former r e s i ­ dences. From the Black Sea country a goodly number were moved out with the German army, ultimately to Germany; from there many went on to Canada and South America. 5U#93g Yiddish-speaking Jews, whose language may be regarded as a German d i a l e c t , l i v e d mostly, at least most of those who emigrated to the United 198 States, within the boundaries of the Russian Empire of the nineteenth century, i n Lithuania, Poland, White Russia, Volhynia, Podolia, and the Ukraine. From t h i s area came over a m i l l i o n of the m i l l i o n and a quarter Yiddish-speaking foreign-born residents i n the United States i n 1930. Few l i v e d i n Great Russia or i n the Don area of the Ukraine, that i s , the 35th meridian which passes near Moscow was approximately t h e i r eastern l i m i t i n the south. In the latitudes of Moscow with exceptions i t was f i v e degrees farther west. There were few farther north. The Russians had driven them into c i t y ghettos. Their i s o l a t i o n repressed any tendency to abandon Yiddish. They were subject to persecution of every sort i n ­ cluding the imposition of severe economic handicaps, and the push for emigration among them, which became greater a s the campaign of Russi­ f i c a t i o n became stronger, could hardly have been greater. Only lack of money for t r a v e l and a conviction that sooner or l a t e r Jews would be oppressed no matter where they were could have kept them i n Russia. In comparison with the settlements that formed i n the great c i t i e s of the United States, very few of them reached Kansas, p a r t i c u l a r l y , few of those of the period of the great emigration*. The early-coming Jews i n Kansas were mostly born i n Germany or close to i t . Examples from early times connected with no settlement are Kohn (Eudora 185U) from East Prussia; August Bondi (Lawrence 1855, Greeley 1856, Salina l a t e r ) from Austria and Theodore Weichselbaum (Ogden 1857) from Bavaria; connected w i t h groups that organized synagogues, Frank (Leavenworth 1855) from Poland; F r i e d - berg (Kansas City 1870) from Russia, but h i s wife was a Prussian Jewess. Friedberg*s o r i g i n was an early example of that of a group that became preponderant, he came from the Ukraine, and i n l a t e r times Jews from Russia. 199 •usually had been born i n the Ukriane* In 1890 the Orthodox Jews had two organizations in Leavenworth County (2U5 members), one at Wichita (100) and one at Topeka (58)#. The Reformed Jews had one at Atchison (62)and one at Salina (21) # At the close of the Fi r s t World War the Jews were ^al&le in Kansas City to form a Dkrainirta • Club that conducted i t s meetings in Yiddish (see Kansas City settlement history)• 55*00 German immigration into the American colonies was greater than that of other non-English stocks and became so entrenched in Pennsylvania that even a half century of almost no immigration, i f one excepts 5*000 of the Hessian mercenaries who remained in America (M12), in the years before 1815 did not i n the rural counties drive out German speech* The German settlements i n other places that i s , i n New York and in a l l the states south of Pennsylvania except perhaps in Maryland and in New York city, had been very largely absorbed l i n g u i s t i c a l l y when immigration revived after the Napoleonic Wars* The situation as described by the Freiherr von Mwtsterwarther in 1817 was IJken very similar to that existing again about 1900* He was writing from Philadelphia: !lThe richest and best educated Germans of this c i t y are not friendly toward the German language and would be glad to know that i t was completely abandoned* Among the lower classes more German s p i r i t i s to be found* Among them there are several societies whose arm i s religious education and upbringing in the German language • . • The German emigrant does not forget his mother tongue as long as he liv e s . Hfs children s t i l l learn i t , though seldom thoroughly; with most of them everything German i s usually repulsivej they know not the land of their fathers, and are often ashamed of their origin* With grandchildren i t i s usually a l l l o s t * Inland and 200 especially in rural d i s t r i c t s German holds out longest* Much in their household arrangements, i n their customs and dress s b i l l bears the German imprint, i s passed on longer, and longer withstands the introduction of local ways" (Mu U?)* In Philadelphia even the Lutheran Church had s p l i t * English Lutheranism was founded, and in those days, the epithet "English 1 1 was appropriate only because of the language used: the members of the church were a l l of German descent* But part of the original congregation remained fa i t h f u l to German, which i s witness to the persistence of the German language i n a not inconsiderable element i n Philadelphia 1s popu­ lation (B 102)* The contentiousness exhibited by the Protestants of Philadelphia had i t s p a r a l l e l among the Catholics. A German church, Holy Trinity, had been established by 1806* Father F* A* B r i t t , a Jesuit, was the pastor* When Bishop F. M* Igan was appointed in 1808 strife be­ tween him and his people in Philadelphia, both Irish and Germans, began* The Jesuit superior recalled Father B r i t t , and Holy Trinity was l e f t to Irishmen* "When the Rev* Mr* Kenny attempted to preach, threats were made that he would be dragged from the pulpit* He seems to have been stationed there for the benefit of those who could no longer speak German" (Sh III, 212). Because of the continuing presence of speakers of German, Philadelphia went on as the center of German culture of the United States, possessing the most widespread influence of any ci t y among the Germans, though the American public came to think of other younger ci t i e s as more German. New York City had i t s German citizens while i t was s t i l l New Amsterdam and the German element in the town was strong enough in 17U8 to permit the establishment of a German Lutheran Church which continued on through the period of light German immigration into that part of the nineteenth century when New York became the chief immigration port of the 201 Germans. In I78I4. a German Society was organised there which continued to flourish. John Jacob Astor was i t s president in 18U1-5 (B 128). 5>5£>1 Penn-Germans, as this work designates, irrespective of their early or late American habitat, the descendants of seventeenth and eighteenth century German immigrants who in the middle of the nineteenth century and later were s t i l l using German as the language of the home, were often then s t i l l resident in Pennsylvania and coastal states; sometimes they had emi­ grated to states farther west. Immigrants of the nineteenth century set­ tli n g i n Pennsylvania and later going on westward may be considered Penn- Germans i f they entered settlements dominated by other Penn-Germans. The Penn-Germans who came to Kansas were frequently from the western daughter settlements. In Kansas and outside these people are best located by their typical churches, the ^ ennonite Church (Old Mennonites), the church of the Brethren (Dunkards), the Brethren i n Christ (River Brethren), and churches related to them. Penn-Germans formed the bulk or at least a noteworthy part of the former United Lutheran church, of the United Brethren, and sometimes of the Evangelical Association, but for various reasons the information furnished by the existence of congregations of these latter denominations must be regarded as accessory in determining locations of Penn-German groups that were l i n g u i s t i c a l l y German as late as 1900. In surveying Ger-lings in states of the Mississippi valley, these groups are occasionally pointed out in this work. In Pennsylvania the use of Penn-German persisted; however !lmost reports agree that the 1950!s marked the f i n a l turning away of children and adolescents from the old tongue" (FK 223). This quotation firom Heing Kloss terminates a good sum­ mary of the history of the use of Penn-German (FK 215-223)* 202 5>5u02 In ci t i e s that grew up beyond the Alleghenies i t i s often d i f f i c u l t to say when the f i r s t Germans appeared; they were an element expected everywhere, and their f i r s t arrival was frequently not noted. It i s easier to speak of the year at which Germans became numerous enough to form some sort of organization. They were quite certain to do so very early. In the movement westward, Germans, like others, followed the national road over the mountains to the upper Ohio and down i t , or a l i t t l e later, up the Hudson, through the Mohawk Valley and along the Great Lakes. After the Louisiana Purchase, immigration by way of New Orleans and the Miss­ is s i p p i also began very soon* The towns that became great c i t i e s along these routes a l l came to have German colonies of importance. Pittsburgh in 1782 saw a German Evangelical Church organized (Fa i ;20) in 1807 i t had a German music club (K U5>, 3 113) Cincinnati had German mayors beginning in 1802 (B i;Jfj>, K 1 7 8 ) ; by 1817 there were several German churches (B l£ 6 ) ; in 1811 there was a c a l l for a German Catholic organisation In Louisville the Cathblics b u i l t a church in I 8 3 8 , the Protestants met earlier but bui l t later (B216) Across from St. Louis a colony of Swiss settled in I 8 l 8 , Hanoverians shortly afterward (B 177)• The immigration provoked by Gottfried Duden's eloquence in 182U centered in St. Louis. Buffalo held some forty German families i n 1828, and a German news­ paper was established in I 8 3 6 . Cleveland boomed after the opening of the Erie Canal i n 1827 though i t had only a thousand inhabitants i n I 8 3 O ; in I 8 3 6 a German Society was formed there (B 173) and a Protestant congregation organized (K.230) 203 Chicago had a few Germans in the l 8 3 0 fs; a p o l i t i c a l meeting of Germans took place there in 18U3 J a newspaper was f ounded in 18U5 (B 18H). Milwaukee had two or three hundred Germans in I8I4O; the f i r s t one was on the site of the c i t y i n 1 8 3 6 * New Orleans saw action by Germans very shortly after the Louisiana Purchase; Vincent Nolte began a career that shuttled between there and Europe in 1 8 0 $ ; i n 1837 a German sharpshooting com­ pany was organized there (B 2 2 8 ) . Five of these nine c i t i e s w i l l occupy us later, Cincinnati, Cleveland, St© Louis, Chicago and Milwaukee, even more the areas surrounding them, for these c i t i e s or their dependent territories sent many German citizens to Kansas. Pittsburgh, Buffalo, and Louisville also were the transient homes of future Kansans, but the German immigrants who came on from western Penn­ sylvania and Hew York seemed less bound to Pittsburgh and Buffalo than people from the neighborhood of the f i r s t five c i t i e s were to them. In Kentucky, Louisville was a somewhat isolated phenomenon; the German Ken- tuckians were elsewhere usually connected with towns on the other side of the Ohio, particularly those at Covington opposite Cincinnati. German Kansans came from these Kentucky towns on the Ohio too. Many Germans that arrived early in Kansas had landed at New Orleans and made their way up the rivers, but few of these stayed long in Louisiana* Germans, however, were early important in that area and straightway became French. There was along the Mississippi River a Cote des Allemands. 55»03 The states that have been the main sources of German population i n Kansas (direct emigration from Germany aside) are those lying betx^een Philadelphia, Milwaukee, and Kansas City; and the northern neighbor of 20U Kansas, Nebraska. More Germans have gone from Kansas to Oklahoma than have come from there, but Oklahoma too needs consideration. A few remarks on Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota and the Dakotas are also necessary. 55.0kg In Pennsylvania mid-nineteenth century German immigrants frequently did a stint in industrial areas i n the state, both that stretching from Scranton to Harrisburg and that which led from Altoona to Pittsburgh. They also passed some time along the fringe of the Penn German d i s t r i c t , that i s on the southern border toward the east or in the western border counties, particularly south of Pittsburgh. Many remained i n the state, but the land- hung 3? y made off for the west, and often the craftsman and would-be mer­ chant too. The industrialization that did not attract them i n Germany was not much more l i k e l y to attract them in Pennsylvania — or northeastern Ohio. 55.10 In Ohio there were in 1930 a great many counties where at least 300 persons born in Germany or with at least one German parent live d . On the western border above Cincinnati such counties form a band two counties wide the f u l l length of the state. Occasionally the bmnd spreads into Indiana, but in gneral the state line delimits i t . Until this band i s intersected by another coming from the east along the northern border, i t corresponds to a current of settlement sent out from Cincinnati. The current from the east in the northern part of the state i s at i t s western end four counties wide. In large part the Germans here are the descendants of numerous immi­ grant settlers in the Black Swamp area. Farther east this four county band shrinks to one county at L o r a i n , the next city of importance west of Cleveland. It broadens out again east of Cleveland in what became an indus­ t r i a l area where many foreign stocks are important. In the rest of Ohio the 205 counties with 300 Germans i n 1930 are more scattered but a wedge with i t s tip at Columbus extending east and southeast across the Western Reserve to the West Virginia border contains mostly counties having this quali­ fication. A few counties i n the neighborhood of the wedge are of impor­ tance, most of them farther north and near the Pennsylvania border, also Chillicothe directly south of Columbus. Because German immigration con­ tinued to a later date in western and northern Ohio the description of distribution of German stock i n 1930 emphasizes those parts of the state, but for historical reasons, except for Cincinnati, further treatment of Germans ±ti Ohio w i l l consider areas to the east before those to the west. 55.11 Settlement of Germans was well under way in nearly a l l parts of Ohio by the l 8 3 0 fs. Indeed, almost everywhere in the settled part of Ohio when i t became a state in 1803 there were Germans, mainly from Penn­ sylvania, Virginia, and Maryland (JJ -39k)* They were so scattered that the Lutheran minister, Paul Henkel, reported in 1806 that many uwere abandoning their mother tongue11 (U 39U)# However, concentrations developed soon,, for in 1817, the General Assembly authorized the printing of the Constitution and the laws of the State in German (U 395)• "The state legislature i n I 8 3 8 passed a law, whereby in those d i s t r i c t s in which a sufficient number of persons of persons should request i t and in which a sufficiently large school population was present the school trustees might introduce the German language as a subject into the public schools. On the 19th of March, 18U0, the word fmight ! was changed to 'shall 1 , 1 (B 162). Except for "the three Rfs'' the language of the public schools might be German (W 172). Though this law was passed particularly for the benefit of the Germans of Cincinnati (K 19U ff»), respect for the German electorate throughout the state doubt­ less influenced the legislators. 206 55*12 In Cincinnati "by 1830 approximately % of the population- was German; by 181|0, 23$; and by 1850, 21%+ Together with their children born in the United States, the Germans as early as I8I4O constituted 11 ,^163 of the U6,382 persons in the city, " that i s 3 0 ^ (¥ 52) . In 1900 German immi­ grants and their children were kl% of the population. The rapidity with which the German population of Cincinnati grew before the nineteenth cen­ tury had reached i t s midpoint may be further illustrated by a few facts in church history. Preaching in German began in Cincinnati in 1808, when Heinrich Boehm, a Penn-German, spoke to a Methodist congregation (Fa U30). He also preached in ChiUicothe. German Methodism as a separate conference was founded in Cincinnati in 1835 and the cit y remained vi r t u a l l y i t s capital throughout the conference's existence. In 1890 there were in Cin­ cinnati's county seven German Methodist churches with 8I4I members. The founder, Wilhelm Nast, began publishing i t s journal at Cincinnati in 1839; i n 1889 i t s circulation was 17,750 (B U63). Cincinnati prospered as a Catholic center. It became the see of a diocese in 1822 and of an arch­ diocese in 1850. Though the bishops and archbishops did not bear German names t i l l 190U, the Irish played second fiddle from quite early, but ap­ parently not without a struggle. Father Henni, later bishop and archbis­ hop of Milwaukee, founded German parishes in seven other Ohio towns be­ tween 1827 and I83U, but i t was only i n I83I1 after an interregnum during which a Hanoverian, Frederic Rese, had wielded episcopal powers, and after a newly-elected Irish bishop (Pureell) had named Henni Vicar-General of the diocese that a separate German parish in Cincinnati , Holy Trinity, came into being.. There had been earlier efforts, ca. 1832, to allow the Germans to meet separately in the Cathedral, but "strong opposition was manifested" (Sh III, 618). There were then 5,000 Germans at the Cathedral (L 135). 207 Saint Mary's, the second German parish was formed under Henni fs superin­ tendence in I8I4I. Apparently the Germans did not feel that the hierarchy was treating them f a i r l y , for in I8I4I4 sixteen hundred of them organized to take over the economic government of German Catholicism in the City. Henni quelled the movement for Bishop Purceli by gathering two thousand men into a meeting at St. Mary's where he and three other German priests exposed "the madness and baseness of such a corporation" (Diamond Jubilee St. Mary Church, p. lU). Henni shortly afterward l e f t for Milwaukee. In I8I4.6 at St. Mary's 2,500 persons belonged to the church societies; there were U32 baptisms and 2f>0 funerals. The German population grew by rapid natural increase as well as by immigration. In 1900 out of kh Catholic parishes in Cincinnati, 23 were German, 2 were Negro, one Italian, one Polish; Lamott without counting a l l f i i a l churches l i s t e d 17 German par­ ishes i n 1921 (L lUO). About 1950, Protestant churches with German mem­ bership in Cincinnati numbered 27 without counting the churches which had formerly been German Methodist. The Germans in Cincinnati were active i n p o l i t i c s ; in I83U a German Society was formed to support through common German unity causes to their advantage (K 185). An example of their power i s an ordinance of I8I4O requiring that German be taught to youths desiring i t (FK 233) • A quasi-political evidence of the Germanic enthusiasm of Cincinnati i s this: while a l l the great cities important for Germans cele­ brated the defeat of France and the formation of the German Empire most b r i l l i a n t l y , Cincinnati was the f i r s t , fourth of February, 1871; over three months passed before Philadelphia and Chicago did their part. 55*13 In Cincinnati Engl-izing of many began early, but five new Catholic German parishes were formed after 1870. In certain Catholic families German remained the speech of the home at least t i l l the Second World War. Of the 208 Lutheran, Missouri Synod, churches, four in number) one was in the "English Dist r i c t " in 1916 and another had admitted English to part of i t s services. Two were s t i l l having German services in 19H8. Concordia, the older of these, was founded i n 18U9» In 1951 i t s English services were attended by U25 to k$0 persons; i t s German service every Sunday by 6 0 to 70 including 25 to 3 0 of the 38 "displaced persons" who had immigrated since the Second World War and joined the congregation« There were also members who had come to America after the F i r s t World War. Besides the d.p.fs, about twenty of those attending the German services were immigrants and another score were of a later generation. This congregation was as l i n g u i s t i c a l l y con­ servative as any German group in Cincinnati. 55.14 Germans also settled in the d i s t r i c t around Cincinnati. A group of Badenese established a settlement fifteen miles to the northeast in 1795 (Fa U26). A Lutheran chruch was organized in Butler County at Hamilton in 1837* Northeast of Hamilton eight air miles at Trenton, Alsatian Amish arrived i n 1819 and were joined by Hessians in 1 3 3 2 . The Alsatians here furnished the f i r s t settlers to the Amish colonies east of Peoria, I l l i n o i s (ME)* At Hamilton (62-280) the early comers were in large part "rationalis­ t i c " and churches did not prosper greatly. Later the town was more than one- half Catholic. The f i r s t Protestant Church was a Free Church. The Luth­ erans, who drew aside in^to Zion Lutheran Church, attained a building i n 1858* In 1935 i t s German services were being attended by only six or seven persons, but with a change of pastor the number increased to forty or forty- f i v e . In 1950 German services were abandoned except for two or three spe- 209 c i a l occasions; just before the change over 300 persons attended the English service every Sunday and a score the German service. There had been no im­ migration since 19135 and most of those who used German were of a later generation* The F i r s t Evangelical and Reformed Church dates i t s o r i g i n i n the Free Church noted above. A l l i t s records were in German u n t i l 1922. Except for communion services and Good Friday,. German was abandoned about 19U6. In 1951 11 on Thursdays,the old ladies who quilt or make layettes get into arguments as to what kind of German they are speaking; they also argue about the meaning of words in the letters that thank them for what we send to Germany." German was evidently not on firm ground, but members of the third generation born as late as 1925 knex* a l i t t l e German. 55»l5 In Cleveland consciousness of provincial origins was marked. Han­ overians and Hhinelanders in the same congregation were given to s t r i f e . As a whole the Germans of the west side were Hanoverians, those of the east side Pomeranians and East Prussians. Just west of Cleveland, German set­ tlements was heavy by 1833 (K 229)• Lorain has i t s name from Alsatians and Lorrainers who arrived somewhat earlier (Fa U22). At E l y r i a and Westlake Lutheran churches of the Missouri Synod were established in 1852 and 1858. Akron's church of the same denomination was organized i n l85Iu Cleveland and the closely surrounding area because of i t s industrial development received late immigration and certain elements in the German population were fai t h f u l to German in 19U8. In 1916 the use of English occurred in a larger proportion of Cleveland Missouri Lutheran churches than i n some other large c i t i e s . Of some twenty congregation five were in the "English D i s t r i c t " ; another had English regularly, and three more had admitted English to some sort of status. There were in Cleveland in 1890 five German Methodist churches which necessarily gave up German after the 210 merger of 1926. In 19U8 out of about 2$ Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod,, sixteen had German services as well as English* These included the four oldest of the churches founded between 181*3 &tid 1858 and two churches founded i n 191U and 1928. But in general many born after 1905 were not true speakers of German; many of those born i n 1910 have never attained even approximate proficiency. The industrial foreign colonies at Akron i n ­ cluded late arriving Catholic Volgans. More truly northeast Ohio, like Cleveland and i t s neighborhood became so industrial, that i t i s hard to trace development of settlement. However, i B r i l 8 l | Trumbull County (62-228), north of Columbiana on the east border, was one of the two counties receiving the largest number of copies of the Ohio Constitution in German i n 1817. 3>5*l6 An Ohio area furnishing many citizens to various settlements i n Kansas was at the southern edge of the northeast section, a d i s t r i c t that was early of importance for Germans. The counties in i t are Stark (62-248) where Canton i s , Tuscarawas just to the south, Wayne just to the west and Columbiana to the east.Penn-Germans moved early to this d i s t r i c t and i n t o the two counties to the west. There were Mennonite groups i n the area as early as 1806 and specifically Amish in Tuscarawas County i n -1808. The Mennonite sects became very strong i n the area, and occupied rather solidly the eastern halves of Wayne County and of Holmes County just to the south. Among the Mennonites there was one group that came directly from Switzer­ land beginning in 1818. They developed two churches, the Sonnenberg Con­ gregation, named for the place of origin of i t s members in the Jura Moun­ tains, and the Crown H i l l group, both in the eastern part of the county 12 a i r miles a part, the former to the south. Both have been l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative. At Crown H i l l "the Sunday School, organized in 187U, at f i r s t met violent opposition from the old members because they f e l t i t would mean 211 loss of the German language." At Sonnenberg "the transition from German to English was not begun until the third decade of the twentieth century and then only after a severe struggle" (ME)* The struggle continued and in 1936 three-fourths of the members, the progressive section, withdrew to organize a new congregation. A German minister of the Reformed Church came into Columbiana County just east of Stark in 1811 (Bo 2 ) . A German journal was founded in that County i n I 8 0 8 (U 395)• Stark and Columbiana Counties received a goodly number of the German edition of the Ohio con­ stitution in I8l7» At Osnaburg i n Stark County a contract with a Refor­ med minister provided for preaching in German in 183U« Winesburg on the western edge of this d i s t r i c t was founded by German Lutherans in 1827 (K 227)J an Evangelical and Reformed Church also grew up there, where at least u ^ n t i l 19U8 there was preaching in German, attended by 50 to 100 persons every Sunday. The Zoar Society, a German communal and p i e t i s t i c group that prospered, set up an establishment in Tuscarawas County in 1817 (W 160, K 177, B 155)• In 188U Korner wrote "Although the inhabi­ tants with but few exceptions were born in the village, the German lan­ guage i s spoken there almost exclusively" (K 178)» Other German place names in the same county are Strassburg, Schoenbrunn, Gnadenhutten. At Strassburg preaching i n German at the E-R church had ceased by 1950. The two latter towns were originally Indian communities founded by the Moravian Germans. Gnadenhutten became important, settlers i n their own right began to arrive in 1799 (Fa U20 • 55#17 Canton (62-2U8) i s the German netropolis of this area. A German newspaper was established there in 1821 (K 228). The Catholic bishop had visited i t in 1822. Lutheran preaching began about 1827 (B 172). 212 In Canton the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, not founded t i l l 1926, had German services in 19U8 and one of the American Lutheran churches was hav­ ing a German service twice a month in 1951 • Apparently the Lutherans assi­ milated those other Protestants who thirsted for German and could no longer have their thirst satisfied at the four Evangelical and Reformed Churches© In the F i r s t Reformed Church there (membership in 1950 - l ,Ul5)> the con­ stitution of 1897, written in German, had declared: "Both languages shall be used in this congregation. The sermon i n morning shall be in German and i n the evening in English." In 1907 by a greater than two-thirds ma­ jo r i t y German services were reduced to once every two weeks. 55.18 Below Wheeling while the Ohio River i s s t i l l flowing nearly south in northeastern Monroe County (62-279) i s the hamlet of Switzer, so named for the Swiss around i t . In the neighborhood are four Evangelical and Reformed churches with a combined membership in 1950 of U87» In Monroe County there were in 1890 eight German Methodist churches with 565 members. 55*19 Zanesville (62-266), 50 miles directly east of Columbus, Lancaster (62-275) 9 some thirty miles southeast of Columbus, and Somerset, about 15 miles from Lancaster and forty miles from Colimbus, were the scenes of early German settlement. Zanesville was named for a Penn-German, Ebenezer Zahn, who founded i t i n 1796 (G 257) and Lancaster in 1797 (Fa U18).. It and Lancaster were the scenes of preaching in German by Heinrich Boehm in 1808 (Fa I4.3O). Zanesville fs county was one of the two receiving the most copies of 0 h i o fs Constitution i n German in 1817 (U 395)* Zanesville was an active German settlement i n the 1820 fs and had a Lutheran Synodic meet­ ing in 1830. There were then Lutheran and Reformed congregations in the neighborhood (B 172). The Missouri Synod church was founded in l8UUj i t s Sunday school was "English" by 1916. The town was visited by the Catholic 213 bishop of Cincinnati in 1818 (Sh III, 336) and had I4O or 50 Catholic fami­ l i e s i n l82l±. The Catholics A there seem to have been at f i r s t more Irish than German, but in 18U2 the Germany bafeu£edia! cihurch for themselves (Sh III, 629). - 55*20 As to Lancaster (31,000 inhabitants i n 1950) "Early travelers i n v a r i ­ ably commented on the dominance of Germans in Lancaster" (U 395) • u t t e r i n making this statement in his volume of the History of the State of Ohio re­ fers to an account of I8l5, but he adds that there was a German newspaper, Per Adler in Lancaster i n 1809; Faust assigns the f i r s t publication of Der Adler to 1807 (Fa U l 8 ) . These people, as the name of the town suggests, were Germans from Pennsylvania in the main. Germans from Europe joined them (W 52)* At Somerset and Lancaster there were certainly German Catholics in 1829 (Sh IIIj 355) J probably they were an element i n the 20 families who established a church at Lancaster* i n l 8 2 l | (Sh III; 3U7)• The bishop had visited Somerset in 1818 (Sh II I ; 336). Lancaster fs Catholic church in 1950 had three priests a l l with German names, and a school attended by 553 c h i l ­ dren. There were three German Protestant Churches in the town; the Missouri Lutheran founded in I8I4.7 had 800 members, the American Lutheran 355> the Evangelical and Reformed U25j there were seven Protestant German churches in the adjoining country to the south and east. Somerset, which had only 1 ,383 inhabitants in 1950, had an Evangelical and Reformed church with 203 members and an Anerican Lutheran with the same number. The American Lutheran church at Junction City eight miles south also had 203 and the one at New Lexington a few miles east of Junction City, 353• Near Lancaster there were points where German was s t i l l to heard i n the 1960!s (FK 216). 55*21 Columbus at the head of the southeast wedge became a rather important German center, beginning in the l 8 3 0 !s (W 52), or even the 1820fs (K 225)* 21U It had 25 Protestant German churches about 1950. At about the same time there were eight Catholic churches whose pastors bore German names and three where some of the serving clergy had similar names. One of the last three had been a national German parish in 1915; another German parish of that date was before 1950 provided with pastors bearing Irish names. In I83U Columbus had 80 Catholics, not a l l Germans (SH III 620); they were organized into a parish in 1837. A Lutheran seminary was established there in 1830 (K 227). St. Paul 1s (American) Lutheran Church was founded then, and by 18UU there were two more Protestant German churches. ! f A l l these parishes had parochial schools in which the German language w as excellently taught and preserved; 1 1 so Koerner said in 188U. In 1890 the German Metho­ dist church had 2U6 members. Twenty-five miles northwest of Columbus in Union County, St. John's Lutheran Church was established, in I838. (There were not 300 German f.w.s. in the county i n 1930, but the area was German enough i n 1916 so that German and English both were the languages of ser­ mons. ) In Columbus German had disappeared from the services of the Luth­ eran churches Missouri Synod by 19U8. These congregations included four at or near the ci t y . In 1916 one church at Columbus was already prevail­ ingly "English 1 1 and two others used both languages. 55*22 Much of northwestern Ohio was settled late. The German element approached this area early from i t s southeast corner where Mansfield i s located. Mansfield's County, .Richland (62-2U5) together with Knox County (62-256) adjoining, was one of the counties receiving considerable numbers of Ohio's Constitution in German in 1817 (U 395)« Johann Weiler from Swit­ zerland was one of the residents in 1819 (B 17U)» The area was then on the frontier of settlement. To the northwest of Mansfield in the neighborhood 215 of T i f f i n , there were in 1833 people who had been born in Germany (B 173); there were Maryland Germans there in the 1820fs (Fa U29). T i f f i n (62-233) became a Reformed Church center in 1850; Heidelberg College was founded there. n a r t i n Henni planned a Catholic church there about 1830 (Sh III, 355); i t was over a decade before i t was bu i l t . Centered about 10 miles southwest of T i f f i n i s an area of Catholic German settlement. Luxembur- gers began to arrive there by 1833; in part of the d i s t r i c t conditions were s t i l l at the pioneer stage in 1857 (GL 2U5-7)* Berwick, New Riegel and Alvada are the names of villages s t i l l existing in the twentieth cen­ tury (populations in 1920 135 and 2U6 and 1U0). The people continued to be in great part Luxemburgers, Alvada most solidly with about f i f t y fami­ l i e s i n the late l 8 8 0 !s. Gonner remarked on abandonment of German in 1888 (GL 188). Southeast of T i f f i n in Crawford County toward Mansfield five German Methodist congregations existed in 1890 with 315 members; there were two more with 2I4.O members in Marion County, the next south. 55»23 Toledo, founded in 1817 by Martin Baum , born in Alsace, f i r s t re­ quired Catholic German care in the early l8U0 fs (SH IV 183)« About 1950 i t had twenty German Protestant churches. In 1890 Toledo's two German Metho­ dist churches had I4J4O members. In 1900 there were three Catholic national parishes for Germans. At the largest, where Jesuits were i n charge, there was a school with 756 pupils. In 1916 at Toledo a Missouri Lutheran church had "English'5 services on Sunday11 but in 19U8 both churches existing in 1916 s t i l l had some German services. There was rural German settlement south of Toledo. 55«2U Settlement of the western band of counties and of the Black Swamp area at their northern end was greatly influenced by the construction of 216 the Mamee-Miarai canal from Lake Erie to Cincinnati. The Maumee section was completed in 18U3 and the Miami section i n l8U5j a southernleg of the latter was open as early as 1827 and a decade later there had been much speculation in the lands along the route. The German settlers csme i n greatest numbers after the canal had been extended into the region of their settlements. As an example of settlement aLong Ohio's western band, Dayton (62-271) i s salient where there were Germans by 1795 (Fa lj.28, Cr 257) • About I8I4.O i t had two German newspapers (K 229) and a German choral so­ ciety. Teaching of German was required by law i n l8hh (FK 233) • Even­ tually i n i t s population class i t was one of the most important German c i t i e s . In 1950 i t had 21 German Protestant churches and 13 Catholic churches with pastors whose names were German. The American Lutheran membership totaled over 5*000. Germantown in the same county, founded in l 8 l l j , had five churches in 18U5, a l l served in German (Fa U28). Other examples of German settlements along the west border are: Ludwigsburg, now Lewisburg (62-270) f i f t y miles north of Cincinnati", founded in 1826 (K 235)J Richmond in Indiana at the same latitude, where a Lutheran Church was organized in 181|U« From Preble county between the s e towns and Barke County (62-260) just to the north, Germans came to Kansas. Along the western border of Ohio some settlements were quite tena­ cious of German. Not so much at Richmond, Indiana, however, where St. John's American Lutheran was organized in iQhk, and where preaching i n German was abandoned in 19U2, communion service in German in 19U6. Here the congregation of 9U5 was almost a l l urban, the descendants of original settlers. Similarly at West Alexandria, Ohio, south of Lewisburg, where the congregation was more largely rural, there had been German preaching only once a year as e arly as 1935* There, however, a dialect l o c a l l y devel- 217 oped among the Bavarians and Pomeranians had persisted as a Heimsprache. 12U25 In Auglaize County (62-251) i n the next t i e r of counties north i s New Bremen, founded in 1832 (K 235, see also Fa U29), in 1950 a town of 1,5U6 inhabitants with an Evangelical and Reformed Church with 1,360 mem­ bers. Minster i s three miles south, which had 1,728 inhabitants in 1950 and in 1915 had U20 families in i t s Catholic church. Minster, named for Munster in Westphalia, was founded in 1831 or 1832 (B 167)« The founder and f i r s t settlers were Oldenburgers, Auglaize County was then on the fron­ t i e r of settlement. Without mixing much with each other, the inhabitants of Minster and New Bremen were using German currently in 1951• For Minster in particular i t was a common language at dances among young people and in any of the cafes (that i s , saloons) with which the town was well provided. Children four years old knew enough so that German could not be used as the language of secrecy. Immigrants born about 1905, who had come to Minster as adults could not be distinguished l i n g u i s t i c a l l y from the older stock. Even the priest, who had arrived latest from Germany, was 11 just like any of the others". Though he preached only in English, he did much pastoral work in German. The d i s t r i c t extended south through Fort Loramie, which i s three miles away and some fifteen miles back west from the old canal route where such place names as Maria Stein and Saint Henry show the pre­ sence of German and Catholic population. To the north the dialect of New Bremen was different; the two towns, so close Geographically, are cultur­ a l l y separated by their religious a f f i l i a t i o n s . A l i t t l e farther north at St. Marys founded about I83U (K 235) and Celina, German had fallen into greater disuse in 1950, but not more than 8 miles east of St. Marys a Mis­ souri Lutheran church was having German services i n part. There i t was usual i n the 1930 !s for grandparents to talk Piatt Deutsch to their grand- 218 children. The children of that period were so much affected in their Eng­ l i s h that cultured representatives of the group used the construction ex- amplified i n , 111 am brought up i n Ohio,11 without any consciousness of i t s abnormality. •26 In Alien County, next north, Lima became a center to which those coming to Kansas often repaired. The most interesting point in the county i s in i t s extreme northeastern corner at Bluffton (Ca. 2000 population); (to the west and northwest |Pandora extends into Putnam County). In 1833, re­ cent immigrants from Switzerland moved out into this area from the Sol^n- berg settlement (see #55. l6) . The immigration continued from the region of France and Switzerland near Belfort. The Mennonite churches in the neigh­ borhood had 1670 members in 19$h* There are also two Evangelical and Re­ formed Churches with Swiss membership, which numbered $29 in 1950. "The language of the pulpit remained German well into the beginning of the pre­ sent century, though English i s now used exclusively. But the Swiss dia­ lect i s s t i l l commonly heard on the streets of Pandora and Bluffton i n everyday conversation by the middle-aged and older men and women." So says the Mennonite Encylopedia (I, 368)J other testimony confirms this. There are Penn-German Mennonites near Elida northwest of Lima. There are also several hundred Dunkards in and northeast of Lima. •27 In far northwestern Ohio the Black Swamp region, unoccupied i n 1820, s t i l l l i g h t l y settled in l85>0, was a center of German colonization; the Germans helped drain the swamp and develop the area* Henry County (62-221), the second county from both the Indiana and Michigan lines became largely German. Deshler, Hamler and Napoleon were German towns, north German. From the heart of the Black Swamp d i s t r i c t people emigrated to Nebraska and Kansas. 219 In the Black Swamp d i s t r i c t i n 1951 German was persisting except on i t s edges. German settlement stretched away from the Maumee River and i t s canal on both sides so as to overflow the edges of Henry County. At Ridge- v i l l e Corners there were two American Lutheran churches, one about 11 miles from the axis, the other 8. In 1951 one had German services once a month, the other every Sunday. Two Missouri Synod churches in the small Ridge- v i l l e Corners area also had German services in part. So did that Synod's churches i n Napoleon on the river and northwest of i t . Upstream 5 miles, the church on the l e f t bank had German, the one on the right bank not; i t was probably this last one which had. admitted English by 1916, Deshler, 15 miles from the river on the eastern side also had German services. Dia­ lects varied in the d i s t r i c t , and even in one town the dialect of the mem­ bership of one church was different from that of another. Hanoverians and Mecklenbur g ers predominated in the d i s t r i c t . Archbold (62-211) to the north was also German but of different stock. In 183U Amish began coming to this neighborhood and developed a settlement occupying a fourth of the county. Most of the congregations later became part of the Mennonite Church. Their baptized members number about 2600. "Coming from Alsace, Mulhouse and Montbeliard many of them spoke and wrote both French and German." In 1951 the old spoke "Dutch" with each other, but the children knew none. In the center of this county at Wauseon (population ca. 3000) just beyond the Amish, other Germans were joined by Volgans about 1912 and 1913• They were numerous, but many l e f t when a foundry was closed. In 1951 the old women among them s t i l l spoke German to­ gether, but their children knew none. In August of that year eighteen at­ tended the German communion service at the American Lutheran church. In Ohio's most northwestern county, Williams, there were in 1890 six German 220 Methodist churches with a total membership of 2 £l; in Defiance County to the south two more with 1 5>0 memberso ££•29 Considering Ohio as a whole the displacement of German has been greatest where the settlements are oldest, but since a l l settlements ante­ date 185>0 in their beginnings a l l have seen more than three generations grow up since settlement. Urban settlements where late arrivals have been numerous, such as Cleveland, and solid rural d i s t r i c t s like the Black Swamp and the New Bremen •-Minster areas where comparative late arrivals have been supplemented by comparative isolation ifc ;the nuclei have been the most con­ servative • 5>f>r30 Indiana was never as greatly favored by German settlement as Ohio. The inner core of the state except at Indianapolis has received few Germans as compared with the states to the east and west, However, five large sec­ tions of the state deserve our attention: (1) The south along the Ohio River extending back into the hinterland, especially at the eastern and western extremities. (2) The lower Wabash where the river flows south at or near the I l l i n o i s line from an approximate midpoint on that boundary. (3) The upper Wabash which mounts mostly to the east but somewhat to the north after leaving I l l i n o i s behind. (U) The Fort Wayne-Decatur region, through which runs the upper Maumee, a smaller area but, as we shall see, important. (5>) The counties adjoining Lake Michigan and the counties next to them, lacking one on the west adding one on the east along the Michigan l i n e . This last d i s t r i c t began to be settled later than the south but received 221 German immigrants much longer. A l l told, the state north of Indianapolis represents different settlement currents from the southern half. The Lakes route brought people from the east to the northern half. The southern half received most of i t s inhabitants from the Ohio River. £5.31 The settlement of Indiana depended in part upon the removal of the Indians. In the f i r s t decade and a half of the nineteenth century, the ter­ r i t o r y was open along the Ohio River, the lower Wabash and the Whitewater, which flows south near the Ohio boundary. The Indians held two-thirds of in 1816 the state when i t was admitted to the Union A— a l l the north and a blunted arrowhead extending down into the center of the state. Before the decade was ended they were moved out of the region south of the upper Wabash. The Indians also lost a strip north of the Wabash, but their were l e f t the north­ western third of the state. They were not ejected completely (even then a few remained) u n t i l I 8 3 8 , but settling in their territory was hardly bridled after Black Hawk's War in 1832. Settlement along the upper Wabash and beyond toward Lake E r i e was advanced by the planning and then the construction of the Wabash-Erie canal, which in Ohio was the Maumee canal. Work began on i t i n 1332. The section west of Fort Wayne came into use i n 1835; the pro­ ject was completed in 18U3 to the head of Wabash navigation at Lafayette. Fort Wayne was from early in the project a center for new settlers and for canal workers. 55»32 German settlement in the eastern part of the area along the Ohio River existed earlier but did not become important u n t i l after I 8 3 O . Next to the southwestern Ohio border extending south from Brooksville (62-77S) for some thirty miles t i l l beyond Aurora (62-36) in a d i s t r i c t perhaps twenty miles wide early German settlements were numerous. It was Protestant at i t s south- 222 ern end, Catholic at i t s northern* The names of at least two of the Catholic settlements, New Alsace and Oldenburg proclaiming the settlers provinces of origin . c New Alsace where an Alsatian f i r s t settled in 182? became a Cath­ ol i c parish in 1833, Oldenburg was receiving priestly care in 181*2 • In the New Alsace Catholic cemet ery, occasionally English inscriptions were car­ ved in the l 8 5 0 fsj English became common in the l 8 8 0 !s and German disap­ peared about 190$. English preaching was introduced during the Firs t ¥orld War. Confessions in German s t i l l took place in 1950, but nobody used German in conversation and had not for some time. The population here was made up of families long established. A period of commercial prosperity had weak­ ened in 1868 and ended by 1890. A church membership of 1100 i n 1868 had fallen to 835 in 1890. In 1950 i t was half as large as in 1890. The l i n g ­ u i s t i c situation in the other Catholic settlements thereabouts was reported to be similar to that at New Alsace* 55»33 The Protestant area described above, west and southwest of Cincinnati, contains no place names related to topography in Germany. At Farmer's He- treat and Cross Plains, Lutheran churches were organized in I8I4.3 2nd l85l« None of the German churches in this area had services in German in 1950. Preaching in German i s reported to have ceased with the F i r s t World War. , Only the very old knew German, and even they were not using i t in 1950. In the cemetery of St. John's (American) Lutheran church at Sunraan at the north edge of the Protestant d i s t r i c t , the oldest graves go back as far as 1859• Inscriptions on tombstones in English begin to appear about 1870 and almost drive out German in the l 8 9 0 fs. The last inscription in German i s dated 190$. In that year, however, the cornerstone of the new church was labeled in German. 223 Some thirty a i r miles downstream from the nearest point in Ohio i s the village of Vevay, named for the town of Vevay in French-speaking Swit­ zerland. The,first settlers were indeed French-speaking, but German-speak­ ing Swiss soon joined them. For sometime there were hopes of a prosperous wine-making center here, but i t s fortunes soon declined ( F a I, U55)• 55.3U Proceeding down the Ohio river we come to two counties opposite Louisville ( 6 2 - 1 0 5 , 106) that in 1930 each contained more than 3 0 0 persons born i n Ger­ many and their children. At New Albany there was a German church in 1837 (Sch 1 8 9)• There was in Floyd Cou^&y^lfso a German Methodist church with 1 3 0 members (in Louisville there were three with $9$ members). At Lanes- vil l e . just to the West a Catholic church was going up in I 8 3 6 , a Missouri Lutheran church was organized in 18U6. This neighborhood in 195>0 was s t i l l predominantly German. Between i t and Vevay there were other points that were the scene of early German activity, notably Madison. Downstream too before we come to a d i s t r i c t of major interest there are on the river banks names that bespeak German back-ground, Mauckport, Indiana, and Brandenberg, Kentucky, for instance. $$.3$ Well to the north of'the river, almost west from the southern tip of the Ohio border something over one hundred miles, we are in Jackson County (62-83S). That county and the southern end of Bartholomew County to the north became heavily German and sent emigrants to K a n s a s . The area i s pre­ ponderantly Protestant. There is only one Catholic church in i t — at Sey­ mour, and sixteen German Protestant churches, not counting the Methodist church at Seymour which in early days was German; indeed, i n 1890 there were five German Methodist churches in the county, membership, 1 7 0 . Three of the Missouri Lutheran churches were organized in I8I4O, I 8 L 7 , and 1 8 ^ 0 . A neigh- 22U boring area, a corner of Bartholomew County and of Shelby County to the north i s occupied by Germans who had moved west from the Catholic New Alsace-Oldenburg area. German township in northern Bartholomew County i s well named. Edinburg just north of Bartholomew County began to build i t s Catholic church in 1Q$2. ££•36 The Germans in Jackson County (for location see above) were not particularly conservative of German. Only one Missouri Lutheran church, that at Jonesville founded in 1877, in the northeastern part of the dis­ t r i c t which was settled later than the others, conserved the use of Ger­ man in services in 19U8* The last sermons elsewhere in the region had occurred in 19Ul« Two of the churches were dividing sermons between Eng­ l i s h and German in 1916. There had been no immigration since about 1880 and original immigrants were few even in 1917 when most of the shift to English took place in the churches* The English of the people showed in 19E>1 that those born in the f i r s t decade of the century had been conver­ sant with German. ££•37 Returning to the Ohio River and descending i t t i l l we are two- thirds of the way across the state, we come to an area that extends inland f i f t y or sixty miles in Perry, Spencer and DuBois Counties (62-llU, 113, 1 0 2 ) where Catholic Germans and Protestant Germans are both vary numerous* It was already a German d i s t r i c t when St* Meinrad 1 s Benedictine Priory, later in i?53• Abbey, was founded. The people here were mainly south Germans and Swiss (Fr 5U). Catholic churches were under construction at Jasper at the north­ ern extremity of the d i s t r i c t and at Ferdinand in I 8 3 6 and 18U3* A Pro­ testant German missionary, Tolke, visited settlements in DuBois County in I8I4.8 (Sch 1 8 8 ) . Other Lutherans and the Evangelical Synod greatly sur­ passed in number the Missouri Lutherans here, but the latter organized a 225 church in l35l» German Methodists were important in the area; they establ­ ished a camp meeting at Santa Glaus six or seven miles from St, Meinrad Abbey. It flourished mightily. In this county, Spencer, i t provided the only church of i t s kind (225 members in 1890), but in Perry County there were in 1890 four German Methodist congregations with 290 members and in Marrick County just west three with 220 members. Abraham Lincoln's country i s found on the west edge of this d i s t r i c t . The Santa Claus-Saint Meinrad d i s t r i c t was more conservative of Ger­ man than the Indiana d i s t r i c t near Cincinnati. At the south end of the d i s t r i c t the Missouri Lutheran church at E^anston s t i l l had German services i n 19l|8. At Santa Claus the German Methodist cemetery contained a inscrip­ tion in German as late as 192U. To the north of this the population i s mostly Catholic and very nearly solidly German in origin to beyond Jasper twenty miles to the north. In a l l this region German speech was f a i r l y well preserved. Jasper, Holland, ^ariah H i l l and Meinrad may be cited for 1951 as places particular given to German speech. In 1892 p o l i t i c a l speeches were made in German at St. Meinrad Abbey (Fr 5U)# In 1951 at Mariah H i l l c h i l ­ dren s t i l l played in German sometimes, i t was frequently the language of tavern conversation where men in their twenties as^ell as those older as­ sembled. The English of the area has a Germanic flavor. Men born about 1920, of the fourth generation since immigration, were able at the time of the Second World War without further instruction to undertake interpreting duties in Germany. There were dialect aL differences particularly between the Catholic and the Protestant area that hampered comprehension. The dia­ lects did not seem to be local developments but imports with immigration. S t i l l few people knew whence their great-grandfather — who were the immi­ grants — came. Engl-izing was, however, going on; principally through 226 marriages in which one spouse was not proficient in German. The German influence was not strong enough to make the non-proficient learn. They would not conform to others, and the others, a l l being bi-lingual, spoke English habitually with them. 55*38 S t i l l farther westward with only a minor break i s Evansville (62-111) where in 18)4.9 out of a population of 700Q the Germans numbered 2500; mostly from Lippe and Westphalia (Sch 185)• A Catholic church was being built there in I 8 3 6 . In 1900 two of the Catholic parishes x^ ere German national. German Protestant preaching began in the city by 1839 (Sch 185)* Just to the north at Darmstadt a Missouri Lutheran church was organized in 181x7* S t i l l nearer town and a l i t t l e to the west Protestants from Lippe settled in 1336, and in I8I4.O organized what has become St. Paul's Church of Ger­ man Township (E-*R) (Sch 181;). East of Darmstadt and southeast of Elber- feld another Missouri Lutheran church was established in 1859* The Evan­ gelical Synod was here much stronger than the Lutherans. It founded seven churches i n town and eleven more w i t h i n an Indiana semiciricle twenty miles in radius. Protestants and Catholics were both numerous. Place names like St. Philip and St. Wendells to the west and northwest indicate Catholic presence in the county. Haubstadt with 89U inhabitants in 1950 and 2l4.lt pu­ p i l s in the parochial school i s also a Catholic center. It i s fifteen miles north of Evansville. The immigrants seem to have come from the south and west of Germany (Darmstadt, Hessians; Elberfeld, Rhinelanders, Wurtembergers by B 176). Evansville and i t s area is not so conservative of German as the Santa Claus-Meinrad area, but here i t persisted longer than at the eastern end of the Ohio River's Indiana section. W.A. Fritsch, a Pomeranian:born in l8i|0 who had come to Indiana at the age of twenty-two years, has l e f t a descrip- 22? tion of the situation as i t existed in 190^ in his l i t t l e book entitled Aus Americka published in Germany for consumption there. He stated that 22 teachers were assigned to teaching German in the public schools of Evansville, and later continues: "The Germans in the city have been recruited from every part of Germany and compose about 1/3 of the population. Just as they represent the most varied parts of Germany and Switzerland, so also do they belong to the most varied religious faiths, which have their separate churches and f a c i l i t i e s ; Lutherans and Catholics have parochial school besides their churches. In the social realm also societies thrive among the Germans, Turners and singing societies serve to give opportunity for joyful activ­ i t y and nourish German jolliness. A *German Society' and a German 'Veter­ ans Society 1 keep memories of Germany very especially active. The environs of the city contain many German settlers; one township bears the o f f i c i a l name 'German Township1 and has only German inhabitants. Moreover a l l south­ ern Indiana i s settled thickly by Germans, where they hold yet faster to the German language than many of their countrymen in the large towns, for in these the Germans are already mixing more with the Americans" (Fr 62) . The cornerstone inscriptions on the Emanuel (American) Lutheran establish­ ment are eloquent of the progress of change. The church i t s e l f has a cor­ nerstone in German saying that i t was built in 1856, "restauriert" 187U (the choice of this Germanized Latin word so like an English loan-word from Latin i s already significant). The school's cornerstone i s s t i l l i n Ger­ man, 1890. But the parish house was not "erbaut;" i t was "erected" i n 1927. The church had dropped German from i t s school curriculum in 1912, from i t s church services i n 1938; but the congregation in 1951 s t i l l had a sense of superiority in being German. The German language was s t i l l useful in pas- 228 toral work; persons seventy or older were more at home in i t . Here too the speakers of German were not immigrants, but this time they were of the second generation, not of the fourth. The Emanuel Lutheran church was less conservative than the Westside Evangelical church which was s t i l l having German services once a month, the only German Protestant church out of six­ teen with services s t i l l in German, though a Missouri Lutheran church f i f ­ teen miles to the - northeast s t i l l had German services. The situation in the Catholic churches was not greatly different but indicated perhaps more desire to cling to German. There were a few youths i n the choir of St. Joseph's church (by no means the oldest; i t was founded in 188U) who had learned German at home, but German preaching and instruction in school had disappeared in 1916 even before the war pressures became great« In 1951 those born at the beginning of the century could s t i l l understand, but only those who had learned to read could s t i l l speak. However, the older people were s t i l l confessing in German. And the Maennerchor s t i l l sang i n German, and would not accept an Irishman with an excellent voice who had married into the congregation, because he knew no German. 55*39 On the western frontier of the state not far up the Wabash fourteen miles from the nearest point on the Ohio, Hew Harmony (62-110) was founded in 1815 by Johann Georg Rapp and his economically successful communal colo­ nists of p i e t i s t i c origin. Rapp l e f t before ten years had passed (B 106, Fa 1*56), but some of his colonists remained. In 1950 the town of New Har­ mony had 1360 inhabitants. Posey County, where New Harmony i s , received other German immigrants by I 8 3 6 . In 1850 W. McCarer, a Presbyterian min­ ist e r , maintained that ^almost half of Posey County i s German" (Sch 186). There were in the county in 1 8 9 0 four German Methodist churches with 392 members. 229 Somewhat up the Wabash the country around Vincennes (62-90) and around Terre Haute ( 6 2 - 7 0 ) as well as the ci t i e s themselves came to have numerous Germans. The French names of the towns occur only because of their early origin. Vincennes probably was a post in 1 7 2 2 ; the date of f i r s t per­ manent settlement at Terre Haute may be 1816 when American settlers arrived: Vincennes became the see of a Catholic diocese i n I83I4, the Terre Haute country was receiving Catholic attention in 1 8 3 6 , and there were Germans there (K 2 3 9)• Twenty miles to the northwest of Vincennes i s the town of Westphalia. There were Germans just to the west by 181*7 (Sch 189)* In 1 9 0 0 one of the two Catholic churches in Vincennes was a German national parish; so was one of the three large parishes in Terre Haute, another had a pas­ tor with a German name. The Missouri Lutheran churches were established in 18^8 and lB$9m The schools for these churches averaged over 200 pupils each. In 1890 the German Methodists had a congregation of 1 9 0 at Terre Haute. Though the Germans at Vincennes had settled later, the state of their language was similar in 1951 "to that in Jackson County. There were no more German services (indeed, in 1 9 1 6 , there had been regular English services), but the old, especially in the area of German rural settlement, spoke Eng­ l i s h that indicated that they had learned i t after their habits of pronun­ ciation had become well fixed. 55«UO Indianapolis was deliberately founded in 1821 as the state capital* German settlement in the neighborhood had begun before I83O (B 175)• It had no Catholic church building t i l l I8!t9# A Missouri Lutheran parish was organized i n 18U2. In 1 8 9 0 in i t s county Marion, there were 2 German Metho­ dist congregations with 305 members and four Evangelical Association churches 230 with 323 members. In 1900 the German Catholics had two national parishes in Indianapolis with 825 pupils. There were in 1950 over 20 German Pro­ testant churches (Lutheran and E-R). In Indianapolis in 19U8, two of the seven Missouri Lutheran churches of the city, those organized in 18U2 and 18U6, were s t i l l having German services. 55 #Ijl German settlement of the northern part of Indiana proceeded in gen­ eral from the northeastern entry that i s , Fort Wayne (62-26S), and to a less extent, at least in early days, from the lake front. The country be­ tween Fort Wayne and Decatur (62-35) eastward to the Ohio border and less heavily for some distance to the west and north became definitely German; the two c i t i e s too were importantly German. The rural section particularly was in the mid-twentieth century the most German area in the state of In­ diana; perhaps in part because of support from the Swiss settlement just to the south, the close connection with the Maumee River Germans i n Ohio not far to the east, and the Penn-Germans located to the northwest. The rural areas are preponderantly Lutheran, Missouri Synod; and Lutherans are numerous in town. In and around Fort Wayne there were, about 1950, a score of Missouri Lutheran churches; with Decatur as their post office, there were half a dozen more* In the c i t y of Fort Wayne leaving aside the cathedral, four of the five Catholic churches had i n 1900 pastors with German names, their parochial schools contained more than a thousand pupils. Until well into the twentieth century the Bishop of Fort Wayne was always a German. The see at Fort Wayne was erected in 1857• In 1835 i t was part of the diocese of Bishop Brute of Vincennes. On a v i s i t of that year he found f lsix or seven hundred Catholics at Fort Wayne, and 1500 to 2000 i n ­ ducing those employed at the canal. They had not heard mass for seven 231 months" (Sh III, 6U3). The canal workers were almost a l l Irish, but not so the permanent population. The priest sent to them later that year was "able to speak the three languages, English, French, and German used by his flock." The earliest Lutheran congregation organized was that of 1837; a Lutheran church at Decatur came into being the next year. A Lutheran sem­ inary was established at Fort Wayne in I8I4O (K 237) • Before i860 nine more churches had been organized. The proliferation continued t i l l 1900. 55»1|2 In the Fort Wayne-Decatur area linguistic conditions were conserva­ tive. Twenty Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod, were s t i l l having ser­ vices in German in 19U8. At St. John's church, 7 miles northwest of Decatur, organized in38U£, membership in 19U8, U70, the inscriptions in the cemetery were in German without exception t i l l 1903, and they were in great prepon­ derance u n t i l 1918. The switch in the language of record was sudden; a l l inscriptions afer 1922 were in English. At this church in 195>1, services in both languages occurred every Sunday, but German had the prime hour, 10:30. The attendance at the German service, about one hundred, was, how­ ever, at best only one-third of that at the 8:30 service. The pastor's teen­ age daughter did not attend the German service. Attendance at German had declined in the last three years; the l i n g u i s t i c a l l y f a i t h f u l were of a l l ages, but most were past forty; after church they a l l talked German to­ gether. "The older folks have to take the younger to church;" a farmer born about 1897 said, "You can say things in German that you can't in Eng­ l i s h . English i s just a made-up language. It's easy, that's the reason they made i t up." The dialect here was the same as that of the church to the west, but beyond there was a High German dialect. To the east they spoke a Low German dialect. Conditions at the Salem Evangelical and R e - 232 formed church in the same neighborhood were quite similar. Reports from there were that there were many families unable to carry on a conversation i n English. In 1916 in town at both Decatur and Fort Wayne German was much weaker than later developments might indicate i f "moving to town" from the farms were l e f t out of consideration. There were then oneMissouri Lutheran par­ ish in Decatur and six in Fort Wayne. A l l these churches but two had admitted English for some purposes at least. One was in the "English Dis­ t r i c t " ; another had relegated German to week day services a nd these churches were large; their membership totaled about 8 0 0 0 . S t i l l , in Fort Wayne at Emmanuel Church, founded in 1867, membership in 19U8, 1200, there were in 1951 services in both languages every Sunday; about U0 attended the German, U5Q-5>00 the English; but the German attenders were not a l l old, none really young though. The congregation was mostly of the third genera­ tion since immigration, only a few had been born i n Germany. The most re­ cent? "They are about twenty years here*" (In German congregations, even when everybody has forgotten German, even from the most cultured element, including the pastors, this grammatical construction i s common.) The mem­ bers were not retired farmers; the parish was t r u l y urban. Marriage out­ side German stock was common enough so that there were members with Irish names; one was even an officer. This congregation was Hanoverian; the one a block west was Swabian. The contrast between town and country may be illustrated by the H. family. The son grew up to manhood i&btowft itovifte- l!?30 fs without attaining true proficiency i n German. His father spoke German well and his mother understood i t , but they talked i t with each other only for secrecy. A l l cousins of the youth lived in the country and spoke German habitually. During the 19U0fs however, many abandoned the habit. 233 55«U3 South of Decatur in the same county i s Berne (2300 inhabitants). This county, besides containing as of 1890 seven Evangelical Association churches with 312 members, i s the "seat of the largest Mennonite congre­ gation i n North America El320 members in 19533 and center of the large Swiss Mennonite settlement" (ME). The Swiss began to arrive in I8380 They were almost a l l from "the Jura Mountains and the Emmental in the canton of Bern". The f i r s t comers were in the western part of the county but settle­ ment in what became Berne became much greater. The Mennonite Encyclopedia recorded in 1956: "In Wayne and Putnam counties, Ohio, and in Berne, Indiana, services were conducted in Bernese Swiss u n t i l well toward the close of the past century. Most of the churches changed from the dialect to standard German before changing to English. Today. . • most persons over 30 years old can carry on at least a limited conversation in their Swiss dialect" (ME IV, 671)* Again the same source states, "The Bernese Swiss dialect i s s t i l l spoken in many homes. The church services are i n English but there are three German Sunday School classes". Other t e s t i ­ mony i s that at the beginning of the twentieth century there were young adults born there unable to speak English, that services were in German un t i l after 1930, and that families with growing children used the Swiss dialect habitually u n t i l about that tme. Children born as late as 1925 learned to speak Swiss with their grandparents. Not a l l the Swiss were Mennonites. In 1950 the Reformed church [E-R] had 5?6 members. German had disappeared from services then. The same denomination at Bluffton in the next county west had 675 members and there i s also an Apostolic Christian church (Swiss) with five ministers. In the Berne community there are also Amish, part of whom are Swiss who f i r s t settled in 1853; others are Penn- Germans who arrived from Ohio (Butler, Co.) i n 1850. There i s also an ele- 23U merit of South Germans. Penn-Germans and people from south Germany with some Swiss, members of the same churches, also settled beyond the Luth­ erans and Fort Wayne to the north. 55 .UU Westward along the Wabash beyond the counties containing Fort Wayne and Decatur, that i s , Allen and Adams, for some sixty miles the counties through which the river and i t s southern tributaries flow, a l l held over 300 Germans, immigrants and their children, in 1930 and so, after one county's gap, did Tippecanoe County (62-Ul) which contains LaFayette also on the Wabash. None of these counties, however, shows a concentration of German churches either Protestant or Catholic, but some of the German set­ tlements date back to canal building days. The Missouri Lutheran church at Peru was organized in I838, and those at South Whitley, Huntington and Logansport were a l l established in the late iSItO's; a church south of Logan- sport but a l i t t l e nearer Kokomo was operating by 1873 • In 1916 the church at Lafayette organized in lSf>0 had admitted English only to evening ser­ vices, but in 19U8 none of the Missouri Lutheran churches of this area was continuing services in German. The congregation at Lafayette then numbered 987. Two Evangelical and Reformed churches in the town together mustered about as many. German Catholics at LaFayette received attention from the clergy rather late; they were already numerous in 1859 when newly installed Bishop Luers saw to i t that they built a church of some size as compared with others. 55oU5 The largest German groups along Lake Michigan and the northern bor­ der are generally in the industrial towns. Rather than South Bend, Misha- waka (62-13) farther east was the center of German settlement. A Missouri Lutheran church was organized there in 18U7© The year before, another had been established at Bremen sixteen miles to the south, and half-way be- 235 tween at Woodland s t i l l another came into existence in 1851. Gatholic activity at Notre Dame passed from work among the Indians to establish­ ment of the school i n I8I4.2 (Sh III 655) > but i t was not until i860 that either South Bend or Kishawaka had a separate Catholic church (Sh IV 602). Laporte County (62-12) and city are of particular interest to this study because here was a way station for immigrants coming to Kansas. The Mis­ souri Lutheran church in the city was organized i n 1857 and five other con­ gregations had been established in the same county or just to the south by 1 8 8 7 . As Hammond and Gary (62-10) became centers, churches of impor­ tance grew up there by the l 8 8 0 fs. East of Mishawaka i n the city of Elk­ hart, a Missouri Lutheran Church was founded in 187U» In the Lake Front-Michigan border area, certain Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod, at Laporte, Gary, and Hammond were s t i l l having German ser­ vices in 19H8, but a much greater number including those founded before 1 8 8 8 along the south edge of the d i s t r i c t had given them up. At Mishawaka services in English were "regular" i n 1 9 1 6 . At St. John's Evangelical and Reformed church i n Elkhart they were f i n a l l y abandoned in 19k7» At that time twelve to fifteen persons had been attending the German service which was' held only twice a year f In 193h9 when German was the language of wor­ ship twice a month, there had been an average of seventy-five attenders. Church records had been exclusively in German u n t i l 1929« The last con­ firmations in German had taken place in 1920. In 1951 some pastoral work in German was necessary. In conformity xfith a phenomenon observed else­ where, some sons and daughters of the old who had been forced to use German to communicate with the preceding generation, had an antipathy for the language. 236 At Niles, Michigan, eleven miles north of South Bend the Evangelical and Reformed church had abandoned German services about 1930• Here immigra­ tion had gone on longer; some members had come after the F i r s t World War. One-fourth i n 1951 were of the f i r s t or second generation; many of these spoke German, but the preponderance of older stock overwhelmed them. Many were Wurtembergers. In LaPorte in 1951 the German families w e r e well scat­ tered over the ci t y . St. John's (Missouri) Lutheran church was able to car­ ry on i t s German service because of i t s size, 2228 members in 19U8. 55«U6 Rural Elkhart County (62- l lQ as distinguished from the city, was a focus for Penn-German settlers. They began to arrive in 181*1 on i t s eas­ tern edge. Many were Amish s t i l l using German in their services in 1956 (ME III, 26) . Mennonites,•not Amish, settled west of Goshen i n the center of the county in 18U5« Brethren (Dunkards) also became pl e n t i f u l . (River) Brethren i n Christ centered at Nappanee on the southern edge. The Apostolic Christian Church at Bremen and Milford near Nappanee added presumably blood more recently immigrated. The Evangelical Association became strong i n this region. In Elkhart County and those surrounding i t possessed 3k congrega­ tions with 2363 members i n 1890. 55«U7 The German linguistic situation in Indiana shows that without a large solidly settled d i s t r i c t , such as the Decatur-Fort Wayne area or the Santa Claus-Saint Meinrad area, German could not truly survive in that part of the United States. The decadence of German in the other large and solidly set­ tled areas in the southern part of the state indicate that there have been at work important factors other than size and solidity. 55«U8 The Germans from Michigan who came to Kansas were not numerous, and the treatment here w i l l be brief. Along the water from the Ohio line up 237 to the outlet of Lake Huron, there were in the l8U0 fs considerable German settlements. Detroit proper seems then tb have been occupied by other stocks but East Detroit had a Lutheran Church by l8U7« On Lake Erie there was one at Monroe i n 18UU, one on Lake St. Clair at Mount Clemens i n 1852. In a l l these areas German settlement continued to grow. In 1910 there were 50,000 persons born Germany and resident in Wayne County, where Detroit i s , -10$ of the population. By 1915 there were in Detroit 23 Missouri Lutheran churches, about as many other Lutheran and ER churches, and 8 Catholic churches where the clergy bore German names. In 19U8 some of the services were in German i n 13 of the Missouri Lutheran churches. In Monroe and i t s neighborhood one church out of four, the oldest, was maintaining German. At Waltz, halfway to Detroit from there but inland somewhat, there was also German at a church of 825 souls established in 1857> also at Wyandotte and near by i n churches of similar size established in 1861 and 1883• &t Mount Clemens and i t s neighborhood including Fraser and New Haven, six of the thriving churcfShad some German i n the services, so also at Port Huron where a congregation numbering 12I4.6 souls in 19U8 was established i n 1871* Inland from Lake Erie at Adrian 35 miles northwest of Toledo there was an early Lutheran congregation. A most important German settlement grew up around Ann Arbor. Twelve miles southwest of there a Lutheran church was organized in l8U2j i t was s t i l l having German services in 19U8 and so was the large Missouri Lutheran church in town founded in 1908. There grew up other German churches in the county at East Ann Arbor, at Dexter, at Chelsea and at Salina. In the two tiers of counties nearest the south bor­ der, which contain a number of important towns and c i t i e s , there were many Germans. Proceeding westward from Ann Arbor, we may mention (the dates are for the foundation of Missouri Lutheran churches): Jackson (1869), 23 8 , Albion (1868), Marshall (1856), Kalamazoo (1868), St* Joseph on Lake Michigan (l867)« The churches at Albion and St. Joseph were s t i l l having some German services in 19H8. Farther south near the Indiana line Sturgis and i t s neighborhood deserve mention with Lutheran churches founded in 1863 and 186U, but especially Berrien County in the southwest corner of the state, which includes, i n the north, St. Joseph. In this county in 1910 there were 3850 persons born in Germany, more Ger­ mans than in any other Michigan county except Wayne, Kent, Bay, and Sag­ inaw. There were also 1586 persons born in Russia, #10 were nearly a l l Volga German. To the south and southeast of St. Joseph at Bridgman and Berrien Springs churches organized in 1896 and 1912 were s t i l l having German services in 19U8. A l l along the Lake Michigan shore the principal towns up to Traverse City had German populations able to establish Luth­ eran congregations between 1865 and 1885« They prospered, and at Luding- ton and Manistee there were s t i l l some services in German in 19U8. In general settlement seems to have been mainly near the lake shore. In Kent County with 5U0U foreign born Germans in 1910, the oldest and largest Mis­ souri Lutheran church, founded in 1856 at Grand Rapids, was s t i l l having German services in 19H8. So was the church founded at Lansing in 1871. At Grand Rapids there was also a Catholic German church. In the western two- thirds of Michigan the Catholic Germans were not numerous, but a rural dis­ t r i c t was settled about Westphalia 23 road miles northwest of Lansing. There are three churches in this neighborhood. Outside of the d i s t r i c t on the water at and near Detroit, Catholic German churches were not near each other and were not large. 238a 55«49 German settlements at and near Saginaw and twelve or thirteen miles fur­ ther north around Bay City on Saginaw Bay were important, and were usually the source of the German-born who were f i r s t in Michigan and' then i n Kansas • In 1910 there were in Saginaw County 8,080 persons born in Germany, that i s , ten per cent of the tot a l population. In Bay County there 239 were lj.665. Some ten miles southeast of Saginaw at Frankenmuth a Lutheran church was organized i n 18U5, another in Saginaw i t s e l f i n 18U9, at Richville to the east i n 1851, and to the north near Bay City in 18£2. A l l these churches were s t i l l having some German services i n 19U8, as was also the church at Hemlock to the west established in 1880. The churches a t Franken­ muth, -lust, and -trost had in 1931 heard German every Sunday with an Eng­ l i s h service oncefmonth in addition i n the f i r s t two (FK 2Uii)^ # In Saginaw "Hofmanfs map of retentive churches in Michigan i s in close agree­ ment on the importance of the Saginaw area and in general for other loca­ tions set forth in this work for Michigan (FH lU7)# and Bay City and in their very immediate neighborhoods there were 2$ Ger­ man Lutheran churches of various types, and also three E-R churches* To the northeast of this area the shores of the pen insula between S^Lnaw Bay and Lake Huron received numerous Germans* There was a Lutheran church at Sebewaing on the bay side in 18£2; four other German churches were establihed there or within a few miles; on the lake side Missouri Lutheran churches were established at three point i n the 1870fs and l 8 8 0 fs and a Catholic German at Ruth, sufficiently flourishing in 1915 to have a school with 85 pupils. In Huron County, on this peninsula and water bound on three sides, i n 1910 there lived 280U person born in Germany; percentage wise this number i s comparable to that in Saginaw County. Some services in German were s t i l l taking place i n Sebewaing and Unionville in 19U8. On lake Huron farther north flourishing Lutheran churches were organized in the l870!s at the principal towns, Tawas City, Alphena, Rogers City and Cheboygan* German services existed here i n 19U8. As on the west shore German settlement does not seem to have penetrated far inland. At points i n the northern part of Michigan fs lower peninsula, German settlement was late enough so that in the 1960fs German persists in active use. - 2 ^ 0 - 50 German settlements are so numerous In I l l i n o i s as to make i t easier to point out the areas where they are not very f r e ­ quent than i t i s the d i s t r i c t s of settlement. On the southern and eastern border a s t r i p of t e r r i t o r y usually two counties wide along the Ohio and Wabash Rivers as f a r as Terre Haute, that i s to say, half way up the east border, did not have 300 Germans, immigrants and t h e i r children, i n each county i n 1930.* * Penn Germans from North Carolina se t t l e d before I836 near Jonesboro and Anna some 30 miles north of Cairo (Sch 2k). The same i s true f o r a s t r i p of counties containing at i t s northern end important Swedish colonies, and running from Rock Island almost to Alton. West of t h i s there were only two coun­ t i e s with 300 Germans i n 1930; Quincy i s t h e i r most important town. The two l i e behind the westernmost bend"of the M i s s i s s i p p i River. There i s another small area of counties lacking 300 Ger­ mans i n 1930 just east of the center of the state. The d i s t r i ­ bution of German churches i n I l l i n o i s reveals the same phenomena as those described above. 51 Early German settlements i n I l l i n o i s radiated f i r s t from St. Louis and then from Chicago and grew numerous a l l along a broad path leading between the two c i t i e s , more or l e s s follow­ ing the I l l i n o i s River, stretching off to both sides i n the north and, a f t e r that r i v e r turned south, delimited by i t to the west and to the east by the "main l i n e " of the I l l i n o i s Central -241- Railroad, which, i n s t r i c t accordance with i t s name, ran north and south through the center of the state, terminating on the north at LaSalle; beyond was the "Galena Branch." A narrower l i n e of German settlement followed the "Chicago branch" of the same r a i l r o a d rather near the Indiana border u n t i l i t joined the main l i n e at Centralia, mid-state east of St. Louis. The northern part of the state was a l l covered by the radiation from Chicago, combined withiiiiovement east from the M i s s i s s i p p i . The areas most heavily s e t t l e d by Germans were those near the two metropolises, but there grew up important settlements elsewhere i n the state. 55*52 In 1818 when I l l i n o i s became a state, the number of Ger­ mans i n i t was n e g l i g i b l e . However, "soon a f t e r the founding of B e l l e v i l l e i n 1814, a number of American Germans came out from V i r g i n i a and Pennsylvania. The f i r s t German from abroad, Conrad Bornemann, arrived i n 1816" (Sch 23)• Settie^ent of a l l kinds was then approximately l i m i t e d to the southern t h i r d of the state. By I83O another t h i r d had been added to the settled area, and a few beginnings of German immigration had taken place. Indian oc­ cupation did not greatly delay settlement, and a f t e r the Black Hawk War of I832 i t was no consideration at a l l . In the next f i f ­ teen years at an undulantly increasing tempo the rest of the state was occupied, though not s o l i d l y . The eastern part of the state below the neighborhood of Lake Michigan was very l i g h t l y settled u n t i l some years a f t e r the Chicago Branch of the I l l i n o i s Central had been completed. The r a i l r o a d was under construction from 1852 t i l l I856. I t s land grant was of great importance i n settlement. -242- An e a r l i e r path of settlement was f u r n i s h M by the I l l i n o i s River and, above i t s navigation head, where the River d e f i n i t e l y turned eastward, by the I l l i n o i s - M i c h i g a n Canal which was under construc­ t i o n from I 8 3 6 to 1841 and .again more importantly from 1845 to 1848, This canal project was also given a federal land grant. By 1857 twoo east-west railroads along which German settlements were numerous, had been b u i l t . The important section of one, the Pex>ria and Oquaw- ka, ran east from Peoria to Gilman. The western terminus of the other was at Naples, the e a r l i e s t head of navigation on the I l l i n o i s River. I t ran east through S p r i n g f i e l d and Decatur to Danville on the Indiana border. 55«53 The f i r s t organized e f f o r t at settlement i n I l l i n o i s by Germans from Germany was i n 1820 at Vandalia (60-102), s i x t y - f i v e miles into the hinterland from St. Louis. The colony f a i l e d as such (B 177), but certain Hanoverians settled permanently (K 245i see also Ma I I I : Is9 ) there were 20 families i n I 8 3 6 (Sch 24) and were perhaps a magnet that helped a t t r a c t s e t t l e r s to the area, f o r there are settlements to the east and southeast at Altamont (20 miles) and Saint Peter (18 miles), both of which organized Missouri Lutheran churches i n I 8 6 9 and have remained quite German. Altamont too acquired a Catholic Church from which St. Elmo, some twelve miles from Vandalia, has been served. The names of Augsburg, a town situated even nearer to Vandalia, suggests that Germans were there when the town was founded. The Vandalia area was one of the more conservative d i s t r i c t s . In the nest of Missouri Lutheran churches to the east of i t s i x , that i s nearly a l l , s t i l l had German ser- vices i n 1948 even though i n town at Altamont English had already been introduced i n 1 9 1 6 . At l e a s t u n t i l the time of the F i r s t World War, children often arritred at school age without knowing English. The pressures of that period were not enough to cause German preaching to be abandoned. 54" Effingham ( 6 0 - 1 0 3 ) i s the next county seat east of Vandalia, and four miles further on, Teutopolis was s e t t l e d by a company of Germans from Cincinnati i n I 8 3 8 (P 4 9 6 ) ; there were ninety fami­ l i e s there i n 1 8 4 0 . The torn became a Catholic center i n 1849 which grew i n importance with the coming of the Franciscans i n 1858 and the establishment of t h e i r college three years l a t e r (now a novitiate) (Sh IV 6 2 7 ) . A few miles to the southeast of Teutopolis at Dieterich a Lutheran center developed. Preservation of German among the Catholi&s centered at Teutopolis seems to have been weak. The Lutherans yielded too. There were no German ser­ vices at Dieterich i n 1 9 4 8 . Indeed, twelve children were confirmed i n English there i n 1 9 1 6 . The Effingham Missouri Lutheran Church was organized i n 1866 (525 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . English and German shared the services there i n 1 9 1 6 , and German ultimately yielded. 55 North of Effingham Shelby County fo r some time had a mining population that included Germans. In the part of that county nearest Effingham are two large Missouri Lutheran Churches. St. Paul fs at Strasburg, the largest, founded i n 1866, had 629 members i n 1 9 4 8 , 901 i n 1916; the other at Stewardson 402. There was also at Strasburg a Missouri Lutheran Church i n ;the English D i s t r i c t i n 1 9 1 6 , organized i n 18971 3^6 members i n 1 9 4 0 , 205 i n 1 9 1 6 . The -244- I l l i n o i s Central land o f f i c i a l s s e t t l e d Germans i n the area i n i 8 6 0 yJ233). I t received intensive promotion when Franz Hoffman (see #55.^5) was land agent f o r the I l l i n o i s Central, 1 8 6 2 - 6 . Ger­ mans moved i n from other states including Missouri as well as from Germany. He founded a town at S i g e l a few miles north of Teutopolis. I t Was established mainly a s a a d i s t r i b u t i n g point f o r Teutopolis, Strassburg and Stewardson, and has the smallest of the three Shelby County Lutheran churches. The German church at Strasburg was s t i l l having German services i n 1948 but not the one close by at Steward- son where English had been regular i n 1 9 1 6 . I : : : ' A German center that did not become very strong but furnished a few Kansans developed a county's breadth west of Strasburg, some 30 miles north of Vandalia at Pana, Ohlman, and Oconee. The churches L a r e E.-R f o u n d i n 18651 1877 and 1875* (Ma III»4*13) 55 #56 To the southeast of Effingham along the Wabash River are four counties showing no high percentage of foreign iwhite stock and no great number of persons born i n Germany, but there were i n I 8 9 0 i n the four counties, Richland, Edwards, Wabash and Whitc^ 13 Evan­ g e l i c a l Association congregations with 912 members. Presumably Penn-German stock i s Strang here. A l l I l l i n o i s areas so f a r treated are of minor importance i n comparison with that about to be considered. 55*57 The B e l l e v i l l e area, so we s h a l l c a l l a d i s t r i c t beginning opposite St. Louis, stretching 50 stir miles downstream approxi­ mately to Chester ( 6 0 - 1 3 0 ) , and, at the widest point back into the hinterland as f a r or farther, became s o l i d l y German except on the . / fringes. In 1837 an Evangelical missionary stated that " i n St. C l a i r County [where B e l l e v i l l e i s (60-110)1 there are more Germans than i n any other on i n the West" (Sch 476). There were i n 1950 very nearly 100 Protestant German churches i n the area, depending on the lo c a t i o n of a boundary. There were something over h a l f as many Catholic churches, ninety per cent with pastors with German names i n 1915. These were two-thirds of the Catholic churches i n the B e l l e v i l l e diocese. The other t h i r d was i n general German too, but not geographically concentrated. Faust i n 1909 reported an estimate that "three fourths of the population of the county [St. C l a i r ] are German or of German descent" (Pa 459)• German names occurred among the inhabitants of t h i s d i s t r i c t as early as 1792 (Fa 457) , but these probably belonged to men born i n America. 55.58 Early B e l l e v i l l e . A Swiss settlement was established about 25 miles southeast of St. Louis i n 1818 (K 245; Fa 457 implies 1816), but the f i r s t settlement of Germans from Germany was that of a group from Hesse-Darmstadt (Po ;495; see also Ma III$ 2 $ 5 4 ) . Other settlement followed quickly, even preceded, though not i n group form. Near B e l l e v i l l e to the southwest there were Catholics at M i l l s t a d t i n 1830, numerous enough f o r consistent attention i n I 8 3 7 . B e l l e v i l l e , a f t e r being the residence of a German mission­ ary i n I 8 3 6 - 7 (Rol 766) , received a permanent resident Catholic pastor i n 1 8 4 2 ; h i s church was German. The c i t y became the see of a diocese i n I 8 5 8 . 5 5 . 5 0 Main Rural Developments. The work of the Catholics began at Paderborn ( e a r l i e r Teutonia) Aby I837 (Rol 766)1 i t i s 5 or 6 miles from B e l l e v i l l e . There -246- were then other nascent Catholic parishes not f a r away. To the northwest and southeast of B e l l e v i l l e (at C e n t e r v i l l e and Freeburg) an Evangelical minister was preaching i n I 8 3 6 (Sch 5 1 ) t also f a r ­ ther south near Waterloo and Red Bud (Sch 181, 2 ) , and i n I 8 3 9 at Mascoutah to the east (Sch 3 8 ). Lutheran churches were organized i n 1841 at M i l l s t a d t , Columbia, and Waterloo which l i e close to­ gether. Farther back country at quite separated points Lutheran churches had t h e i r s t a r t at Venedy and Red Bud i n 1 8 4 2 . Not f a r from Venedy i s Catholic St. Libory which furnished s e t t l e r s to Kansas. I t i s t h i r t y miles southeast of St. Louis and was at i t s st a r t I r i s h , but the Germans appeared by I 8 3 8 (Rol ? 6 8 ), and u l ­ timately displaced the I r i s h completely. These Germans were West- phalians from Paderborn. By 1849 t h e i r p r i e s t was German (Ma I I * 2 : 2 0 ) . Another obscure Catholic parish that provided Kansas with c i t i z e n s i s L i v e l y Grove south of St. Libory i n the southwest cor­ ner of Washington County. . 6 0 The organization dates of the Missouri Lutheran churches i n the B e l l e v i l l e area give an adequate idea of the progress of set­ tlement along the fringes. Missouri Lutheran data are c i t e d below because for a l l congretations they are a v a i l a b l e , but the Evangelical and Reformed church i s much better represented i n t h i s region. The German Methodists also had a representation. In I 8 9 0 i n St. C l a i r County and i t s neighbors to the east and west there were 11 of t h e i r congregations with 895 members. At the outer edge of the d i s t r i c t beginning at the south, Missouri Lutheran churches were founded at Chester on the r i v e r i n 1 8 4 9 , at S t e e l - -247^ v i l l e i n 1853, at Campbell's H i l l (farther from St. Louis, straight east of Chester) i n 1 8 7 7 , at Nashville (42 miles south southeast of B e l l e v i l l e ( 6 0 - 1 2 1 ) ) i n 1 8 5 8 , (other Protestants organized i n 1859, Sch 5 1 5 , had preaching i n 1848 (Ma 111:4:5)), at New Minden north of Nashville i n 1846, at Hoyleton, a l i t t l e farther east i n 1 8 6 7 , at C e n t r a l i a s i x t y miles almost east of St. Louis i n 1 8 9 2 . At Cen- t r a l i a , Evangelical churches were organized i n 1864 and 1866 (Sch 514). The Missouri Lutheran church had 832 members i n 1 9 4 8 , i n a town of 1 3 t 0 0 0 . The Germans from the west displaced others there. 55»6l The North Fringe; 45 miles straight east of St. Louis there i s C a r l y l e . The Lutheran church i n town was not established u n t i l 1934, but Saint Paul fs teithe country was organized i n 1 8 6 4 . The highway east from St. Louis, Interstate 64, U.S. 50f niay be re­ garded as the north boundary of the B e l l e v i l l e area. On i t or close to the south of i t on the way into St. Louis from Carlyle are a succession of German place names, Beckemeyer, Germantown, Albers, New Baden. Germantown, a Catholic settlement, received i t s name as a re s u l t of a compromise. The Westphalians had wanted to c a l l i t a f t e r t h e i r province and the Hanoverians a f t e r t h e i r s . This was i n I 8 3 6 or I 8 3 7 (Rol 772). East St. Louis should be included as an early German settlement. The Germans there have become l o s t among other foreign stocks, and we s h a l l pass by t h e i r l a t e develop­ ment. They were numerous enough i n 1855 to require a German a s s i s ­ tant at St. P a t r i c k 1 s . Their own church, St. Henry 1s, was organized i n 1 8 6 6 . -248- 55.62 B e l l e v i l l e , though overshadowed by S t . L o u i s , became.-/.a s o r t of c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l . I t had a German newspaper i n 1840, three i n 1849. " In B e l l e v i l l e , with over 15,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , i t happened that f o r years no n a t i v e American sat i n the c i t y c o u n c i l " (Fa 459)• I n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s h i p f o r Germans not only i n t h i s area, but i n surrounding r e g i o n s , came from the " L a t i n farmers" who s e t t l e d j u s t east (Ma Ills2:58) of B e l l e v i l l e . They were a group of educated men who worked farms or managed them i n connection w i t h p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s , medicine, j o u r n a l i s m , e t c . They came mainly from the upper Rhine West and lower South beginning i n 1832 and c o n t i n u i n g on f o r a decade. They were an E n g l - i z i n g i n f l u e n c e , f o r they were soon p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and economic l i f e of the s t a t e and r e g i o n . 55*^3 The B e l l e v i l l e area, because of i t s s i z e both g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and i n p o p u l a t i o n , was the most conservative of German i n the s t a t e . S h o r t l y a f t e r foundation, that i s i n the l830 ,s, among German Luth­ erans along the Kaskaskia,"the men could t a l k some broken E n g l i s h , but the women seldom attempted to frame an E n g l i s h answer to the simplest question" (Sprague, quoted by Sch 42). T h i r t e e n of the M i s s o u r i Lutheran churches s t i l l had German preaching i n 1948. M i l l - s tadt was without i t , but with a change of pastor regained i t before 1 9 5 1 . Congregations sometimes abandoned German s e r v i c e s only be­ cause of t h e i r pastor's inadequacy i n the language. In the Evan­ g e l i c a l and Reformed church a t Waterloo i n 1951 there were German s e r v i c e s f i f t e e n times a year; 75 attended the German, 400 the E n g l i s h . The pastor used German about h a l f the time d u r i n g h i s c a l l s . There were c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n being taught German i n the home, -249- but none of the young used German among themselves. In that year German was about as widespread among the Catholics. In B e l l e v i l l e Catholic churches, no English was preached u n t i l 1866 and then ra r e l y u n t i l I 8 8 3 when a p e t i t i o n "stated the ne­ cessity of establishing a congregation i n which the English lang­ uage would be preached owing to the many who understood no other language" (from The Catholic Church of B e l l e v i l l e , 111 . - 1 9 0 5 ) . The answer was the founding of St. Luke's; i t s pastors were I r i s h , but i t "grew by natural increase, by many conversions from Protes­ tantism, and by the modern tendency of the German-Americans to prefer the English language, so that i t i s now among the largest" (Be 24). At the time t h i s statement was written St. Luke's had 500 f a m i l i e s . The school of the Cathedral, St. Peter's, which remained German, had nearly twide as .many pupils as were i n St. Luke's. Among the Protestants at B e l l e v i l l e the Missouri Lutherans had gone so f a r i n 1916 as to allow preaching i n English i n the evenings. In general for the B e l l e v i l l e area about 1950 the farther from St. Louis, the more German u n t i l very near the edge of the area. Chester, on the r i v e r and a town of over 5 , 0 0 0 , was not noticeably Germanic i n speech. English was already being regularly preached there i n 1 9 1 6 . At Red Bud too, much nearer the center of the d i s t r i c t ^ i n 1916 there had been some preaching i n English i n 1 9 1 6 , but the congregation was s t i l l hearing German services i n 1 9 4 8 . S t e e l v i l l e and Campbell H i l l , 12 or 15 miles inland, were much more conservative, but at S t e e l v i l l e English, though not yet f u l l y - 2 5 0 - triumphant i n 1948, had found i t s way into some Lutheran services i n 1916. At New Minden on the eastern edge of the d i s t r i c t Low German was the general speech on the streets, at l e a s t u n t i l 1925• The practice f e l l off l a t e r , "but the Missouri Lutheran church had services i n German i n 1948., 55»64 Summerfield, on the highway 14 a i r miles northeast of B e l l e ­ v i l l e , i s d i f f e r e n t from most of the B e l l e v i l l e areas. I t has a German name, Sommerfeld, translated into English. There x^ere two Mennonite families i n the neighborhood by 1842. Mennonites d i r e c t ­ l y from the Palatinate and from true Bavaria arrived i n the neigh­ borhood about 1852 and organized a church i n I 8 5 6 , b u i l t i n Summer- f i e l d i n 1859* This settlement i s of p a r t i c u l a r i nterest to Kansas because i t furnished pari? of the population for Halstead and was of great help to the Blacksea Mennonites coming to Kansas. When a new church was dedicated i n 1910,*'Reverend Poth of the Evangelical church and Rev. Schutz of the Methodist Church both spoke i n Ger­ man at the morning and evening services and Rev. Van der Smissen [ t h e i r own pastor] spoke i n English." So says the history of t h e i r church. The Reverend Van der Smissen conducted a school i n German u n t i l 1911, and those who attended i t were s t i l l able to speak Ger­ man i n 1951 — few others. 55.65 The C o i l i n s v i l l e - M a r i n e area immediately to the northeast of the center of St. Louis, i s located along the north boundary of the B e l l e v i l l e area, though not running so f a r east. In 1809 J u l i u s Barnback came to reside i n Pin Oak Township of Madison County (Ma I I : 3s55). In 1831 Dr. H. C. Gerke sett l e d at Marine, twenty-five a i r miles northeast of St. Louis. Two years l a t e r he published i n Hamburg, Germany, Der Nordamerikanische Ratgeber (The North Ameri- - 2 5 1 - can A d v i s e r ) , the best manual of i t s k i n d that had yet appeared (K 2 7 2 ) . I t d i d not b r i n g a mass of s e t t l e r s to Marine, but a German element has continued there and i n i t s v a l l e y . Swiss, both German and French, a r r i v e d i n Highland a b i t south of Marine i n 1 8 3 2 , but Germans from Germany came to be a strong element i n the community (Pa 4 6 0 ). They e s t a b l i s h e d a Turnverein and a Ge - xangverein i n 1855 ( E i 3 2 2 ). Preaching i n German was abandoned a t Highland about 1 9 3 8 . C o l l i n s v i l l e , not f a r from B e l l e v i l l e and so c l o s e to S t . L o u i s as to have e a r l y become part of the urban complex, has a very l a r g e M i s s o u r i Lutheran church, founded i n 1848, 1 , 6 9 1 members i n 1948 when some of i t s members s t i l l wor­ shipped i n German. The town's E v a n g e l i c a l and Reformed church had n e a r l y h a l f as many members. I t s C a t h o l i c church i n 1948 had long had a mixed membership, p a r t l y S l a v and I t a l i a n , but i n 1900 when i t was German, the p a r o c h i a l school taught 200 p u p i l s . . 6 6 E d w a r d s v i l l e ( 6 0 - 1 0 0 ) not f a r i n l a n d was f l o u r i s h i n g by 1820. In 1950 i t s i n h a b i t a n t s numbered 8 , 7 7 6 and Eden E v a n g e l i c a l and Reformed church had 739 members; E v a n g e l i c a l preachers appeared there by 1837 (Sch 9 4 ). In the neighboring country there -were two smaller churches o f t t h e same denomination. One was a t Homel where the M i s s o u r i Lutherans organized i n I 8 5 6 . Teh m i l e s north a German P r e s b y t e r i a n church o r i g i n a t e d i n the l 8 5 0 f s (Sch 181). Madison County, of which E d w a r d s v i l l e i s the county seat, i n I89O contained f i v e German Methodist churches with 382 members. Luther­ an preaching i n E n g l i s h occurred every two weeks at Edwardsville i n 1 9 1 6 ; there was nSS^in 1 9 4 8 . . - 2 5 2 - 5 5 . 6 7 Alton ( 6 0 - 1 0 0 ) had some German population, 60 persons (Sch 476) by I 8 3 6 (Sch 2 7 4 ) . I t was then a busy port on the M i s s i s s i p p i , and attracted many Germans (Pa 4 6 0 ). Protestant German Missionaries began to work among the Germans i n I 8 3 6 , but i t was then r i c h e r i n Catholics (Sch 9 3 ). A Catholic church was b u i l t there i n 1844 (Sh IV 2 3 0 ) . I t s German Catholic church burned i n i 8 6 0 (Sh IV 628). Alton lAras the see of a diocese from 1857 to 19231 when Sp r i n g f i e l d succeeded i t . The f i r s t bishop was a German, H. D. Juncker, I t s Evangelical and Reformed church had a membership of 1 , 0 5 0 i n 1950* the two Missouri Lutheran churches 972 i n 1948 with no German preaching. The atmosphere i n the 1 9 4 0 1 s was s t i l l , however, quite German, and the English of many Lutherans had a marked accent. The country inland from Alton for 10 or 12 miles received many Germans, two Missouri Lutheran churches were b u i l t i n 1859• 5 5 . 6 8 The Staunton-Mount Olive d i s t r i c t i s mainly known as a coal mining area ( # 4 9 . 3 5 )$ but German settlement began before coal mining. A Missouri Lutheran church was established at Staunton (35 miles northeast of St. Louis) i n 1847, the Evangelical i n I858. There had been settlement there by I 8 3 3 . Coal mining began about I865 (S 5 9 9 )• Germans were at f i r s t the chief mining element i n the population, and so remained u n t i l a f t e r I887. As farmers they also became stronger i n numbers. There are from 12 to 15 German Protestant churches i n the Cahokia Valley mining area (depending on boundaries fixec^. There were also i n I890 seven German Methodist churches with 728 members. The growth i n German r immigration continued to be i n large part r u r a l . For instance, eight miles north of Staunton, G i l l e s p i e , where mines were not - 2 5 3 - opened u n t i l about 1 9 0 8 , was founded i n 1853* German names ap­ pear i n i t s p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 8 5 8 . S t i l l f a r t h e r north C a r l i n v i l l e had an E v a n g e l i c a l church i n 1859 (411 members i n 1 9 5 0 ) . The begin­ ning of the main body of German settlement a r r i v e d i n 1 8 6 9 ; a Lu­ theran church, now "American", was organized i n I 8 7 0 . At Mount O l i v e , 6 miles northeast of Staunton, East F r i s i a n s (with a few Saxons) b u i l t a Lutheran church i n 1 8 6 6 . I t became "American"; a M i s s o u r i Synod group s p l i t o f f i n 1882. About 1950 the two churches, e q u a l l y l a r g e , had over 1 , 0 0 0 members i n a town of 2,400 where a high p r o p o r t i o n of the i n h a b i t a n t s were S l a v s . Groups from d i f f e r e n t regions i n Germany c l u s t e r e d together. The M i s s o u r i Lutheran church founded f o u r miles south of Staunton i n 1899 was the Braunschweig Congregation (that i s , from Brunswick), a name tfo&t i t s people l a t e r resented. In the 1 9 3 0 ,s, mining p r a c t i c a l l y disappeared from the area. (In I 9 6 I the only open mines were one north of G i l l e s p i e and another at L i v i n g B t o n a l i t t l e south of Staunton.) The c l o s u r e s stopped a l l i n f l u x of population and at Staunton there developed much intermarriage between various immigrant stocks with consequent s h i f t i n g of church memberships. In 1961 the C a t h o l i c church was the l a r g e s t , the M i s s o u r i Lutheran next, and the E v a n g e l i c a l and Reformed t h i r d . Before the I t a l i a n s and S l a v s came, there were C a t h o l i c Germans i n the mining area. In 1900 there was a church with an I r i s h pastor at L i t c h f i e l d , a small church with a German pastor at Bunker H i l l not f a r west of Staunton, and a church w i t h a German pastor a t Staunton. The l a t t e r had 110 p u p i l s i n h i s p a r o c h i a l school. At that time (1900) the M i s s o u r i Lutherans taught 160 i n t h e i r school; t h e i r membership (760) was - 2 5 4 - nearly the same size as i n 1 9 4 8 , when they had 94 pupils as against the Catholics 1 1 3 0 . The lower proportion of children a f t e r the lapse of 50 years i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the mining region; the old predominated soon a f t e r the mines closed. 5 5 . 6 9 The l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n i n the Staunton mining area was com­ pli c a t e d . At Staunton i t s e l f the Missouri Lutheran Church, where services were p a r t l y i n English i n 1916 , dropped German services completely i n 1 9 5 4 . The Evangelical and Reformed Church abandoned them i n the 1 9 3 0 fs. I t s German school had had 108 pupils i n 1 9 0 1 (Ma 1 1 1 : 4 * 1 3 ) . There were i n 1961 a few persons able to speak German. The hysteria against German during the F i r s t World War was great here and i n the area i n general. In view of the pres­ sures at that time and of the polyglot nature of the town ( I t a l i a n s and Slovaks are numerous) the persistence of German has been remark­ able. The force working most a c t i v e l y against i t has been the intermarriages which became especially common as the coal f i e l d s f a i l e d i n the 1 9 3 0 fs. At G i l l e s p i e to the north there were i n 1 9 6 1 s t i l l a very f£w persons, mostly immigrants, able to speak German. The Lutheran church (American) there recorded i t s minutes i n German u n t i l 1 9 1 8 . At C a r l i n v i l l e to the north the language question was raging before 1 9 0 1 . The pastor then wrote, "The flooding by English has for the time being fortunately passed on, and my e f f o r t continues to be to keep the congregation as a German congregation. I t requires tremendous energy, but I promise myself a blessed state as a result" (Ma 1 1 1 : 4 : 1 2 ) . kt Mount Olive on the eastern edge of the d i s t r i c t , the pressures of 1918 were very great, and Slavs were already numerous fellow c i t i z e n s . However - 2 5 5 - i n 1961 there were a half-dozen homes where German was sometimes s t i l l used, "carried on as a family t r a d i t i o n . " 70 Central I l l i n o i s , as we may c a l l a zone with a width of l | degrees of l a t i t u d e extending from a l i n e passing through the south­ ern boundary of the neighborhood of S p r i n g f i e l d north to the 4 l s t p a r a l l e l which runs along the northern side of;the neighborhood of Pporig, possesses three areas of German settlement, the Quincy Area, covering the two counties already spoken of as isolated on the Mis­ s i s s i p p i ^ great bend westward, an inner and vaguer area bounded on the west by the valley of the I l l i n o i s River and containing both Peoria and S p r i n g f i e l d , and an eastern one along the Chicago branch of the I l l i n o i s Central near but not against the Indiana l i n e . 71 As a r i v e r port, Quincy ( 6 1 - 1 6 0 ) was founded early. There was a-German there by 1822 (Pa 4 6 0 ; Ma 1 1 1 : 4 * 3 1 says 1 8 2 9 ) . In the I 8 3 0's the town acquired a numerous German population, "about s i x t y families of European Germans, mostly Protestant," said a missionary i n I 8 3 6 (Sch 4 7 6 ). A Missouri Lutheran congregation was organized i n 1837* Other Protestant German ministers were also then at work there (Sch 9 3 i 179t 4 7 6 , Mu 9 4 ) . A Catholic p r i e s t came for the Germans i n the same year (Ma 1 1 : 2 : 2 0 ) . He brought coreligionaries with him. In 1 8 4 4 " Quincy had i t s German [Catholic] congregation and p r i e s t " (Sh IV 2 3 0 ). There was a German m i l i t a r y company i n 1 8 4 2 , and a German newspaper i n 1 8 4 5 . In 1900 the c i t y had four Catholic churches with pastors who had German names; two with I r i s h . The German churches had 1 , 2 1 6 pupils i n t h e i r schools, the I r i s h 2 6 0 . In 1948 the Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod had 1 , 6 8 4 mem­ bers. There were no American Lutheran or Evangelical and Reformed - 2 5 6 - churches there. The people were l a r g e l y Westphalians. Quincy had no great German hinteitland and the other r i v e r ports d i d not develop great c o l o n i e s , though Warsaw and Nauvoo had t h e i r German element. At Quincy no German s e r v i c e s i n churches e x i s t e d as l a t e as 1 9 4 8 . In the E v a n g e l i c a l (and Reformed) Church they were aban­ doned i n 1 9 2 0 . The movement to give up German was however of ear± l i e r date. The l a s t confirmations i n German were i n 1 9 1 0 ; the c l a s s was made up of seven or e i g h t c h i l d r e n . That some of these boys and g i r l s were of the t h i r d generation i s testimony to f a i t h ­ f u l n e s s to German u n t i l the beginning of the twentieth century. I n one of the two M i s s o u r i Lutheran churches E n g l i s h had been i n - < troduced i n t o evening s e r v i c e s by 1 9 1 6 . In 1951 there were s t i l l a few of the o l d r e q u i r i n g p a s t o r a l work among them i n German. 72 In the eastern part of Quincy*s county, Adams, ( 6 1 - 1 6 0 ) , where the drainage i s already toward the I l l i n o i s R i v e r , a don- s i d e r a b l e settlement, c o n s i s t i n g mainly of East F r i s i a n s , was e s t a b l i s h e d r a t h e r e a r l y to the west and north of Clayton; two M i s s o u r i Lutheran churches were organized i n t h i s r u r a l area i n 1 8 5 2 . In 1948 these churches had together 265 members, while the American Lutheran churches of Coatsburg and Golden a l s o of t h i s area had 733• The East F r i s i a n s had g i t e n up German church s e r ­ v i c e s by 1948 (probably much e a r l i e r ) but the use of t h e i r d i a l e c t p e r s i s t e d and had not become r e a l l y r a r e i n i 9 6 0 . 73 Along the I l l i n o i s R i v e r , Beardstown (61-162S), some f i f t y m i l e s east of Quincy, was r e c e i v i n g German s e t t l e r s by 1 | 2 9 ; i n that year f o r the f i r s t time steamers came up the r i v e r past t h i s p o i n t -257- on to Pekin; the next year they reached Peoria (Pe 191) t "but the sand bar at Beardstown was hard to pass. In I 8 3 6 Protestant Ger­ man missionaries found 250 Germans there (Sch 4 7 6 ). Tfen miles south of Beardstown, Pranz Arenz founded A r e n z v i l l e i n 1837 (K 2 7 6 ) , and was a d i l i g e n t promoter of the whole d i s t r i c t . A part of the company of L a t i n farmers who had settled at B e l l e v i l l e made t h e i r way to Beardstown i n the early l830 fs. Koerner maintained i n 1884 that the area, which he makes include a l l Cass County, extending twenty miles to the east from Beardstown along the Sangamon River, and also including adjoining parts of Morgan County to the south was one-third German, immigrants and t h e i r children. Indeed i n t h i s area are to be found seven Missouri Lutheran churches (no "American" or E-R). The two oldest at Beardstown and Chapin, organized i n 1848 and 1850, had together over a thousand members i n 1948. The German Methodists and the Evangelical Association were active i n t h i s area. Together they had 17 churches along the r i v e r to Peoria i n I 8 9 O ; the membership was 1568. Catholic a c t i v i t y at Beardstown began by 1849. The church there and another at A r e n z v i l l e had German pastors i n 1900; both were small. Up the r i v e r from Beardstown, Missouri Lutheran churches were organized at Bath i n 1849, at Havana (&L-162) i n 1850, at Pekin i n 1852, at Peoria i n I 8 5 8 . Of the f i r s t two towns Havana was the more impor­ tant German center with something of a hinterland. I t s f i r s t Ger­ mans arrived i n the l a t e l830 fs (Po 4 9 6 ) . The settlement at Bath began a few years l a t e r . None of the towns on the south-flowing I l l i n o i s River preserved German i n church services as l a t e as 1948 except on rare occasions. At A r e n z v i l l e English was preached on a - 2 5 8 - regular schedule i n 1916. 55*7^ Pekin (61-1511 and Peoria (61-143) may be regarded as part of one complex. Koerner i n 1884 said l i t t l e of Peoria, except to i n ­ dicate i t s importance, because he was dealing with developments that became major before 1848, and "the Germans there reached an advantageous position only a f t e r the period with which we are con­ cerned" (K 277) . Von Bosse i n 1908 found i t . -unnecessary to do more than repeat his predecessor. We may therefore conclude, since both these authors o r d i n a r i l y emphasize the achievements of i n d i v i d u a l s , that early Germans, though numerous, remained an ob­ scure element i n the population, a part of the i n d u s t r i a l prole­ t a r i a t u n t i l they were displaced by l a t e r comers. Germans had, however, appeared i n Peoria by 18^5 and upstream somewhat, i n Woodford County, i n 1833 (Po 496; see also Sch 475i Pa 460)• A Catholic church was dedicated at Peoria i n I853 (Sh IV 6l4). I t had been eight years i n the building. Five or s i x miles to the northwest of Peoria i s Kickapoo, 200 population i n 1920. A Cath­ o l i c church was b u i l t there i n 1839-1840 (Sh I I 693, Ho 717). The church was St. Patrick*s; l a t e r St. Mary fs was founded f o r Germans, who had a small school i n 1900, while there was none at St. Pat­ r i c k s . The Germans had become so dominant by 1915 that St. Pat­ r i c k 1 s was attended from St. Marys. The people were considered a l l Germans i n 1965• Peoria became the see of a diocese i n 1877t In 1900 of ten Catholic churches, seven had pastors with I r i s h names, three with German. Two bore the o f f i c i a l l a b e l of German National parishes. At St. Joseph*s school there were 420 pupils, at Sacred Heart 100. U n t i l 1930 the bishops were I r i s h . The - 2 5 9 - German Protestant churches numbered a dozen i n 1 9 5 0 . The Evan­ g e l i c a l and Reformed church i n Pekin had 1 ,251 members. The Christ and T r i n i t y Missouri Lutheran churches i n Peoria had nearly 1,400 each. Three American Lutheran congregations i n Peoria were half as large. Pekin and Peoria were evidently set t l e d by people of d i f f e r e n t stocks (Lutherans are few i n Pekin, E-R i n Peoria). The T r i n i t y Lutheran Church (Missouri) at Peoria persisted i n complete faithfulness to German u n t i l 1 9 1 9 . This policy had been disastrous. Because of t h i s conservatism at the i n s t a l l a t i o n service for the new pastor i n that year not more than f i f t y were present. For three years thereafter there was preaching i n both languages every Sunday; by 1925 German had been completely e l i m i ­ nated. However pastoral work i n German remained necessary and the need was i n . i t s l a s t days i n 1 9 5 0 . The t r a n s i t i o n i n other churches began a l i t t l e e a r l i e r ; f o r instance i n the other Mis­ souri Lutheran church English and German shared honors i n 1 9 1 6 , but the t r a n s i t i o n period was longer i n duration. In general i n 1950 at Peoria, only a few of the very old used German. The case was the same f o r the neighboring v i l l a g e of Kickapoo though two or three of the old German speakers were l i v i n g i n 19&5* 55*75 Extending eastward, beginning a l i t t l e north of Peoria i s a band of German settlements. In the second county east of Peoria, McLean (65-154), an A l s a t i a n who had been two years i n southwestern Ohio (Butler County, 62-280), s e t t l e d . He was Amish. His and other branches of the Mennonites and kindred groups soon furnished much population to the country between his farm and Peoria. An Amish congregation was organized i n -260- 1 8 3 3 at Metamora,(15 a i r miles northeast of Peoria i n Woodford County (61-144). Tazeuell County (61 - 1 5 3 ) i south of Woodford and west of McLean, received many congregations and the country farther east two. "Many of these immigrants came from Alsace," others from "Hesse, the Palatinate, Bavaria, Baden and Switzerland... Most of the I l l i n o i s Amish... arrived before 1850" (ME, I I I , 6 ) . The Swiss element persisted l a t e r , and the Apostolic Christians, mainly Swiss i n o r i g i n , flourished here. They established four churches i n Taze­ well County and four more eastward along the l i n e of the Peoria and Oquawka r a i l r o a d . F i n a l l y , some of them formed a settlement at Cissna Park on the I l l i n o i s Central Chicago branch somewhat south of the junction with the P. and 0. (61-156). Many of the s e t t l e r s i n the Swiss Apostolic C h r i s t i a n settlements at Bern and Gridley, Kansas, came from t h i s area. Indeed one of the denominations churches i s at Gridley, I l l i n o i s , i n northern McLean County. The Mennonite churches i n the same area are equally numerous; some of them are Penn-German i n membership but not a l l ; f o r instance, i n McLean County near Danvers not f a r northwest of Bloomington, Hes­ sian Mennonites who had f i r s t been i n Ohio settled i n the I830 fs and l840 fs. The few German churches of other denominations were not founded u n t i l the I 8 6 0 , s or the I870 fs. No other German stock was able to occupy the land s o l i d l y along the r a i l r o a d east from Peoria f o r almost one hundred miles. 5 5 . 7 6 At the eastern end of the Peoria and Oquawka l i n e but before reaching the Indiana border the Germans were able to set­ t l e more closely together and formed the Iroquois County Area - 2 6 1 - ( 6 1 - 1 5 6 ) . Here i n 1850 the C a t h o l i c Bishop of Chicago, Van de Velde, "exhorted the German C a t h o l i c s a t R i d g e v i l l e to commence b u i l d i n g " (Sh IV 2 3 9 ) . R i d g e v i l l e d i d not become the center of settlement i n the area. In t h i s neighborhood Gilman, 75 m i l e s south of Chicago, developed good r a i l r o a d connections so as to become a center of population d i s t r i b u t i o n . Within twelve or f i f t e e n m i l e s of that town are a score of Protest a n t German churches averaging three or four hundred members each. The Evan­ g e l i c a l church a t Gilman (198 members i n 1950) was organized i n 1 8 7 4 . The o l d e s t M i s s o u r i Lutheran churches are those at Buckley, o r ­ ganized i n I 8 7 0 , 1 , 0 7 8 members i n 1 9 4 8 , and 10 miles northwest of M i l f o r d , organized i n 1 8 7 2 , 636 members i n 1 9 4 8 . The C a t h o l i c church i n t h i s area and i n the one to be considered next developed no great strength among the Germans. The Iroquois Coulxty area i n 1948 was s t i l l having German s e r v i c e s i n i t s o l d e r congregations. 77 Proceeding southward along the I l l i n o i s C e n t r a l l i n e to Champaign(-Urbana),(6 1 - 1 6 7 )1 we f i n d i n that town and to the north and northeast of i t a considerable German settlement. A country church ( M i s s o u r i Synod) was founded i n 1855* This con­ gregation was near e x t i n c t i o n i n 1 9 4 8 , but the various Protestant churches, some ten i n number, are i n general t h r i v i n g w i t h s e v e r a l hundred members each. Three of them (American Lutheran) are East F r i s i a n i n membership. F a r t h e r east near the Indiana l i n e , Dan­ v i l l e developed a German settlement of importance. 78 In the Champaign area the o l d East F r i s i a n s clung to German i n church s e r v i c e s , but the young learned only the East F r i s i a n d i a l e c t and were unable to understand preaching i n Standard Ger­ man. The chronology of displacement of German by E n g l i s h i n the - 2 6 2 - churches i s therefore not quite as good an in d i c a t i o n of the s h i f t i n usage as elsewhere, but here are i t s main l i n e s . At Royal, 15 miles northeast of Champaign, the congregation numbered 575 i n 1950 and at German services which then occurred once a month the atten­ dance was from 100 to 2 0 0 , a high proportion f o r the period. In 1941 German and English services had alternated. During the Second World War on the Sunday of German services an English service was added. The Missouri Lutheran church a few miles away and the same denominations church i n Champaign as well as i t s church i n Danville farther east were having German services i n 1 9 4 8 , even though i n 1916 two English services a month i n the evening had already been i n i ­ t i a t e d at Danville, and English services at Champaign were a regu­ l a r part of the program. 5 5 . 7 9 On the road from Chicago to S p r i n g f i e l d , farther west, Bloom- ton ( 6 1 - 1 5 4 ) developed somewhat as a German center, with a national parish f o r the Catholics and two Protestant German churches. A German Jew settled permanently there i n 1843* by 1852 there were f i v e German families i n Bloomington (Ma 1 1 : 2 : 4 7 - 8 ) . The Missouri Lutheran church was founded i n I 8 5 8 . In 1 9 4 8 , part of the Lutheran services were s t i l l i n German. A German church at Kappa to the north was founded i n i 8 6 0 , but did not become permanent (G 2 3 3 ) • There was i n I89O a German Methodist church with 214 members. 5 5 . 8 0 Proceeding from Bloomington toward the state c a p i t a l , L i n ­ coln (61-164) and the country about i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y to the northwest and southeast, had strong German settlements. The town i t s e l f had three Protestant German churches (originating about 1871) with nearly 2,000 members about 1950 and a national German parish of the Catholic church in 1 9 0 0 . To the southeast the Missouri Lutheran church at Mount Pulaski was organized i n 1851, fourteen years a f t e r the town was founded, 398 members i n 1948. To the northwest of Lincoln, Emden and Hartsburg have Ameri can Lutheran churches with a t o t a l of over 1,000 members. The name Emden suggests that i t s people are East F r i s i a n s . Emden's church became American Lutheran and i n 1950 (694 souls), i t s pas­ tor had an East F r i s i a n name, Detjen. At Mount Pulaski, the town of the Lincoln complex of settlement nearest S p r i n g f i e l d , 26 miles distant, the t r a n s i t i o n was faster than i n the capital..There were English services there at Zion Lutheran church, Missouri Synod, by 1916 even before the pressures of 1918 made them necessary. In 1928 German services were reduced to once a month; in 1930 the constitution was translated from German to English; i n 1939 German services ceased. .81 S p r i n g f i e l d (61-172) i t s e l f , though i t had a land o f f i c e by 1820 (Pe 5) and i n I 8 3 9 became the state c a p i t a l (Pe 204), did not a t t r a c t German population at once. Lutheran services began by 1841, but European and American-born were mingled. T r i n i t y , a t r u l y German church (Missouri Lutheran), was founded i n 1854. Thi branch of Lutheranism remained the only Protestant German deno­ mination (2 ,500 members i n the c i t y i n 1948). T r i n i t y church became possible when many Westphalians who had e a r l i e r been i n the Vandalia-Alt^mont area moved i n . The Catholics had no church at S p r i n g f i e l d u n t i l a f t e r 1866, but the see of i t s diocese was moved from Alton to Sp r i n g f i e l d i n 1923. In 1900 S.S. Peter and - 2 6 4 - Paul 1 s church, whose pastors were L. Riesen and J.C• Straub, had 350 pupils i n i t s school; Sacred Heart, C.H. Krekenberg, pastor, had 1 5 0 . (The I r i s h churches had nearly 800 pupils.) Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod, i n 1 9 4 8 , were s t i l l having German services at S p r i n g f i e l d and at Chatham not f a r to the south. In Sp r i n g f i e l d at the T r i n i t y Lutheran church there was an evening English service at the dedication of the church i n I 8 8 9 , but the s h i f t to English was slow; i n 1920 English services twice a month began. The services were "double-headers1' t i l l 1 9 2 4 . As l a t e as 1951 & service i n German was s t i l l carried on for a group of the very old every Sunday Afternoon. I t ceased about 1952- In 1 9 6 4 there were a few s t i l l l i v i n g who required pastoral ^work i n German, but i n 1951 & young person able to speak German was a r a r i t y . . 8 2 Very near S p r i n g f i e l d to the east Penn-Germans were numerous. Further on Decatur (£1-173) i n 1948 contained four Missouri Luther­ an s churches with 3483 members. Though the oldest, organized i n 1 8 6 4 , no longer had German services, the church founded i n I 8 9 1 did have them. In t h i s county i n I89O the German Methodists and the Evangelical Association had f i v e organizations with 392 members. At Decatur i n both Mis souri Lutheran churches i n 1916 English had been accepted into part of the evening services. - 2 6 5 - The road d i r e c t l y east to S p r i n g f i e l d from the most usual head of navigation on the I l l i n o i s River, Naples, was studded with German settlements; B l u f f s , Chapin, Jacksonville (61-171)> New B e r l i n . Protestant German missionaries were active at Jacksonville i n 1837 (Sch 9 4 ). The Protestant churches a l l became Missouri Lu­ theran. The oldest was organized at Chapin i n 1 8 5 0 , that at Jacksonville (608 members i n 1948) i n I 8 5 8 . At Jacksonville f o r the Salem Evangelical Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, a si n g u l a r l y complete account of the s h i f t from the use of German to the use of English exists thanks to Professor Arthur H a l l e r - berg, son of H.H. Hallerb0rg, assistant pastor from 1901 to 1904 and pastor 1 9 0 4 - 1 9 0 9 . The r o l e of the pastor i n these develop­ ments stands out. Edward C. Beck, pastor from 1877 to 1 9 0 4 , evidently f e l t unprepared to preach i n English. V i s i t i n g pastors occasionally provided English services u n t i l Beck's assistant came i n 1 9 0 1 . Under Pastor Hallerberg the sharpest advances occurred. When he was succeeded i n 1909 by Pastor J.G. Kuppler, the trans­ fe r of English services to the morning appears to have been the r e s u l t of a congregational agreement of the time; otherwise the relationship of the two languages remained s t a t i c u n t i l the events attending the F i r s t World War forced the progressive abandonment of German. The relationship of the use of English to congrega­ t i o n a l size i s curious, From 1866 to 1880 the membership was p r a c t i c a l l y s t a t i c at 1 0 0 ; during the years of greatest immi­ gration i t grew to 200 by 1 8 8 6 ; then gradually i t rose to 255 i n 1894 and began afterward to decline. From 1900 to 1903 i t -266- stood at 2 0 0 . In Hallerberg's l a s t year i t had r i s e n to 280. By 1915 i t stood at 335t and then during the years of German1s great­ est unpopularity i t f e l l gradually to 307 i n 1 9 2 1 . Growth i n size thereafter was not uninterrupted, but knew no great setbacks. In 1948 there x^ rere 608 members, i n 1957 there were 8 1 5 . Chronology of Language Usage at Salem Church, Jacksonville, I l l i n o i s 1858 Constitution adopted. 1859 Salem school organized. Salem school was o r i g i n a l l y dedicated to the teaching of the German language. At f i r s t a l l subjects were taught i n German. 1889 The I l l i n o i s Legislature -.passed a law requiring the teaching of English i n a l l schools. "The matter of teaching English i n order to meet the school law was l e f t to the pastor and elders." I 8 9 2 Permission granted to hold English services every two weeks from March u n t i l A p r i l . I 8 9 8 Easter Eve — a student f o r the pastorate, Mr. Wyneken, preached i n English. 1901 "Young People's Society" succeeds Jugendbund. English services once a month regularly begin. 1902 F i r s t English hymnbooks purchased — 2 dozen. 1904 Resolved that a l l future r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n be i n English. Confirmations i n English the next year. 1909 English sermons i n addition to German introduced i n mornings. 1912 "Der Bote" l a t e r "The Messenger" published as a parish paper. 1916 Two English morning services a month introduced. ' - 2 6 7 - 1918 E n g l i s h s e r v i c e s e x c l u s i v e l y f o r a l l evening s e r v i c e s begin. 1929 German s e r v i c e s reduced from weekly to 4 or 5 & year. 1937 E n g l i s h C o n s t i t u t i o n ( t h i r d ) adopted. 1938 Good F r i d a y German s e r v i c e s d i s c o n t i n u e d . 1958 P a r o c h i a l p r i n t e d calendar bears the n o t i c e : "Pastor Herbert C. Rose i s servi n g since 1955 By 1 9 6 4 some of the J a c k s o n v i l l e women born a t or before 1900 were ignorant of one another's p r o f i c i e n c y i n German. 5 5 . 8 4 Halfway from J a c k s o n v i l l e to S p r i n g f i e l d l i e s New B e r l i n . There the M i s s o u r i Lutheran Church was organized i n I870. New B e r l i n was a l s o a C a t h o l i c German center; the two confessions have been n e a r l y equal i n s i z e . By 1 9 1 4 although the p r i e s t s had been Germans, preaching i n German had been el i m i n a t e d from the C a t h o l i c church. :At the Lutheran church German s e r v i c e s continued longer. By the time of the F i r s t World War among the f a m i l i e s who had been there f i f t y years German was used only o c c a s i o n a l l y , to keep secrets from c h i l d r e n . 5 5 . 8 5 Germans i n Chicago and i t s suburbs were an element of great moment. Chicago, begun as F o r t Dearborn i n 1 8 0 4 , was of s l i g h t importance before the 1830*s. The f i r s t German a r r i v e d i n I83I or 1832 (Ma 1 1 1 : 4 : 3 1 and 6 0 ). The C a t h o l i c s gave the town a re s i d e n t p r i e s t , a Frenchman, i n I833. He "was r e c a l l e d i n I837 and Rev. Leander S c h a f f e r came to attend the Germans, and Rev. Mr. O'Meara to take general charge" (Sh I V 2 2 7 ) . The p a r i s h .did notjundertake a b u i l d i n g u n t i l 1843. P r o t e s t a n t worship began i n I837 (Mu 1 9 0 ). When Franz Hoffmann a r r i v e d at Chicago i n I839 unable to speak E n g l i s h , h i s compatriots were so few that to earn a l i v i n g he went to Dunkley 1s Grove, west beyond the borders -268- of Cook County i n Dupage County, where there was a settlement i n need of a teacher. By about 1841 he became an i t i n e r a n t Lutheran minister serving Cook, Dupage, and (to the south) Will County (K 279, B 185). The f i r s t Missouri Lutheran congregation i n Chi­ cago was organized i n 1847 a f t e r e x i s t i n g for a year as a general Protestant church. The Unierten organized separately i n 1848 (Mu 190). Koerner (E278 and Von Bosse copying him, B 184) says of Chicago, "the f i r s t token of l i f e manifested by a German popula­ ti o n conscious of i t s own existence may be found i n the year 1 8 4 3 . A meeting of German c i t i z e n s took place on the 18th of May? The meeting adopted a resolution praising a representative from southern I l l i n o i s ( i t was Koerner himself) " f o r his active support of the law whereby the completion of the I l l i n o i s and Michigan canal was authorized." This canal from the Lake to the I l l i n o i s River did indeed add greatly to the prosperity of Chicago and lead to the founding of various German settlements i n the towns 1 along i t s route. Hoffmann became active i n public l i f e and i n business. He was at one time Lieutenant governor of the state. Among other employments, he was superintendent of the Land Depart­ ment of the I l l i n o i s Central Railway from 1862 to 1 8 6 6 , and thus he did much for the promotion of German settlements along that l i n e . Chicago 1s German population grew as phenomenally as the c i t y i t s e l f . In 1844 the German Catholics were estimated to number 1,000. They were so numerous i n 1848 that Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis advised appointing a German as the c i t y ' s second bishop (the ap­ pointment then went to a Fleming and l a t e r to Irishmen t i l l 1 8 9 5 ) . ' -269- In 1901 Mannhardt concluded from an examination of the marriage records that most Protestant Chicagoans were Hanoverians; the same thing showed i n I 8 3 8 - 9 (Ma 1 1 1 : 4 * 3 2 ) . 86 The s o c i a l strength of Germans i n Chicago proper a f t e r the great immigration can be judged by the count on churches. In 1 9 0 0 , when the "old" immigration was already giving way to the "new", twenty of the 125 Catholic churches i n the c i t y of Chicago were German national parishes. About 1950 the protestant German churches i n the c i t y numbered 100 (55 of them Missouri Lutheran).* * As usual the term "Protestant German churches" includes only the two Lutheran churches and the E-R. The North American Baptists are more numerous i n Chicago than i n any other great c i t y . In the c i t y i t s e l f i n 1953 they had f i v e churches with 657 members; i n the immediate environs two churches with 621 members. (New York Ci t y proper had four churches with 789 hut with no church of appreciable size nearer than Newark, where there are three churches including the two largest which had 688 and 686 members.) The Chicago churches were organized between 1882 and 1 9 0 2 . The German Methodists i n I 8 9 0 had 17 congregations within Chicago i n I 8 9 0 but were rather weak i n the rest of north I l l i n o i s , though the two west counties on the Wisconsin border had been an early point of a c t i v i t y (there were 5 churches with 325 members i n these two counties i n I 8 9 0 ) . The Evangelical Association on the other hand was stronger i n much of the area. There were 16 churches with 2438 members i n Cook County and i n the counties adjoining 16 with 1839 members. -270- In Kankakee County there were 4 with 432 members, i n the counties near the road to Rock Island 18 with 1957 members and i n Stephenson (Preeport 1s county) and the two counties on i t s southern border 14 | with 849 members. Eleven of the Missouri Lutheran churches had been organized since 1 9 2 4 . Of the others the e a r l i e s t were organized i n 1 8 4 6 , 1 8 5 4 , 1 8 5 8 ; i n the period 1 8 7 4 - 5 ~ 2; 1882 — 1; 1884-9 12; 1893-8 — 5 > 1906-17 — 6 . 5 5 . 8 7 For the developments i n the use of German i n Chicago the only attempt here i s to convey sample information. A phenomenon obser­ vable i n the other large c i t i e s i s more marked i n Chicago than else­ where. The Germans have been displaced r e s i d e n t i a l l y by the suc­ ceeding immigrant stocks that have taken over the humble economic functions relegated to newcomers. In the newer German neighbor­ hoods therefore the stock may be much older i n America than the date of i t s entry into the neighborhood would indicate, and one may learn very l i t t l e about t r a i t s crffGerman development from the present inhabitants of an early German quarter, because few of the l a t e residents are Germans. Perhaps the most s i g n i f i c a n t thing that can be submitted i s the count on the proportion of Missouri Lutheran churches s t i l l maintaining German services. In 1916 these churches numbered. 44; 12 heard English sometimes; f i v e were part of the "English D i s t r i c t " , lii 1948 i n the c i t y proper there were 55 such churches; 34 of them s t i l l had German ^services. As examples of reported usage i n 1951 two churches on the west side, St. Mark's ( 2 3 r d and Ca l i f o r n i a ) and St. Matthew's ( 2 1 s t and Hoyne), • -271- and a l s o St. Martin's on the south side ( 5 1 s t and Marshfield) may be c i t e d . At St. Mark's, founded i n 1887, b u i l d i n g erected 1 8 9 5 , there were both German and E n g l i s h s e r v i c e s every Sunday. From 50 to 60 attended the German s e r v i c e , 250 the E n g l i s h . Attendance a t the German s e r v i c e s had r e c e n t l y been increased 25$ by the a r r i v a l of d i s p l a c e d persons from Europe. The congregation was sc a t t e r e d and the quarter was being abandoned by the Germans at that very per i o d . At S t . Matthew's, organized i n 1 8 8 9 , i n the neighborhood known as P i l s e n , the attendance at the German sermon was 40$ of that of the E n g l i s h . Attending i t were three or fo u r young mo­ thers whose c h i l d r e n were i n the Sunday School which was going on at the same time; a l l others were past 35 years o l d . One-fourth of the people l i v e d nearby, many a t a great d i s t a n c e . On the board three of the 24 members l i v e d c l o s e to the church. I n 1886 t h i s church had 5 i 5 0 0 members; i n 1 9 4 8 , 7 6 2 . At the death of the pastor i n 1915 t eulogies were given i n both German and E n g l i s h . In 1912 when a parent-teachers a s s o c i a t i o n was founded, i t was named the Sc h u l v e r e i n . In the neighborhood of S t . Martirfsjfounded i n 1 8 8 4 , persons born i n the 1 8 9 0 's were g e n e r a l l y able to speak German i n 1 9 5 1 . D i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the neighborhood was not so f a r advanced. Among the E v a n g e l i c a l and Reformed churches a number r e ­ tai n e d German s e r v i c e s i n 1951? St. Paul's church, f o r instance, with 1644 members, had German s e r v i c e s every Sunday. S t . Paul's C a t h o l i c church, s t i l l l a b e l e d a German n a t i o n a l p a r i s h i n i 9 6 0 , i s a block away from St. Matthew's Lutheran. S t . Paul's p a r o c h i a l school had 755 p u p i l s i n 1 9 0 0 , S t . Matthew's 1 , 0 9 0 i n I 8 8 7 . S t . Paul's Germans had almost a l l been replaced by other stocks i n 1 9 5 1 i but the Benedictines i n charge had had use f o r t h e i r German as l a t e as 1 9 3 4 . Kloss consecrates a page to a description of the s i t u a t i o n of German i n 1962 founded mainly "on communications from the Chicago Consulate General of the Federal Republic of Germany" (FK 245). This source was c h i e f l y f a m i l i a r with the Vereine. The president of that considered the most important could not speak German. "German worship i s held regularly at least once a month i n 45 churches of Greater Chicago, 36 of them Lutheran, 8 Protes­ tant other than Lutheran, and 1 Roman Catholic." The d a i l y Abend- post had a c i r c u l a t i o n of 2 6 , 0 0 0 . Refugees accounted f or a great many of the German speakers. Chicago was a favorite resort. 88 S a l l e t characterizes Chicago as "the strongest Volga-German settlement i n America" (Sa 4 7 ) . He specifies x^ rhat were at the time of a r r i v a l suburbs; and then adds that there were others smaller on the south side. These settlements began between 1888 and I 8 9 4 , but received most of t h e i r immigrants from Russia between 1903 and 1 9 1 3 . A f t e r the shop s t r i k e of 1923 on the railroads the Volgan population increased sharply with refugees from the s t r i k e centers including Herington, Kansas, f o r the Protestants, and To- peka, Kansas, f o r the Catholics. Catholic Volgans had not before been numerous i n Chicago. The data on Lutheran churches above does not distinguish the Volgan congregations from others. The Volgans also had Congregational churches i n Chicago. . 8 9 Germans were numerous i n what became the western and north- western-sHfeuyfes-ef-Qhicago very early. West of the c i t y proper - 2 7 3 - within 25 miles of the lake there were i n 1948 twenty-four Missouri Lutheran churches organized before 1895• In West Chicago about 35 miles inland a Missouri Lutheran church was founded i n 1884, but the Catholics had dedicated the German church of St. Francis of A s s i s i i n West Chicago" i n 1853 (Sh IV 6l4). The Missouri Lutheran church at Bensenville about twenty miles from the lake claims I838 as i t s date of foundation. The Missouri Lutheran churches at Elk Grove and Schaumberg a few miles farther north were organized i n 1847 and 1848. These were then farming communities. Shortly a f t e r the C i v i l War there were churches i n true suburbs. In 1948 the Missouri Lu­ theran church at Bensenville had 2 6 l members; the three Evangelical and Reformed churches had 1036 i n 1950. The dominance of'the E-R element i s to be explained by the number of Swiss i n the town and i t s neighborhood. Some of them reached Kansas. The Germans i n some of the western suburbs that have now become r e a l l y part of the c i t y have been rather conservative of German. Addison was chosen by the Lutherans as the s i t e of a Schullehrerseminar i n 1854 (Ma I I j 3*17). A c h i l d brought up there a f t e r the F i r s t World War learned German f a i r l y w e l l . Among Missouri Lutherans i n the suburbs within the confines of Cook County i n 1948, 39 churches out of 75 main­ tained German services; 13 had admitted some English by 1916; one, Oak Park, was i n the "English D i s t r i c t " . The faithfulness to Ger­ man of the people i n Chicago and i t s immediate suburbs i s la r g e l y to be explained by the fact that much l a t e immigration was urfean rather than r u r a l and Chicago more often than Cincinnati or St. Louis was the c i t y favored by the latecomers. Displaced persons • -274- a r r i v i n g a f t e r the Second World War were more of a p r e s e r v a t i v e here than elsewhere. On the north edge of the present m u n i c i p a l i t y a t N i l e s there was a M i s s o u r i Lutheran church by 1859t but a Catho­ l i c German n a t i o n a l p a r i s h a l s o developed there. A l i t t l e f u r t h e r on, a t New T r i e r or Grosse Point (now part of Wilmette) a German C a t h o l i c church was dedicated i n 1849 (Sh IV 239)t r e p l a c i n g a l o g b u i l d i n g of 1 8 4 3 . In t h i s neighborhood Luxemburgers s e t t l e d by 1845 and t h e i r settlement grew along the r i d g e , " a dune-like s t r e t c h now occupied by Ridge Avenue. Th e i r separate church, S t . Henry's, was given a pastor i n I 8 6 3 (GL 2 5 8 ) . Much f a r t h e r out, near the northern border of the s t a t e there were other German n a t i o n a l parishes i n 1900 at McHenry and Waukegan. Though they were then r a t h e r s m a l l , the h i s t o r y of the settlement north of McHenry ( 6 1 - 109) as t o l d by E. Mannhardt i s of i n t e r e s t . In 1 8 4 1 , Rhinelanders from the h i l l y E i f e l r e g i o n west of Koblenz began settlement and continued to come u n t i l the I 8 6 0 f s . They b u i l t a chapel i n 1 8 4 2 , a church i n 1 8 4 4 , another i n 1851 — a l l C a t h o l i c . The Germans "gradually d i s p l a c e d the Americans and I r i s h who had occupied the l a n d by v i r t u e of purchases from the government so that today (1902) the whole part of McHenry County l y i n g between McHenry and S p r i n g Grove belongs to these Rhenish pioneers or more f r e q u e n t l y to t h e i r descendants, since few of them are s t i l l - l i v i n g . The second gene­ r a t i o n i n p l e a s i n g f a s h i o n have preserved the language of t h e i r parents and w i t h i t a German poin t of view and German customs, and i n t u r n have passed i t on tb t h e i r c h i l d r e n . The grandchildren s t i l l speak there the d i a l e c t of t h e i r grandfathers, while with -275- strangers they are capable of conversing i n nearly pure Standard German — fine testimony f o r t h e i r school... U n t i l t h e l880 fs our settlement remained almost undisturbed by the outer world [except fo r hunters and f i s h e r s . Then summer houses on the lake appeared and certain Germans became hotel keepers.] How long simple manners and the German language can hold out i n the long run against t h i s pre-occupation with the world of the great c i t y , speaking and thinking i n English, how long they can endure against these i n ­ fluences remains to be seen" (Ma 1 1:4 : 5 8 - 6 0 ) . 5 5 , 9 0 For f i f t y miles to the northwest of Chicago the population became almost s o l i d l y German. Marengo at that distance gained a Missouri Lutheran church i n 1880, and from there into the c i t y there was another church of that denomination every f i v e or s i x miles by 1895. E l g i n (pop. 48,000 i n 1950) and farther south Aurora (pop. 60,000) were German centers (61-113) by I 8 5 0 (Po 40?). Germans had been present i n the area from I 8 3 2 on (Ma 1 1:1 : 4 9 ) . At ^ % Aurora i n 1900 the parochial school of the German Catholic church taught 560 pupils? At Aurora i n 1948 the number of Catholic German national parishes had become 4 and the enrollment of t h e i r parochial schools was 1 , 0 1 5 . By i 9 6 0 the two l a s t founded were no longer Ger­ man. E l g i n s t i l l had but one German church, 180 pupils (56 i n 1900). At Aurora the Missouri Lutheran churches, one established i n 1 8 5 7 , had 3 , 131 members i n 1 9 4 8 . At E l g i n the oldest was founded i n 1 8 5 9 ; two churches had 3 , 3 5 0 members i n 1 9 4 8 . There were no American Lutheran churches; the Evangelical and Reformed church at Aurora had but 321 members i n 1 9 5 0 ; the one at E l g i n , 1 ,215 members. Dun- • - 2 7 6 - dee just north of E l g i n with 1,948 inhabitants i n 1950 was exclu­ s i v e l y Missouri Lutheran, 2 , 0 7 8 members i n 1948 i n two churches, one organized i n i 8 6 0 . In E l g i n , while two English services at St. John's (Missouri) Lutheran church were attended every Sunday i n 1951 "by eight or nine hundred, persons, the German service drew only 50 old people; there was German preaching every Sunday too. The Reformed church had dropped German completely. 55*91 To the southwest there was not the same s o l i d i t y as to the west, but near the Cook County l i n e toward the c i t y from Hinsdale there was a Missouri Lutheran Church i n 1 8 5 8 ; nine miles beyond that town one i n 1868, and one i n town i n 1888. The Catholic church at Naperville was ...a German national Parish i n 1 9 0 0 ; i n 1849 "Naperville had a fl o c k of 600 Germans" (Sh IV 2 3 9 ) . There were other German communities, too, farther south along the I l l i n o i s - M i c h i g a n canal, for instance, Willow Springs (Lutheran), Lemont (Catholic) , and. Lockport (both) . At Naperville German was so strong during the f i r s t decade of t h i s century that an I r i s h boy entering Catholic parochial school there i n the f i f t h grade found i t necessary to learn German both f o r his studies and his d a i l y contacts. In 1948 there was no German at the Missouri Lu­ theran church, but i t had not been founded u n t i l 1 9 2 8 . 5 5 . 9 2 D i r e c t l y south from Chicago there was an area, primarily i n W i l l County ( 6 1 - 1 3 5 ), smaller than the one to the west and north­ west but s t i l l large, that became heavily German. I t stretched to Kankakee f i f t y miles away and was unbroken u n t i l beyond. Peotone, f o r t y miles out. Crete i n the center of t h i s region had a Missouri Lutheran church organized i n 1 8 4 9 , another very c l o s e was founded i n 1 8 5 4 . Crete i s i n eastern W i l l County, Settlement i n the south­ west corner of the county permitted o r g a n i z a t i o n of S t . John's church i n 1864 (Ma 111:413 ). "The settlements i n W i l l County date from 1846 and the success and growth of the communities seem due to the e f f o r t s of Conrad Tatge. During the years immediately f o l l o w i n g most of the government r a i l r o a d lands were bought up by Germans and soon those lands held by speculators a l s o came under t h e i r c o n t r o l " (Po 4 9 7 , a f t e r the H i s t o r y of Will County). The Germans s e t t l e d f i r s t near the road of e a r l y o r i g i n running south from Chicago through Monee and Peotonee, A colony oftEast F r i s i a n s (more s p e c i ­ f i c a l l y s t i l l Jeverlander) s e t t l e d beginning i n I 8 5 0 j u s t west of Monee; the east h a l f of Green Garden Township was a l l t h e i r s and as much more la n d i n a d j o i n i n g townships i n c l u d i n g Monee. These peo­ ple are of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t because they came, they or t h e i r sons and daughters, to found L o r r a i n e i n Green Garden Township of E l l s ­ worth County, Kansas (Ma I I : l : 3 6 ) f They l e f t I l l i n o i s i n 1 8 7 6 . * Mannhardt (p. 37) a l s o speaks of emigrants from W i l l County to Marion County, Kansas. L o r r a i n e i s a German B a p t i s t settlement and so was the Jeverlander settlement i n I l l i n o i s , though so many moved to Kansas t h a t the church f i n a l l y c o l l a p s e d . The congregation i n Kankakee, founded i n 1 8 6 4 , (242 members i n 1953) i s probably much of the same stock. The I l l i n o i s C e n t r a l l i n e from Chicago ran along the o l d t r a i l from Chicago and t h e i r l a n d agents were d i s t r e s s e d by t h i s -278- exodus to Kansas. Gates writes: "When the Kansas P a c i f i c and the Santa Fe Railroads began to make known the advantages of t h e i r lands, a number of these Germans were induced to leave I l l i n o i s and to commence farming anew i n Kansas. Indeed i n 1874 I l l i n o i s was furnishing almost four times as many purchasers of land f o r the Santa Fe road as any other state and more than a l l the f o r ­ eign countries together" (G 3 0 9 - 1 0 ). Part of t h i s promotion of Kansas came about because onfe of the W i l l s County East F r i s i a n s , Heinrich Stassen shifted allegiance as a land agent from the I.C. to, i t seems, both the Santa Fe and the Kansas P a c i f i c . A l l i n a l l , however, the I l l i n o i s Central land department prof i t e d by the W i l l County settlement. On t h e i r lands to the west of the East F r i s i a n s settled Hessians and Hanoverians (Mallil138) i n the l 8 6 0 f s and to the east f i v e Missouri Lutheran churches became established. The settlement i n overflowing furnished buyers for lands to the south beyond Kankakee County. Lutherans and Evangelicals pros­ pered i n t h i s area. In I 8 7 3 there were i n i t at l e a s t f i v e Evan­ g e l i c a l congregations (Ma 1 1 1 : 4 : 1 0 ) . Six out of the eight Mis­ souri Lutheran churches i n i t were s t i l l having German services i n 1 9 4 8 , though one of the churches at Beecher had admitted English by 1 9 1 6 . 55•93 Kankakee (61-146) owed a great stimulus to the coming of the I l l i n o i s Central i n 1853* A German Evangelical church was organ­ ized i n 1 8 5 4 , another i n I 8 7 O . By 1859 the town had a Missouri Lutheran church i n competition with the German Baptist founded a year e a r l i e r . The Catholics, too, erected a German national -279- r p a r i s h there in. 1 8 7 7 , The M i s s o u r i Lutherans i n 1948 (1680 souls) had some preaching i n German. Southwest of Kankakee Germans es­ t a b l i s h e d themselves. Chebanse had an E v a n g e l i c a l church i n 1873 (Ma I I I : 4 : l 6 ) . The C a t h o l i c cemetery a l s o e x h i b i t s German names. A v i l l a g e near by i s named H e r s c h e r . Rather i s o l a t e d from other German settlements i s Dwight, 30 miles west from Kankakee, 75 mile s from Chicago on the Chicago and A l t o n R a i l r o a d (that i s , now High- .way I 55). I t s German settlement was e v i d e n t l y stimulated by the b u i l d i n g of the r a i l r o a d , f o r one of i t s M i s s o u r i Lutheran churches was organized i n 1854, the other i n 1864. Bonfeld church, organ­ i z e d i n 1859i l i e s between i t and Kankakee. Neither Dwight nor Bonfeld had German s e r v i c e s i n 1 9 4 8 . , 55.94 Without f u r t h e r remark concerning the c i t i e s Ttfhich he l i s t s Koerner i n 1884 ( a l s o Von Bosse i n 1 9 0 8 ), noted that "the l a r g e German settlements i n Peru, L a s a l l e , Ottawa (61-133) i &nd J o l i e t owe t h e i r o r i g i n to the completion of the M i c h i g a n - I l l i n o i s Canal" (£ 277i B 184). The area of the f i r s t three was o r i g i n a l l y one of great I r i s h settlement. The c o a l mining which went on i n that area and the i n d u s t r i a l development that followed brought i n many of the "new" immigration. S t i l l Germans x^ rere s u f f i c i e n t l y strong to have C a t h o l i c n a t i o n a l parishes of t h e i r own i n a l l these towns, J o l i e t i n c l u d e d , and Protestant congregations as w e l l . Germans were reported i n the area of the f i r s t three towns i n I 8 3 6 (Sch 475) by P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s ; these may have been "American Germans" i n the main, but immigrants from abroad were there by I 8 3 4 . Real a c t i v i t y d i d not begin t i l l n e a r l y twenty years l a t e r (on e a r l y -280- day s see a l s o Ma 11 : 1*50-54 and IT:2151-61). At Peru an Evan­ g e l i c a l church was organized i n l852(Ma 111 : 4 : 1 0 ) . Another existed at Princeton to the west i n 1856, a Missouri Lutheran to the east i n Ottawa i n i 8 6 0 . In the l i n e of c i t i e s along the Mi c h i g a n - I l l i n o i s Canal Germans were on the s o c i a l ladder above l a t e r coming stocks and therefore, as i n most smaller c i t i e s , tended to be absorbed into the English-speaking population rather r a p i d l y . The forces of the F i r s t World War were potent among them. At Ottawa the l a s t class confirmed i n German i n the Missouri Lutheran church was that of 1917; German was completely dropped from services at the beginning of the Second World War. Near the western edge of the canal region at Hollowayville between Lasalle and Princeton (61-132) the Ameri­ can Lutheran congregation i s quite scattered, more so th&n i t was o r i g i n a l l y , probably because of ancient o r i g i n ; the f i r s t immigrant from Germany arrived i n 1834 (Ma 11:2:57). In 1950 i t was not small for a country parish, 310 souls. German had disappeared from church services at lea s t by the Second World War, probably by 1 9 2 7 . Inscriptions on the stones i n the cemetery were partly i n English i n the e a r l i e s t years beginning i n 1 8 5 3 . During the 1870*s and early l 8 8 0 f s they became exclusively German. During the I 8 9 0 f s the two languages competed; but except for the widows of two men who died early, German wan not used a f t e r 1 9 0 5 . One of the women died i n 1 9 2 2 , the other i n 1 9 4 1 . Hollowayville also had an Evan­ g e l i c a l church by I 8 7 3 . Mendota, 16 miles north of LaSalle, began to hear German preaching i n 1854 shortly a f t e r the I l l i n o i s Central went through (Sch 515)• The church ultimately became American Lutheran, 1 , 187 members i n 1 9 5 0 . The town also acquired a Catholic '-281- German national parish. 55*95 About twenty miles south of L a s a l l s and the same distance northwest of Peoria a small area of German settlement developed, which can best be i d e n t i f i e d by Toluca, ( 6 l-l44N), for immigrants to Kansas from that area most often spoke of that town. Five Pro­ testant German churches, organized i n 1868 and the years following, are c losely grouped here. None of them had services i n German i n 1 9 4 0 . Across the r i v e r near where i t turns south and a fex^ r miles to the west Amish from Bavaria settled near Tiskilwa. They were i n I l l i n o i s beginning about 1835• Ultimately they joined other Mennonite groups (MC and GCM); they do not appear to have been as l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative as most Amish, At Kkwanee s t i l l f a r ­ ther west (Mo. Luth. founded 1 8 6 2 ; E-R I 8 7 6 , ALC also there) con­ ditions were s i m i l a r , though to an informant German seemed more frequently used than i n Dubuque where Lutheran services i n German ceased i n 1946. 55.96 At the farthest northwest point of I l l i n o i s , Galena ( 6 1 - 1 0 0 ) , where lead was discovered early, began to have a motley foreign population by 1822. The town did not grow rapidly, but i t became a r i v e r port and ultimately the terminus of i t s branch of the I l l i n o i s Central Railroad. A g r i c u l t u r a l settlement was l i m i t e d to squatters u n t i l 1846. Consequently permanent German s e t t l e ­ ment i n the area comes a f t e r that date, though there x^ere certain­ l y Germans i n Galena by I 8 3 3 (Ma 11:1*53). Elizabeth, near neighbor to the town of Hanover, both located on the Apple River and more or less German centers, had 45 inhabitants i n I 8 3 2 (Po 4 6 7 ) . Five -282- Lutheran churches (eventually ALC) were established i n or near Elizabeth, and i n 1900 i t s Catholic church was served by the Rev. E. Weber. At the same time Galena, which had a Catholic Church by 1844, possessed a German national parish, as one of i t s churches. Another national parish developed at Menominee some si x miles up the M i s s i s s i p p i , half way to Dubuque. There was also a Lutheran church (American) at Galena. 97 More than f i f t y miles back from Galena, Freeport came into being i n 1837* There were Perm Germans i n i t s county, Stephenson 461-101), very shortly; a congregation of Mennonites was founded i n the 1840 1s at Freeport; Brethren have churches i n the same town and at Lena to the west. County historians speak of Germans at Freeport before 1850 (Po 497) . At Rock Run i n t h i s county Evan­ g e l i c a l preaching took place by 1848 (Ma I I I s 4 i 5 ) . In 1850 out of Freeport 1s 1,324 inhabitants 352 were foreigners (Po 4 9 2 ) . Im­ migration into t h i s region received a great impetus with the construction of the Galena and Chicago Railroad and the I l l i n o i s Central Railroad i n 1853 and 1854. Evangelical services began i n Freeport i n 1855 and just west at Eleroy (otherwise New Erin) i n I857 (Sch 512-3)« At Freeport i n 1950 there were three Evangeli­ c a l and Reformed congregations; one was named the " F i r s t English," reminiscent of years when the language question was debated. I t s membership was 357t that of the two others combined 1125. In 1916 the one Missouri Lutheran church at Freeport was i n the "English D i s t r i c t ; " i n 1948 the Missourians had two churches with 961 mem­ bers. A l i t t l e further away than Eleroy a Lutheran congregation - 2 8 3 - at Lena was established before i 8 6 0 . None of these Missouri Lu­ theran churches had German services i n 1 9 4 8 . To the south Evan­ g e l i c a l s worshipped at Forreston and Adeline i n 1862 (Sch 5 1 4 - 5 ) • The German national parish of the Catholics at Freeport was fl o u r i s h i n g i n 1 9 0 0 ; i t s school had 288 pupilsj the I r i s h parochial school was s l i g h t l y smaller. In the same year the Catholic parish at Lena was served by the Rev. J.C. Gieseler. 55*98 The Rock River, which empties into the M i s s i s s i p p i at Rock Island due x^ rest of Chicago and pursues an arked course to enter Wisconsin at the midpoint of i t s I l l i n o i s border, was an artery of settlement very soon a f t e r Black Hawk's War. "In I 8 3 6 a steamer ascended the Rock as f a r as Dixon and i n I 8 3 8 as f a r as Rockford. In I 8 3 9 there was a St. Louis and Rock River packet" (Pe 1 9 2 ) . Germans s e t t l e d near the r i v e r ' s mouth rather early, but the Swedes obscured them by th e i r preponderance. However, f i v e miles into the country from East Moline a Missouri Lutheran church was organized i n 1861 and i n 1948 i t and the church established l a t e r i n town had 6 l ? members. A Catholic German national parish deve­ loped at Rock Island (134 pupils i n 1900 compared to the I r i s h 3 0 0 ) . According to Pooley (Po 497) county historians acknowledged only two German settlements along the Rock before 1 8 5 0 , one at Dixon (61-121) and one at Oregon. They should probably have added S t e r l i n g (61-120) nearer the r i v e r ' s mouth. There and 8 miles to the northxiest Missouri Lutheran churches were organized i n 1875 which together had 1 , 107 members i n 1 9 4 8 . The two American Luther­ an churches there and at Rock F a l l s across the r i v e r i n 1950 to- -284- taled 1,5.02 members. The Catholic German national parish there was small (78 pupils i n 1900) . Very hear S t e r l i n g i n the 1850* s, Penn-Germans established three Mennonite churches beginning i n the 1 8 5 0 *s. Another group was at Morrison to the northwest. In the country broadly between S t e r l i n g and Freeport, a dozen Brethren churches sprang up i n addition to those named above, Dixon gained additional prominence with the coming of the I l l i n o i s Central Railroad i n 1854 and developed a Lutheran church (American) before i 8 6 0 ; i n 1950 i t had 388 members. The only Catholic church was St. Patrick's. The settlement to the northeast of Oregon re­ mained small. At Rockford (61-102) the Catholic churches were both I r i s h i n 1 9 0 0 . The Missouri Lutheran church established i n 1888, St. Paul's, had 1 , 1 0 0 members i n 1948 and another of l a t e r date (1931) 5 5 6 . In 1916 St. Paul's had admitted English into evening services. .99 Conservation of German. Unless i t be at certain points i n the B e l l e v i l l e area, there i s no d i s t r i c t i n I l l i n o i s where the use of German has been quite so well preserved as i n the most con­ servative d i s t r i c t s of Ohio and Indiana, though there are areas that are quite conservative. One reason f o r this state of a f f a i r s i s that very l i t t l e of Indiana and only about three-fourths of Ohio was set t l e d e a r l i e r than most of I l l i n o i s . Even the e a r l i e s t settlements received very l i t t l e German immigration before the early settlements i n I l l i n o i s . Another and more important reason i s that very few of the German settlements i n I l l i n o i s had as s t a t i c a population as those to the east. Cheap lands to the west were closer and the routes of access easier than from farther east. People moved on to Kansas among other places shortly a f t e r the sod i n t h e i r I l l i n o i s settlements had been broken. In other words, the German population was more mobile i n I l l i n o i s , and mobility i s an enemy to conservation of minority c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 0 0 Wisconsin has sometimes been called theHGermanest State;" treatment in the present work, however, w i l l be restricted to that part of the state which furnished German population to Kansas, Its northern section and most of i t s western section developed contem­ porarily with Kansas, and emigration of Germans from i t after 1870 or thereabouts tended to be toward the States to the north of Kan­ sas. Before I 8 7 0 rather significant numbers came from Wisconsin to Kansas. The area from which these people came was in the south­ eastern fourth of the state, the section f i r s t and s t i l l by ;far the most heavily populated. We shall occupy ourselves l i t t l e with people l i v i n g north of a line from somewhat above the northeast corner of Iowa to the south corner of that part of Michigan on the upper Peninsula. The line from LaCrosse to Marinette i s l i t t l e different• 01 Well beyond this line there are many small settlements of Germans, and in the more populous parts of this great stretch of country there are two areas of great concentration, one in the cen­ ter of the state at the latitude of Minneapolis on the Upper Wis­ consin River mainly in Marathon County with a sort of center at Wausau, and the other farther west at the same latitude in the valley of the Chippewa River centered at Eau Claire and Chippewa Palls. The Wausau area, where there are many Germans from the Inner North and Northeast of Germany, received German settlers as early as 1855• The other, whfgre the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, flourished, has no congregations of that denomination or­ ganized earlier than 186*K. - 2 8 7 - The conservation of German in the Chippewa and particularly in the Wausau area and in general in northern Wisconsin was great in 19^8 largely because of late a r r i v a l . In Wausau 5 out of 7 Missouri Lutheran churches were having services in German; in Mer­ r i l l , the other important town, 6 out of 6 . In smaller places, the proportions were nearly the same. 5 6 . 0 2 The more southern area of Wisconsin contains German settle­ ments everywhere, often without interval, but they are rarer in the southern t i e r of counties except in or near the ci t i e s along Lake Michigan and the Rock River. For the rest, early settlement of a l l sorts, except for a spurt in the southwestern lead mining area d i s t r i c t , radiated from the southern lake shorfc very largely from Milwaukee. Many of the settlers were German. 5 6 . 0 3 Between 18*1-0 and 1850 the population of Wisconsin increased from 30,7^7 to 3 0 5 , 0 0 0 . In rounded numbers the distribution of 1850 was as follows: born Wisconsin 63t000 born elsewhere in U.S. 1 3 5 t 0 0 0 born Ireland 2 1 , 0 0 0 born England 1 9 , 0 0 0 bom Wales, Scotland, Canada 1 5 , 0 0 0 born Norway 8 ,600 born Germany & Switzerland ^0,000 born elsewhere urn 3 0 5 , 0 0 0 - £ 8 8 - Inasmuch as those born in Wisconsin were necessarily mostly c h i l ­ dren — children of foreign-born as well as of others — the Ger­ mans made up at least one-sixth of the population then. Wilhelm Hense-Jensen claimed that Malready in the year 1850 more than a half of a l l persons l i v i n g in Wisconsin — 53*89$ — had German blood in their veins'* (HI51) • The proportion is probably exagge­ rated, though the descendants of Pennsylvania and New York Germans should be included in the estimate of "German blood," and the im­ migration from New York was considerable. In 1900 German immigrants &&d their children made up something more than one third of the population of the state. Ok Indian holdings in the part of Wisconsin of most interest to us were extinguished in the early I 8 3 0 , s . Land offices were opened in the lead region of the southwest and at Green Bay in I 8 3 4 , but I 8 3 6 i s usually regarded as the date of the opening of the t e r r i ­ tory. Milwaukee received i t s land office in I 8 3 8 and few foreign- born Germans were in Wisconsin before that year. In I 8 3 9 they be­ gan settlement in earnest and in the next decade most of their settlements within f i f t y miles of the lake shore had their origin, also some beyond. By the ;time that the C i v i l War began, a l l the region to receive more than pawsing notice here was well settled with Germans. 05 Germans in City and Country. The ci t i e s that grew up along the shore of Lake Michigan became quite cosmopolitan, and the i n ­ tricacies of German linguistic development, as affected by the -28£- presence of Poles, Magyars, etc., w i l l not concern us. But the Germans of Green Bay, Manitowoc, Sheboygan, Racine, and Kenosha must concern us, and above a l l Milwaukee. Outlying d i s t r i c t s of German settlement shade into those in the immediate environs of Milwaukee. In the larger towns German stocks of various back­ grounds are usually mingled together. Rurally Germans from vari­ ous parts of the Vaterland often l i v e separately, though close together. The, Germans of Wisconsin seem to have been more con­ scious of their provincial origins in Germany than in most other states*(H,I, 55) t perhaps not more than in Ohio, but rural German settlements there were less frequently in direct contact with one another. 5 6 . 0 6 Districts occupied by Germans may be classed as followst (a) the southern cit i e s on Lake Michigan and their neighborhood. (b) the Ozaukee (61-2*1-6) County area to the north of Milwaukee which, especially to the west and north, stretches well beyond that county into Washington County ( 6 1 - 2 ^ 5 ) . (c) the Sheboygan-Manitowoc area which includes almost a l l of the counties bearing these names (61-23^-227) and containing the cit i e s with the same names and the east edge of Calumet County ( 6 1 - 2 2 6 ) . (d) the Lake Winnebago East Shore Area — part of the shore in Calumet County and more importantly, part of Pond du Lac County ( 6 1 - 2 1 2 ) . (e) the Watertown area to the west of Milwaukee originally - 2 9 0 - with a geographical gap between i t s Germans and those of the city environs. There is more or less of a center at Watertown. It covers much of Jefferson and Dodge Counties and part of Waukesha County (61 - 2 5 3-2^ - 2 5 4 ) . (f) the Oshkosh area, largely that city. (g) the north-of-Winnebago area, which may be divided into two portions, (1) the Lower Fox d i s t r i c t , including the towns on this part of the Pox and neighboring country, that is Brown (61- Zk) and parts of the county to the east, and Kewaunee (j^l-212) (2) the Wolf River d i s t r i c t , that i s , southern Outagamie County (61-210) and some of Waupaca County to the west. (h) the Shawano County area to the north of Area G, with something of a gap between. (i) the Dane County area, which besides Dane includes Rock and Green County to the south of i t (61-252,262,261). This area has no unity, but contains several relatively small but interes­ ting settlements. (j) the Great Bend of the Wisconsin area; similar in charac­ ter, Sauk and Columbia Counties (61-2^2,2^3) and the counties to the north of them. (k) the Mississippi River area, not of great importance but most nearly so in northern Grant County (61-250) and in the LaCrosse area (61-230). (1) The Chippewa and Wausau areas beyond our limit of p r i ­ mary interest have already been mentioned. - 2 9 1 - 07 Milwaukee, as the year 1834 opened, was only a fur-trading post. Its county began to acquire foreign-born Germans the next year; they included merchants and mechanics by 1837 (H 2 0 ). The panic of that year hampered settlement, which, though, soon re­ sumed with vigor. By March 18431 when Milwaukeeans celebrated Congress1s voting them a harbor, the Germans were so numerous that their porticnof the parade (people afoot, on horseback and in sleighs) stretched half a mile (K 2 8 2 ) . The next year an educa­ tional society was founded and other specifically German societies in the years immediately following. A Catholic diocese was created at Milwaukee in 1843 and Bishop Henni came to reside there in 1 8 4 4 . At his arrival at Milwaukee, he found that wthe l i t t l e wooden church... required three masses to hold" the three congregations, French, English-speaking, and German (Sh IV 2 5 2 ) . In A p r i l , 1846 , the bishop l a i d the cornerstone of a German church in the city. In 1900 of the 28 Catholic churches in Milwaukee, eleven were German, 7 were Polish, 2 were Bohemian, and one was Italian. Lutheran services began in Milwaukee in 1839 $ but there was no resident pas­ tor u n t i l 1847$ when a Missouri Synod church was organized from a part of the group that had been worshipping together. The rest set up a Buffalo Synod church shortly afterward. The delay in organi­ zation was the result of poverty, the more well-to-do Lutherans had l e f t town and acquired farms. In 1949 the Missouri and Wisconsin Synods had 70 churches in Milwaukee, the next year the American Lu­ theran had 1 0 ; the Evangelical and Reformed 1 4 . In I 8 9 0 the Ger- - 2 9 2 - man Methodists had five congregations with 813 members, the Evan­ gelical Association 9 with 1 , 0 5 0 members. 08 Even before 1848 the number of free-thinking p o l i t i c a l refu­ gees in Milwaukee was noticeable. After that year the city was a favorite goal of the exiled Forty-eighters hostile to churches. They became the intellectual leaders of the Germans, and as long as they lived, the anti-religious element was of great influence in the city. Their enthusiasm for German mores was perhaps greater than that of their fellow countrymen, but their desire to influence the social and especially the p o l i t i c a l l i f e of their new habitat made them speedily bi-lingual and in general a major force for change while s t i l l exalting their heritage from the fatherland* They were in control of the active German press of the city. The foundation and long prosperity of the school called wDeutsch-Eng- lische Akademie" (Fa 471) may be attributed to them. They and more humble a l l i e s became the governing force in such organizations as the furnverein so that in Milwaukee religious persons could not participate in them. 09 Turners began activity in 1850 and were organized in 1853* The Verein wmade i t i t s task not only to pay homage to bodily development, but also to contend with the weapons of the mind.... For many years [ i t ) assumed the leadership of the German element in intellectual and p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . A fresh joyous, free s p i r i t reigned here and shed light and l i f e upon a far-reaching c i r c l e . . . . The Turnvereins in short regarded i t as their special duty to conserve the intellectual and spiritual treasures of the - 2 9 3 - old fatherland and dispense them upon their immediate environment1* (H,I, 157)• Not that the Turnverein became an exclusively i n t e l ­ lectual body; in the late nineteenth century the characteristic members were lesser shopkeepers and their economic equals; their act i v i t i e s were often more rollicking than intellectual. 5 6 . 1 0 During the decline of the Forty-eighters a different economic and quasi-intellectual aristocracy developed. Among the masses the d i s t r i c t of origin in Germany had more importance than in many other c i t i e s . A l l these factors of disunity could be afforded in a city where the German element was such a large proportion of the population. As time went on, the disunity that comes from the strug­ gles between the generations also became marked, heightened by du­ ration of the immigration which allowed the young to contrast their characteristics with the old-fashioned peculiarities of new-comers. In other words by the beginning of the twentieth century there were many of German stock far too nearly Americanized to suit the taste of others. Ernst Bruncken wrote in 1 9 0 2 , "The children of these immigrants, who had been born here or had come to America in their f i r s t youth, are seldom in a position to understand the fresh en­ thusiasm of German-American patriotism. It ir r i t a t e s them. It drives them to the conclusion that the old fellows are not real Americans. They begin to suspect that in case of a conflict with Germany in the end the sympathies of their parents would s t i l l be on the side of the national enemy. Then the additional fear arises lest, because they are children of Germans, they also might be con- -294- sidered capable of harboring un-American sympathies, and in order to render such a reproach impossible, they diligently display their nationality. This is probably the psychological process whereby a high percentage of Germans born here are driven into extreme jingo­ ism. In the interest of things German, this fact is to be deplored. It i s , however, not to be denied and has already in the domain of local p o l i t i c s , especially in Milwaukee, borne quite remarkable fr u i t " (H 9II 9 240). Bruncken ireis referring to two successive de­ feats of German-born candidates for mayor after a period in which Germans had ruled the city. German p o l i t i c a l activity in a l l Wis­ consin had been very great, sovereign in Milwaukee. The reaction of the young was so much the more evident. Phenomena occurring throughout the United States fifteen years later were here fore­ shadowed . .11 Despite the disaffected young people, German cultural l i f e was s t i l l rich at Milwaukee in 1902. Let us consider the theater because i t s audiences had to understand German. A German stock company, in i t s beginnings made up of amateurs, had come into being in 1850 (H, I, 149). Its prosperity had not been uninter­ rupted but had become great. After a f i r e , Captain Fred Pabst installed i t in 1890 in "a splendid new building" (H,II 223) and in 1902 Bruncken boasted that "of a l l the c i t i e s in the country, New Yor& excepted, Milwaukee is the only one maintaining s t i l l to­ day a permanent German theater" (H:II 222). "The productions of the modern Gerimn theater, at this moment in such a highly flour- - 2 9 5 - ishing state, are known in Milwaukee almost as soon as in the ci t i e s of the old fatherland.••• Furthermore classical plays are not neglected" (H, II, 2 3 3 ) . Von BOsse could s t i l l .write in 1 9 0 8 , "One circumstance distinguishes Milwaukee from other metropolises, and that is i t s influential German element, which has impressed a characteristic stamp upon the city. Nowhere in the United States have the gifts of the American, his restless energy and his re­ sourceful sagacity, so happily combined with the characteristics of the German, his persistent industry, his probity and his cheer­ fulness" (B 1 9 1 ) . When, however, the F i r s t World War came to deal i t s crushing blows, most of the second and greater wave of immi­ grants were growing old and their sons behaved much like the young men of 1 9 0 0 . Even in 1950 Milwaukeeans of German stock tended to de-emphasize their origins in public though speaking on the subject quite goodnaturedly, for under normal circumstances cheerfulness s t i l l marks the Milwaukeean*s public behavior. . 12 Milwaukee's use of German in the nineteenth century was well set forth by Bruncken in 1 9 0 2 . "About the year 1 8 7 0 , " he sftys, "even ten years later, there were certain wards of the city of Milwaukee, then not very large, in which scarcely an English word was heard on the streets, and the shops almost without exception had a German sign beside the one in English. Business firms of no l i t t l e importance employed the German language in their corres­ pondence for the most part. The peculiarities of f L i t t l e Germany0 have now almost completely disappeared. While in one of the Ger­ man wards in Milwaukee, the sixth for example, in 18?0 every grown - 2 9 6 - man and woman had been born in Germany, the majority of the r e s i ­ dents now consists of the children born here, who may indeed be­ tray their German origin clearly enough by their l i v i n g habits, appearance, and frequently too by the accent with which they speak English, but who think and feel quite differently from their immi­ grant parents*1 (H II 254) . 5 6 . 1 3 Use of German in Milwaukee churches is an index to the process of Engl-izing in the twentieth century, though in the Protestant churches a shift to English was often delayed by the pastor's i n ­ a b i l i t y to preach in English. Besides Milwaukeeans did not take kindly to the new religious vocabulary. A Wisconsin synod pastor proficient in English introduced one-a-month services in English about 1 9 1 0 , and only a few people attended at f i r s t . An Evangelical minister who made a similar change in 1914 found his whole adult congregation disapproving, but the children were playing together in English. By 1916 there was one Missouri Synod church (Efeenezer founded in 1894) which had admitted English into part of i t s ser­ vices, and two more had allowed i t to enter the Sunday School. However, in 1948 eighteen of the 31 Missouri Lutheran churches in Milwaukee were having some services in German, and included in the 18 were the three that were so l i b e r a l in 1 9 1 6 . One of these "was the oldest, Trinity, organized in 184?$ 1200 members in 1 9 4 8 . It was located in the center of the city across from the Pabst brewery. The cornerstone said in English that i t was erected in I 8 7 8 , but other carved letters of the same date identified i t in German. An­ other of these churches was Holy Ghosfe, farther out on the north - 2 9 7 - side, but in an old section of the city settled by South Germans, I 8 3 9 members in 1 9 4 8 . In 1951 there were every Sunday one German service attended by 100 persons and two English services attended by 800. Two-thirds of those attending the German were quite old; some of the others were displaced persons from Europe, friends and relatives of earlier immigrants. Part of those attending the Ger­ man services came from other congregations where German services had been dropped. Mostly the parishioners were of the third gene­ ration, some of the fourth. A few children were s t i l l learning to understand German, but in general those of the third generation had never acquired an understanding. In a large cemetery near by, Ger­ man inscriptions were common t i l l 1 9 1 8 , but disappeared about 1931• In the Priedens Evangelical and Reformed church in a neighbor­ hood no longer predominantly German in the center of the city, 742 members in 1 9 5 0 , from 50 to 75 persons there attended a German ser­ vice every Sunday at 8 : 3 0 a.m. They were a l l old people, profi­ cient in English, but religiously at home in German. About 400 persons attended the English services. Confirmation in German had gone on un t i l the F i r s t World War; at that time no instruction was given in English. But childran growing up in the years before the war were usually learning their standard German only in school. With the closing of the German school, no children learned German. This church usage was li n g u i s t i c a l l y as conservative a phe­ nomenon as any to be found among the Germans of Milwaukee in 1951* Only one other E-B church (Immanuel) was having services in German in 1951t there they occurred once a month. - 2 9 8 - 56.14 Outside of churches in the f i r s t decade after the conclusion of the "Great War" German adults past forty usually conversed with each other in German, and in the German neighborhoods children learned to understand German, and frequently to speak i t with their grandparents. The English of people of German origin born in the f i r s t decades of the twentieth century often continued to be quite perceptibly accented forty or f i f t y years later. As in a l l great ci t i e s residential displacements have affected the areas speaking German, but in the mid-20th century, German speech had not been eradicated from the city. In 1950 i 3 5hxral neighborhoods close by the city people born about 1900 were s t i l l conversing with each other in German. 5 6 . 1 5 Kenosha County (61-264S) at the southern tip of Wisconsin's lake front welcomed Westphalians in the late 1830*s (L 365)• Racine close by became a German cultural center to such an extent that German Day was celebrated more vigorously there in 1900 than in Milwaukee. "In a small city l i k e Racine i t i s naturally much easier than in the metropolis to unite the whole German element for social purposes. F i r s t the number is smaller and second, social division into classes is not so far advanced as in the great city" (H; II, 2 1 5 ) . German churches of every type abounded in these towns. Back from Racine and Kenosha in the two counties bearing their names German population elements at points are concentrated. 5 6 . 1 6 At those points and at some in the two cities the people have sometimes been rather coireervatiye of German. At Racine ( 6 1 - 2 6 4 ) , children of German parents growing up in the f i r s t decade of the twentieth century frequently did not learn to speak German, but their fathers and mothers had not abandoned the language, and i t seems to have been held in someinhat higher respect than by the young generation in Milwaukee. In 1951 at St. Paulas American Lutheran church there were both German and English services every Sunday; less than 30 attended the German service (total membership, 639) including a few of the second generation. One of the Missouri Lutheran churches (one out of five) also had German services, but Trinity Church (Missouri) was already "English" in 1 9 1 6 , probably also at i t s origin in 1905« At Burlington somewhat inland, the American Lutheran church had given up German services shortly before 1951 on hiring a minister ignorant of German, but the Wisconsin Synod organization s t i l l heard German once a month. As usual, l i n ­ guistic conservatism had been accompanied by other conservatism and this church had dwindled in membership. South of Burlington over the line into Kenosha County the New Muenster Catholic ceme­ tery contained inscriptions in German very commonly un t i l 1905. The latest inscription in German marked the grave of spouses, one of whom died i n 1 9 0 6 ; the other in 1931# .17 West and Northwest of Milwaukee in the part of Waukesha County that was early in some sense suburban, German settlements existed. At Pewaukee some 20 miles back from the lake there were in I 8 7 3 forty-two Luxemburger families; the f i r s t were there by 1848. They shared a Catholic church with the Irish (GL 2 6 9 ) . The Salem church, Wisconsin Lutheran Synod, on the road from Milwaukee to Menomonee - 3 0 0 - Falls bears upon i t carved in stone these wordst Evangelisch Lutherische Deutsch und Englische Kirche, A.D. I 8 6 3 . Clearly in I 8 6 3 English was considered minor. The church's cemetery is older, dating back at least to 1 8 5 4 , and there were inscriptions in i t in English by 1859$ "but German was the commonest language t i l l 1 9 0 5 . There are no inscriptions in German posterior to 1 9 1 8 . In Menomonee Falls (located a few miles northwest of Milwaukee) at St. Paul's Evangelical and Reformed church, in 1 9 3 0 German was the language of the services on the f i r s t , third, and f i f t h Sunday of the month. At about the time of the Second World War the services in German were held only on Easter, but this annual service went on at least through 1 9 5 1 when 4 4 persons attended i t . Younger peo­ ple were ignoring or showing impatience with this persistence. Some of them had a smattering of German. . 1 8 The Ozaukee County (61-246) area to the north of Milwaukee received an organized colony of Lutheran Germans in I 8 3 9 (L 3 4 9 , E 3 9 4 ) . They were nearly a l l Pomeranians from Stettin and from Kam- min directly north of i t . The tradition is that the impuls^for their emigration was in large part religious — dissatisfaction with the State Church movement; at any rate there were in the group siame men sufficiently well-to-do to help the poorer, and when a l l newcomers are forced to emigrate by economic considerations alone very l i t t l e mutual financial aid is possible. Once rooted, the colony grew with recruits from the same general region. The popu­ lation centers came to be Mequon and Cedarburg;* the original set- * Thwaites (quoted by Fa 4 8 0 ) assigns Cedarburg to Oldenburgers. - 3 0 1 - tlement was Preistadt, a l l in southern Ozaukee County ( 6 1 - 2 4 6 ) . Saxons arrived at Mequon practically as early (L 391). Washing­ ton County, to the west, was in part (that nearest Mequon) occu­ pied by the people of northern stock arriving in 1843 (L 3 5 0 , E 296) at Kirchhayn (between present Germantown and Jackson, i t seems). Saxons in the north were flourishing by 1857 (L 391 ; see also Pa 480). A large part of this territory in Ozaukee and Washington Counties was occupied by south Germans, mostly Catholics. Also, just south of Milwaukee Catholic Rhinelanders began settlement in 1841 and soon increased to 50 families (L 3 7 0 ). In Ozaukee County Luxemburgers took over the country to the north of the f i r s t Pome­ ranians at Port Washington and beyond beginning in 1845 (GL 263$ L 377)• Port Washington had .A German newspaper by 1855* "Town Belgium" just to the north takes i t s name from Belgian Luxemburgers. In the Holy Cross parish here there were in Gonner1s time 142 Ger­ man families, 119 of which were Luxemburgers. The other 2 3 , Shine- landers, Bavarians, and Hessians, " a l l speak the Luxemburg dialect fluently" (GL 267)• There were Swiss cheesemakers among the people at Hartford. In the Ozaukee County area the earliest established centers were long conservative of German. At least u n t i l 1913 children, at Richfield for example, were playing in German, indeed resented English so much that when i t was required on the playground they preferred remaining at their seats in the classroom during recess to accepting the new rule. The Missouri Lutheran churches in Ce- darburg and Jackson were in 1948 a l l having some German services. - 3 0 2 - In Cedarburg in 1931 two-thirds of the services in 1931 had been in German (PK 244). At Hartford on the western edge of the d i s t r i c t the German services about 1940 were limited to two communions a year at the Evangelical and Reformed church, but people of the third gene­ ration were conversant with German. The Swiss here were more l i n ­ guistically conservative than the others. St. Peter 1s Missouri Lutheran church four miles north of Milwaukee had only German in 1 9 4 8 ; i t had f i f t y - f i v e members. 19 Sheboygan ( 6 1 - 2 3 4 , pop. 46 ,000 in i 9 6 0 ) i s predominately German. Its history began toward 1845 with the arrival of German immigrants who kept coming from then u n t i l the F i r s t World War. The last seg­ ment to appear were the Volgans particularly in the years 1 9 1 0 - 1 9 1 4 . "Representatives of a l l parts of the Homeland have settled in the city — Low-Germans from Hanover, Pomerania, and Mecklenburg, High- Germans from Hesse-Darmstadt, Rhenish Prussia, Saxony, and Lippe- Detmold, to name the most important. Dialectal differences between these groups, which settled in compact colonies in different sec­ tions of the city and county, are clearly recognizable even today. The English spoken in the country i s richly flavored with phrases and mannerisms borrowed from the German dialects." So said the WPA writers of the Wisconsin Guide book (WW 284) in 1 9 4 0 . By 1850 there were Catholic and German Methodist churches in the town, Lutherans close outside. In the next decade in town Lutheran^ German Baptist, and German Reformed Congregations were organized. The Turners had established a Verein by 1 8 5 4 . Other typical German societies and - 3 0 3 - German Newspapers were founded. Germans were dominant in business after 1 8 8 0 . "German drama was occasionally performed in the l 8 9 0 f s at the Turn-Halle and Opera House" ( WW 2 8 7 ). In 1951 of the 13 Missouri Lutheran churches in Sheboygan and i t s immediate neighbor­ hood, one had listened to English onoe every three weeks in 1916; 9 had services in German in 1 9 4 8 . One of these, the Trinity church, 2743 members, held German services every Sunday at 8 ; 4 5 and English services at 1 0 : 1 5 . Four hundred persons attended the German ser­ vices, 800 the English. The preference of so many for German i s explained by the large and late arriving settlement of Volgans from Russia in the city. By 1964 the quality of the German of young Vol­ gans, those born after 1 9 4 2 , was deteriorating. Among them small children showed proficiency in German. In 1965 there were German services once a month in the Evangelical and Reformed Church. In 1967 in the family c i r c l e of older generations, German was s t i l l . used; an informant of that year said that at one supermarket "the majority of the female customers at the huge meat counter were not only conversing in German but doing a l l their ordering in German." . 2 0 The Sheboygan County rural d i s t r i c t s , l i k e the town i t s e l f , were occupied by a variety of German stocks, each of which in early times kept much to i t s e l f . A number of the Freistadt people moved north into southern Sheboygan County (L 350) and a Missouri Lutheran congregation originated there in 1855* In I 8 9 8 Mrs. Levi estimated the number of north Germans in the county at 15$ 0 0 0 , chiefly found in a broad band of territory stretching southwestward from the area - 3 0 4 - on the lake north of the city (L 355)• The settlement of Branden- burgers not far northwest of town impressed her the most. In the north of the same county Rhinelanders settled in 1846 and 1847 (L 3 7 2 )j they named their township Rhine. In 1847 people from Lippe Detmold (6£~21) came to both Sheboygan and Manitowoc Counties "through the influence of Herman Kemper, of Milwaukee, who was an agent for lands in those counties" (L 3 6 6 ). Principally the Lippers settled in the city of Sheboygan and to the northwest of i t centered a l i t t l e further on than Howard's Grove in the section on both sides of the line dividing Town (i.e. Township) Hermann, and Town Rhine. They were largely of the Reformed faith (church soon after 1 8 4 7 ) , but early much tormented by Freethinkers (Sch 1 9 6 ). Some eventually in 1855 formed St. John fs congregation, the oldest church in Wis­ consin of the Evangelical Synod (an antecedent to the Evangelical and Reformed Church, Sch 4 3 6 ). In the rural areas of Sheboygan County there were children speaking German in 1951 > particularly among the Mecklenburgers near Plymouth where the Missouri Lutheran church with 2100 members in a town of less than 5000 population s t i l l had services in German in 1 9 4 8 , though English had been ad­ mitted in a secondary role by 1 9 1 6 . The knowledge of German was persisting here into the fourth and f i f t h generations. In the cemetery of St. John's Evangelical and Reformed church to the north­ west of Sheboygan the Lippers used German for inscriptions almost always t i l l 1 9 1 8 , very commonly t i l l 1935* One stone bore an i n ­ scription of 1 9 4 7 . Random Lake at the south edge of the county was nearly as conservative. 21 In Manitowoc County there were people from Schleswig-Holstein in the southwestern corner and also the next township west, who named their townships for their native provinces and their towns Kiel and New Holstein. ThJJEvangelical and Reformed churches in these towns are large, Wisconsin Synod Lutherancongregations flourish, and the Catholic church at Kiel has grown. They had their start in 1848 and 1849 (L 3 6 5 ). Here was a sort of cultural center, for the f i r s t comers were some-what of the "Latin farmer" type, "In the *80fs most of the members of the [opera] company (of Milwaukee] were accustomed to spend their summer holiday in the l i t t l e German village of New Holstein on Elkhart Lake not far away. At such times, they 'cut up1 a l i t t l e , to the delight of the natives and the summer visitors, and in a humorous holiday mood the band of artists was regularly accustomed to meet the train at the station with music and a l l sorts of antics so that the harm­ less l i t t l e city soon became known to the astonished trainmen and commercial travelers as fCrazy Town0f" ( H i l l , 223) 22 The Schleswig-Holstein people in the Kiel and New Holstein d i s t r i c t (61-226, 22?) have not clung strongly to Schrift-Deutsch, but practically a l l , children too, were speaking their dialect in 1951• The children, however, were using English to each other, Platt-deutsch to their parents. The Wisconsin Synod Lutheran church in Kiel then had no preaching in German but the members attempted high German in song without marked success. In the Pro­ testant cemetery at Kiel English inscriptions became common about - 3 0 6 - 1900 but examples of German persisted into the 1940*s. Except among children the English of this group was usually highly accented. 5 6 . 2 3 Manitowoc (pop. 3 1 f 5 0 0 in i 9 6 0 ) and i t s county (61-227) have many Germans. The town has other elements also, but Germans were there in the 1840's. Indeed German amateur dramatics were born in Manitowoc in 1848 (H,I, 143). The WPA Wisconsin guide does not dis­ course on Germans there, but mentions as prominent in various re­ spects: Carl von Brause and his wife, the Rahr Malting Company and Schuette's park. There were four Lutheran churches there in 1 9 5 0 . Both north and south of the town of Manitowoc Westphalians settled in the early I840 fs. MThey with people from the Rhine formed a large portion of the population of the county in 1848" (L 3 6 5 ) . The Rhinelanders, centered just south of Manitowoc, had begun moving in two years before (L 3 7 2 ). There were also Mecklenburgers and Pome­ ranians by 1848. "There are said to be about 5 i 0 0 0 families of this class together with the Hanoverians and Oldenburgers, who are known.as Mecklinburgers from the fact that the majority came from Mecklenburg-Schwerin. These people belong to eleven or more Luther­ an congregations" (L 3 5 6 ) . On the northern border of the county, there were Schleswigers by 1840 (L 3 5 6 ) , Saxons by 1847 (L 391), Pomeranians by 1850 (L 3 5 0 ). Manitowoc County, north of Kiel, has been less conservative of German in general, probably because of the intrusion of other types of population. 56.24 The east shore of Lake Winnebago (61-226,233) is bordered in i t s northern part by Calumet County. In the county's northeastern corner the German Methodist congregation at B r i l l i o n was most con- - 3 0 7 - servative. Until 1950 i t s minister was always German in background. A few miles to the so t ^ l ^ ^ r v i c e s were going on in 1948 in the Mis- souri Lutheran church in Chilton, founded in 1915* Chilton and H u ­ bert, north of New Holstein, are lik e the country to the east in being largely Protestant, though thkre are Catholic churches in them. The earliest and most conservative Lutheran congregation in the Hilbert area, the southeast church, was organized in 1 8 5 8 , the one in town twenty years later. The older church s t i l l heard German in 1948. There were five Evangelical Association churches with 435 members in the county in 1890. In 1900 the Catholic churches in Sherwood and Stockbridge were labeled as German parishes. Ad- cording to Thwaites (quoted by Pa,480) these people were from Lux­ emburg and Oldenburg. The southeast corner of the lake began to receive Ehineland families in 1841. ffDr. Carl de Haas, in a work written in 1848 stated that the Calumet settlement then numbered 1 , 5 0 0 , of whom only about twenty members were Protestants; the rest were Catholics, mostly from the Rhine territory, mostly from MoselM (L 371)• These rural Catholics were conservative in the use of German. Until 1905 there were no English inscriptions in the J e r i ­ cho cemetery (toward Lake Winnebago from Chilton). English received an impetus in 1918, but German was not uncommon through the 1 9 2 0 fs and 1 9 3 0 1s and exceptionally i t appears at least u n t i l 1 9 5 0 . . 2 5 At the lakehead i t s e l f (Ponddu Lac was named for i t s location) there were many German Catholics, but as a Catholic center, Fond du Lac ( 6 1 - 2 3 3 ) did not become solidly German. In 1900 one Catholic church had a pastor with a French name, one with German, two with - 3 0 8 - Irish. By 1 9 4 8 , again judging "by names, the hierarchy was endea­ voring to erase nationalism fr,om the consciousness of the churches. St. Mary's, the German church, was the largest but by no great margin. Part of Fond du Lac and the area to the northwest i s Pro­ testant. In Fond du Lac County and in Dodge County to the south there were 17 Evangelical Association churches with 1266 members in 1 8 9 0 . To the northwest Germans from Pomerania and Mecklenburg settled? "the majority came in in 1855" (L 3 5 5 ) . When Mrs. Levi wrote in I 8 9 8 , one Lutheran congregation in the town contained 250 families mostly from Brandenburg. In 1950 the American Lutheran, Immanuel-Trinity, church had 2 , 3 9 4 members. It bears the compound name because two churches were merged. Trinity, the "English church" was established as a mission in 1 9 1 2 ; the merger took plade in 1919 before the stresses of the Fi r s t World War had subsided. In the city of Fond du Lac the Protestants were divided but on the whole conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y . The German Methodist con­ gregation had not lost i t s individuality in 1 9 5 1 . Until May of 1951 there was preaching in German every Sunday at Immanuel Trinity; then i t was reduced to twice a month. Fifty-seven were then atten­ ding the German service, 500 the English services (2394 members). Among the 57 there were half a dozen who were not very old. Almost a l l persons born after 1910 lacked proficiency in German. Confir­ mations in German went on u n t i l 1923. The last marriage and the last baptism recorded in German took place in 1937 and 1 9 3 8 ; so also for the death records, except that in 1932 one event, the death of a boy "accidentally shot by playmates in camp," was in - 3 0 9 - English; in this case no formula l i k e the usual ones would suit. . 2 6 The north half of Dodge County (61-2^4) east of i t s lakes contains a variety of German stocks. Nearest Pond du Lac, Rhine- landers settled east of Lomira beginning in 1 8 5 0 . There also Luxemburgers in this neighborhood (GL 2 ? 0 ). West of Lomira Ba­ varians came in 1861 (L 3 8 1 ) . These Catholics were not intensely conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y ; inscriptions in their cemetery after 1905 are rarely in German. "Lomira was settled almost entirely by Prussians from Brandenburg, who belonged to the Evangelical Asso­ ciation" (Pa 480, quoting Thwaites). This statement of I89O may not be entirely trustworthy. The Evangelical Association was an American institution. Farther west at Beaver Dam, the German Me­ thodist congregation was at one time much stronger than the English church, so that when they combined in 1933 the building chosen and occupied t i l l shortly after 1951 was that of the Germans. Until 1933 the pastor had always been a speaker of German. Though united in name in 1935 the German and English speaking groups were separate entities for another fifteen years, and in 1951 young adults among the German group joked with each other in the ancestral language. The Catholic church at Beaver Dam, labeled "St. Peter 1s Kirche, A.D* 1 9 0 0 , " has a cemetery wherein German inscriptions predominate u n t i l that year, but then disappear rapidly, though there i s one as late as 1 9 2 1 . A large part of eastern Dodge County containing the villages of Mayville and Theresa became the domain of people from Pomerania or close by. The Immanuel church at Theresa was organized in 184?; the town was founded in the same year. At Theresa in St. Peter's Church i t s German services occur on the f i r s t , third, and f i f t h Sundays of the month in 1 9 5 1 . Inscriptions in i t s cemetery were sometimes in German, at least u n t i l 1 9 5 0 . One monument with an inscription in German for a son who lived from 1921 to 1947 had anticipatory inscriptions in German for his parents who were born in 1895 and I 8 9 9 . The implication is of course that the parents used German habitually. Though St. Paul's Church, somewhat north of Theresa, announced i t s e l f to the public in English only and carried on i t s Sunday School in English, an informant of 1951 born about 1885 insisted that the German and English services, both of which took place every Sunday, were equally well attended and that his grandchildren spoke German with him, He himself was the son of immigrants, and had d i f f i c u l t y not only with the pronunciation but also with the vocabulary of English. Linguistic usage in St. Paul's cemetery was very similar to that at St. Peter's. .27 The Watertown area was f i r s t entered by Germans in 1 8 4 3 , part of the second group of Pomeranian Lutherans to arrive in Wisconsin. They settled on both sides of the Dodge-Jefferson County line ( 6 1 - 244,253) a few miles east of Watertown (L 3 5 0 , E 2 9 6 ) . They began to prosper at once. Between 1850 and 1865* they spread into Water- town and into three-fourths of Jefferson County to the south of i t , including the towns of Johnson Creek and Jefferson. The southern part of this d i s t r i c t was shared with Lutheran Bavarians who arrived in 1847 (L 38O). The Pomeranians of this area are of particular interest because some of them were the f i r s t arrivals among the - 3 1 1 - Lyon Creek Germans of Kansas, The Watertown area exhibits much variety in i t s conservatism of German. In i t s southwestern part the city of Jefferson seems not to have been persistent in the use of German. The Catholic cemetery of rural St. Lawrence*s to the east of Jefferson indicates a rapid shift. Inscriptions are a l l in German until well into the I 8 9 0 f s , and none appear after about 1905* At Johnson Creek, nine miles from Watertown, German inscriptions appear in the cemetery as late as 1 9 3 6 , but they never dominated. The heartland of the area, that which i s east of Watertown, was so conservative that a l l the Missouri Lutheran churches (five including the one in town) had services in German in 1 9 4 8 . The d i s t r i c t to the north in eastern Dodge County was equally, i f not more conservative; five out of six Missouri Lutheran churches had services in German in that area. The Wisconsin Synod churches did likewise. An American Lutheran pastor qualified the d i s t r i c t as "very German," and said that people who had spent a l l their long lives there were as "German" as immigrants. 56.28 Oshkosh (61-225) saw i t s f i r s t sawmill established in 1 8 4 ? . There were Germans working there at least by 1 8 5 0 . In I 8 9 8 Mrs. Levi reported over 1 , 0 0 0 North German families in Oshkosh, 700 of them Pomeranian, who had mostly come between 1854 and 1 8 7 0 . They belonged to four Lutheran and one German Methodist church (L 3 5 6 ) . There were five Evangelical Association churches with 379 members in the county in I 8 9 0 . She also said, "In the Catholic churches of Oshkosh there are 400 to 500 Bavarians and German Bohemians" - 3 1 2 - (L 381). There were at that time three Catholic churches in Oshkosh, one Irish with 225 pupils in i t s school, one Polish with 57 and one German with 205. In I960 the three had multiplied to six, a l l much larger; the biggest (591 pupils) not among the early- three, was served by three priests, one with a Slavic name, one with a Netherlandish, and the senior among them ;with a German name. At Oshkosh a part of the speakers of German , as at Sheboygan, immigrated from the Volga region. But unlike the Sheboygan people, the Oshkosh Reich Germans kept separate from the Volgans. A com­ petent informant of 1951 who had been in Oshkosh for twenty-seven years maintained that no families were using German in the home. He probably meant by a family, a group composed of parents and growing children, for there were four Lutheran churches with more than 5f000 members having German services once a month and in the Martin Luther congregation (Wisconsin Synod) there were a few needing pastoral attentions in German. This congregation was or­ ganized in 1917 for doctrinal not linguistic reasons, and was German in language until 1923 or 1924 when the pastor suddenly decreed a shift to English. In 1916 both Missouri Lutheran con­ gregations heard some preaching in English. In 1948 they were among those preserving German. English was not introduced into any Lutheran church of Oshkosh u n t i l some years after the beginning of the century. 56.29 The Lower Fox River District contains the towns and ci t i e s at the northern end of Lake Winnebago and along the Fox River emptying from i t and flowing into the bay called Green. These towns, Neenah, Menasha, Appleton, Kaukana, DePere, Green Bay, a l l r 3 1 > have a population which, l i k e Oshkosh1s, is of complex origin. The more southern of these towns began real developement in the late l 8 5 0 f s . Green Bay (61-211) and DePere date back to French times. In 1900 a l l these towns except Neenah contained flourishing German Catholic churches; Green Bay's Catholics numbered 1,000 in 1848 but the priest was French; the city became the see of a diocese in 1868 and the cathedral parish was in 1910 s t i l l a German national parish. The Bavarian Catholics at Menasha arrived in I 8 5 8 (L 3 8 1 ) . Bavarians and Rhinelanders dominated the Catholic population of Appleton. There were in 1950 a dozen German Lutheran churches in Appleton, a half dozen in Neenah. In the development of f i n a l Wisconsin settlement, Green Bay figured in I 8 3 6 as the site of the f i r s t land office in the eastern part of the territory. The census of that year shows as resident in Brown County where Green Bay is situated seven man with German names (HI19). The population grew through the arrival of individuals rather than groups. In Green Bay in 1909 no preaching went on in English in the Lutheran churches or the Catholic cathedral. English was intro­ duced very soon, however, and German preaching was greatly reduced under the pressures of the F i r s t World War. With the advent of the Second World War, the Lutherans gave up German completely; the Catholics had done so years before. Here the Germans had no real pre-ponderance in a city of many nationalities, and English as the lingua franca was favorably situated. The c i t i e s near the outlet from Lake Winnebago, Appleton i n ­ cluded, more nearly resembled Oshkosh in the degree with which they conserved German than Green Bay. In 1951 the English of those of German origin f i f t y or sixty years old was completely without d i f ­ ferentiation between voiced and voiceless consonants. Those of the next generation s t i l l spoke with a noticeable accent. 5 6 . 3 0 The country east of Green Bay on to Lake Michigan contains a variety of German settlements. Seventeen miles east of the center of Green Bay i s Luxemburg ( 6 1 - 2 1 2 ). This town owes i t s name to early settlers ( 1855)• Luxemburgers did not, however, dominate by 1888; 10 out of lif t German Catholic families were Luxemburgers (GL 2 7 0 ) . Algoma on the Lake Michigan shore was more German in blood. The same mixture of dialects and languages as in Green Bay was existent in the country to the east, but the various nationalities could l i v e as separate entities and the rate of displacement of their language by English varied with the settlement. In the city of Algoma the situation was not dis­ similar to that in Green Bay. In the public cemetery the inscrip­ tions were in two-thirds of the cases for people with German names; during the last third of the nineteenth century they were fre­ quently in German. The last German inscription was of 1925* At the St. John's Lutheran cemetery three miles west of town inscrip­ tions in German ran at least u n t i l 1 9 5 0 . English began in I 8 9 I . At this church in 1951 there were both German and English services every Sunday, about 50 or 60 persons for the German. The member­ ship was ft03 in 19ft8. Halfway on to Green Bay at Luxemburg, no English inscriptions appear in the Catholic cemetery un t i l 1907 and German goes on at least t i l l 1 9 5 0 . Children here spoke Eng- l i s h with a pronounced accent. Five miles south the cemetery of St. Paul's Missouri Lutheran church contains no inscriptions in English u n t i l about 1 9 3 0 . In 1951 new ones in German were only slightly more numerous than those in English. 31 The rural German settlements to the north and west of the out­ l e t of Lake Winnebago were largely made up of Rhinelanders who ap­ peared in the area as early as 1842 (L 3 7 2 ), attracted by a Catholic establishment, L i t t l e Chute. That town became Netherlandish, but an arc of German Catholic churches fifteen miles from Appleton ( 6 1 - 210) north and west, more or less define the outer edges of the territory, which merges on the west with the Protestants on Wolf River. The German settlements a t r i f l e farther west on the Wolf River occupy almost a l l of 14 townships; the center is some twenty miles west of Appleton. The village of Fremont is not far from this point. The settlers were mostly North Germans particularly in the western two-thirds. The f i r s t arrivals, however, were Rhine- landers beginning in 1 8 4 9 . Another group of Rhinelanders who came to the region by way of eastern Pennsylvania and Ohio arrived in 1853 in Dale Township to the east of the center of the settlement. The Pomeranians began to appear in 1 8 5 4 . "The great mass of the North Germans came between 1857 and 1 8 6 5 M (L 3 5 8 ). The more inland towns of the Wolf River valley have sometimes succumbed entirely to English, but preaching in German went on in some of their churches in 1 9 4 8 . 32 The Shawano Caunty area (north of 6 1 - 2 1 0 ) , according to Mrs. Levi, was settled in the 1860's (L 3 5 7 ) t but settlement apparently - 3 1 6 - began about 1 8 5 5 , for St, Martin's Missouri Lutheran church, five miles southwest of Shawano was organized in 1859* Mrs. Levi i s doubtless reliable when she speaks of the population of the time at which she wrote, I 8 9 8 , She says, "Over one-half of the popu­ lation of Shawano County i s German, of "whom the most are from Po- merania, Mecklenburg, and Brandenburg1' (L 357) • The proportion of Germans has rather increased than decreased. In Shawano in 1 9 5 0 , when i t was a town of about 6 , 0 0 0 St. James Missouri Lu­ theran Church had 3331 members, and there were numerous Lutheran churches in the neighborhood. The Shawano County area was very conservative of German. Though English had crept into the Luther­ an services at Shawano by 1 9 1 6 , in 1948 in the ci t i e s of Shawano and Bonduel and in their immediate neighborhood, twelve out of thirteen Missouri Lutheran churches were maintaining services in German, i n ­ cluding a congregation organized as recently as 1 9 2 6 . 5 6 . 3 3 Along the Rock River in southern Wisconsin Scandinavians pre­ dominated; but a Missouri Lutheran congregation at Janesville was organized in 1 8 6 5 . At Beloit the American Lutheran church was founded in 1874 and the Missouri Lutheran in I 8 9 7 . Services in English began in the Missouri Lutheran Church by 1 9 1 6 , in the American Lutheran Church in 1909? the services in German had ended by the time of the Second World War. A decade later four persons required pastoral work in German. At the Missouri Lutheran church there was then a German service on Easter. The large Missouri Lutheran church (1381 members) at Janesville had services in German s t i l l , but English services had commenced by 1916 . Germans as Na- - 3 1 7 - tionals made l i t t l e impression on the population at mid-century and a country church at Hanover founded in 1880 close by to the west was partly English in 1 9 1 6 , completely so in 1948 , In the northern part of the county, however, at Edgerton and south of i t the Germans served by two Missouri Lutheran church which had services in German were proportionately to the population more numerous. 5 6 . 3 4 ' Wfttar aia,^s 1 g the most notable settlement in Green County ( 6 1 - 261) to the west of Rock County. The people of New Glarus arrived from Switzerland in 1845 after a year fs preparation and journeying. There were at f i r s t 122 of them — 26 men, 23 women, and 73 c h i l ­ dren (H II, 4 4 ) . They were followed by others so that John Luch- singer said in 1 8 7 8 , f,The number of Swiss and their descendants in Green County alone exceeds three thousand" (Lu, VIII, 4 1 2 ) . There were others in southern Dane County to the North. Hense- Jensen in 1900 raised the number in Green County to 8 , 0 0 0 . New Glarus remained a cultural but hardly a population focus (popula­ tion 200 in 1878 , 1224 in 1 9 5 0 ) . It has developed touristic appeal. The original project was organized to relieve Glarus Canton of ex­ cess population in a period of economic distress. It was carefully directed, but the people were not a l l from one part of the canton and there was early clannish separation which later subsided. It resulted, however, in early spread into the townships to the south, thereby furnishing the seeds for growth throughout the county. Luch- singer described the linguistic situation thus in 1878t "The people of the village, as well as those of the surrounding country, speak among themselves almost exclusively the German-Swiss dialect, pe- culiar to their native country* It is spoken on the streets and at home. A l l school and town meetings and elections, and even procee­ dings in the Justice*s courts, are of necessity conducted in this language1* (Lu, VIII, 4 1 2 ) . Hense-Jensen assures us in 1900 that "they hold holy the sweet notes of the mother tongue" (Hj[45). 11 The settlers of New Glarus founded their own church — the Reformed Church — and had their German school from the beginning as well as an English one" (Lu, VIII, 4 4 4 ) . The f i r s t church was built in 1849t a replacement in 1 8 5 8 , and s t i l l another in 1900 which i s l a ­ beled as dedicated, "gewidmet von Mat Schmid Monticelli." Monti- cello is the next village south of New Glarus. The original founders, though they came directly from Switzerland, were aided by a fellow countryman established in Allentown Pennsylvania. John Luchsinger came f i r s t to Syracuse, New York, in 1855 then went to Philadelphia; to New Glarus in 1 8 5 6 . The f i r s t World War made English dominant in the community. The children of those married just after i t know no German. The Swiss population elsewhere in the county became considerable. Monroe, the county seat, 18 road miles to the south, became a cheese center, and many Swiss settled there. Penn-Germans also became numerous. In I 8 9 0 there were in the county 13 Evangelical Association churches with 909 members. 35 Dane County (61-252) which surrounds Madison, attracted set­ tlements of many kinds, both German and of other stocks. None could therefore grow to any great size. What Mrs. Levi says of the people from Brunswick who began settling in 1846 about ten miles north and a l i t t l e east of Madison i s typical1 " A l l were - 3 1 9 - originally Lutherans, but about half of them have become Methodists here, and a l l are rapidly becoming Americanized" (L 3 6 4 ) . In 1890 there were in the county 4 German Methodist organizations with 234 members, but the Evangelical Association was stronger here and to the east 12 churches with 934 members. In Madison Bavarians began arriving in the 1 8 4 0 1s (L 3 8 0 ) ; a separate German Catholic parish was created in 1853 (L 371)• Although the Lutheran churches there are large, they are of comparatively late origin, A few miles east of Madison the cemetery of the rural Immanuel American Lutheran church contains inscriptions beginning with 1 8 5 1 ; they are predomi­ nantly in German u n t i l the F i r s t World War, not later. In stained glass over the door the church i s named in German; in paint on the l i n t e l just below, i t s name is in English. In the northwestern part of the county Rhinelanders settled as early as 1840 spreading from Sauk City just across the Wisconsin River. There was a German Catholic mission near the river in 1 8 4 5 . "Large German settlements were soon formed, the majority of the settlers being Rhenish Prus­ sians" (L 370)• There were also Bavarians (L 38O, for both stocks see also Thwaites quoted by Fa 4 8 1 ) . Count Haraszthy, the Hun­ garian revolutionist, was the animating s p i r i t in this region (H II 3 6 ) . 36 The Great Bend of the Wisconsin area might well include the group last mentioned, for Count Haraszthy 1s colonies of South Ger­ mans grew up, too, on the other side of the river. He also brought in there, however, colonies of other nationalities so that Sauk County (61-242) is not as thickly German as other places. A colony of Swiss at Prairie du Sac on the river received an Evangelical - 3 2 0 - missionary in 1 8 5 2 ; there was also a Reformed missionary working with this group in 1859 (Sch 4 3 5 ) . There were Hanoverians in the center of the county (L 3 6 4 ) ; they came in the l 8 6 0 f s and 70* s. Sauk County showed the most successful results for; a l l the mission­ ary work carried on by the Evangelical Association in the Great Bend country; that county in 1890 contained nine of i t s stations with 861 members, Columbia County (61-243), which contains the apex of the Great Bend, has various settlements of Germans from the Inner North. Mrs. Levi seems not to have known this county well; at least she confuses townships and villages. Her statements and Protestant church locations, however, indicate German settle­ ments in the corners of the county. She says that arrivals of North Germans began in 1854 (L 3 5 4 ) . A Lutheran missionary was at Columbus in the southeast in 1856 (Sch 4 3 5 ) . The date of the foun­ dation of the Missouri Lutheran church at Portage, 1859$ also bears out her statement. The Portage church is large, 1 , 7 5 0 members in 1 9 4 8 ; i t s backbone is Pomeranian. At Portage, the Missouri Luther­ an church had by 1916 allowed i t s young to hear English twice a month — along with German; in 1951 i t held services five times a year in German at which 40 or 50 people attended. German had been the usual language of worship t i l l 1 9 2 8 . By the time of the Second World War services in German had been reduced to twice a month; from 1945 to 1947 they occurred once a month. In a l l this region (as i s usual) i t was the Pomeranians who insisted longest on Ger­ man. Some of these people near Baraboo where German was abandoned earlier than in Portage came in from the west to Portage to attend the German services. But the Hanoverian group within the Bend at Reedsburg and Loganville was also maintaining services in German in 1 9 4 8 . 37 To the northeast of the Great Bend between i t and the Lake Winnebago country, Marquette and Green Lake Counties (6 1 -231t2 3 2 ) have noteworthy settlements of Germans. Mrs. Levi says that the German population of Green Lake County ( 6 1 - 2 3 2 ) , 25$ of the total in her day, were mainly North German. "In 1 8 4 8 , the year that the f i r s t steamboat passed up the Pox River [from Lake Winnebago] to Princeton, the f i r s t Germans, six in number, settled in the coun­ try between Princeton and Berlin 1 1 (L 3 5 4 ). The main influx was from 1856 to 1866 , largely from Pomerania and Posen. The Pome­ ranians, Lutherans and Methodists, settled east of Princeton. The people from Posen were to the west of town; the Catholic church at Princeton was Polish. The Catholics from Posen were then presum­ ably Poles. Farther west, in Marquette County, Pomeranians pre­ vailed again (unmentioned by Mrs. Levi) with centers at Germanis, Westfield, Neshkoro, and Montello. They arrived during the influx spoken of above, for several of their Lutheran churches were foun­ ded in 1859* The German Presbyterians began work there at about that time (Sch 4 3 5 ) . Six out of eight of the Missouri Lutheran churches in Neshcoro, Westfield, Montello and their immediate neighborhood s t i l l had services in German in 1 9 4 8 . At Neshcoro there was preaching in German every Sunday. The public cemetery at Montello contains many inscriptions under non-German names, but inscriptions in German are common almost to 1930• The town is less - 3 2 2 - German than the country here. At Wautoma, farther north , a family aged i n the forties in 1951 s t i l l knew German but used i t only a l i t t l e at a reunion. 38 The Wisconsin German colonies near the Mississippi River in spite of the very early settlement of certain areas were not among the settlements made before 1 8 5 0 , and in the southwest corner of the state did not become numerous or strong. Between 1851 and 1854 a settlement of Badenese established themselves on the lower Wis­ consin River near Boscobel (L 3 8 4 ). They were mostly Lutherans near the river. The American Lutheran Church at Boscobel ( 6 1 - 2 5 0 ) had 652 members in 1 9 5 0 . There were 211 more in the church at Fen- nimore to the south. A Catholic parish with consistently German pastors (122 pupils in i t s school in i 9 6 0 ) was established at Fen- nimore and maintained what was long a mission at Boscobel. The use of the German language here has attracted l i t t l e attention. 39 La Crosse ( 6 1 - 2 2 0 ) has been quite cosmopolitan. "Germans, the f i r s t and largest group to arrive (including ^ e r s j , in 1855 or­ ganized their Turnverein.... The following year the La Crosse Maennerchoff... was organized11 (WW 2 0 7 ) . The singing society enjoyed some celebrity. For LaCrosse Mrs. Levi mentions particularly West Prussians who arrived between I 8 7 5 and I 8 8 5 . The town developed as a railroad and industrial center, and the Germans came from many parts of Germany, including Luxemburg (GL 2 7 1 ) . St. Joseph's Cathe­ dral, labeled German in 1915 , was founded in I 8 6 3 (GL 2 7 1 ) . There were two other German Catholic parishes in 1915• There came into being four Wisconsin Synod Lutheran churches and an Evangelical and -323 Reformed church. Though not notably successful in . LaCrosse the Evangelical Association had numerous organizations in i t s neighborhood — most successful upstream. LaCrosse 1s five Luther­ an churches are a l l members of the Wisconsin Synod. In 1951 in at least two of these, services in German were occurring. At the smaller ofthe two, Immanuel, which was not small, 1200 communicant members, there had been German services twice a month un t i l a shift to once a month in January 1 9 5 1 ; 25 to 40 persons attended the services. People born between 1910 and 1920 were able to speak German, but few of their children knew any. The linguistic a b i l i t i e s of Catholic families were similar. 56.40 Organized German action in Wisconsin was of great moment and important for a longer period than in any other state. The i n f l u ­ ence was great upon po l i t i c s , upon religious development, and upon cultural manifestations. Because Milwaukee was the focal point of these developments some of them have been considered in speaking of that city, but i t seems necessary to treat of others for the state as a whole. They affected conservation of the German language fa­ vorably by creating a s p i r i t of solidarity, and unfavorably by em­ phasizing a distinction between Germans and other people that some­ times drew ho s t i l i t y and very frequently created a desire among the young to lose the tag of Germanness, particularly when the young did not sympathize with the goals envisaged by the older. 56.41 Politics was one of the domains into which the Germans entered fervidly in Wisconsin. As in other states they were in complete unity against a l l prohibitionist movements, but their clamor was louder and more effective in Wisconsin than in almost any other region. Here we need consider, however, only their fight against the Bennett law of 1889 > which contained provisions on the use of language in schools. Whether "the whole was designed simply as a forward stap in the interests of youth," as Wm P. Raney maintains (Ra 272) or was the outcome of nefarious scheming, as the Germans claimed throughout the campaign of I89O and in the succeeding years (H£l*j4~l47) $ the facts are that the provisions arousing the opponents of the law were part of a b i l l intended to prevent ex­ ploitation of children, and that these particular provisions, or at least recognition of their real purport, escaped the attention of Germans, vigilant u n t i l the last hours of the legislative ses­ sion. They had successfully defeated a much more forthright b i l l designed to accomplish the same aim. In the ensuing tumult the leaders were frequently . the men who had been lobbying during the legislative session, and so did not publicly reproach themselves for their own blindness, but emphasized the insidious procedures of their opponents, who were more s k i l l f u l in bringing about a t r i ­ umph of the moment than they were in foreseeing that they were preparing defeat in coming state elections. The two clauses in the law most objectionable to the Germans werej (1) parents must send their children to schools in the d i s t r i c t of their residence, and (2) no institution could be considered a school unless the language of elementary instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic and history was English. The second provision clearly reduced lan­ guages other than English to the status of subjects of study rather than instruments of learning. The f i r s t clause was regarded with equal abhorrence and tended to make the Irish a l l i e s of the Germans, for i t was a blow at a l l parochial schools; such institutions were not l i k e l y to draw their pupils from a single school d i s t r i c t . Not only were boarding schools practically eliminated, but parochial day schools were put beyond the t e r r i t o r i a l limits of a great num­ ber of children. 42 Obviously the free-thinking German element could find delight in this blow to organized religion. Though they recognized that education in German was chiefly through these schools, there were among them the only Germans supporting the law. But they were not unanimous (H, II, 1 5 0 ) , and the free-thinkers were in general now old men s t i l l perhaps in charge of newspapers and o f f i c i a l s in the Turnvereins (H,II, 154) t but no longer a strong element. They had been the p o l i t i c a l leaders, but now they had to yield their leader­ ship to representatives of the churches. Catholics and Protestants joined forces. The Catholics carried on an effective campaign. Be­ cause Catholics were of numerous nationalities their insistence in public utterances was upon the right of parents to choose such re­ ligious instruction as they liked (H, II, 1 5 7 ) . They dealt with the attack on non-English languages quietly through other channels. 43 The Lutheran campaign was equally effective, but i t was at once a f i r s t venture into polit i c s and a f i r s t opportunity for ma­ nipulating the organs forming public opinion. Their arguments and refutations of their opponents were vigorously expounded on plat­ form and in print. Their most widely appealing contention was that the law was an invasion of parental rights, but their answers to accusations are of greater interest to us. Similar laws were being or had been proposed at the same period in 10 states.* The law pro- * Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, I l l i n o i s , Wisconsin, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas. posed in Nebraska, though not adopted, forbade a l l instruction other than in English in a l l elementary schools. The campaigners in Wisconsin declared that "with this right granted to the state practically a l l instruction in German and religion was forbidden and thereby the principal aim of most of our private schools is obviously defeated" (H, II, 1 5 0 ) . In other words a linguistic law was an attack on religion. The opposition claimed that the Lutherans were enemies of the public school,in fact made a campaign slogan of the defense of "the l i t t l e red schoolhouse." The Luther­ ans in response recalled that C. P. M. Walther, as president of the Missouri Synod, had said in 1871 f "Public schools are a p o l i t i c a l necessity and of greater importance in a republic than in a mon­ archy. If the welfare of our adopted country l i e s close to our hearts, our Christian duty requires us to uphold the public schools" (H 1 5 1 ) . . 4 4 The Lutherans also maintained that i t was absurd to claim that the parochial and private schools gave insufficient instruction in English. "Isolated exceptions, as for example that a 26-year-old man had been found in Jefferson County [the Watertown area], born there and educated in a Lutheran parochial school, but without mas­ tery of English, or that in many out-of-the-way rural d i s t r i c t s the - 3 2 7 - German language predominated in education, did not in any way a l ­ ter the general situation. Besides, the accusation of ignorance of the language of the land among the rising generation could seem only a lame excuse, i f not an insult, since German parents complain rightfully and almost without exception that they can no longer keep their children to speaking German, No, 'the l i t t l e red schoolhouse' is in no danger, but the German parochial school is l # (H, II, 1 5 2 ) . It wasn't f a i r , so the allegation ran, that these people should have doubly taxed themselves to provide religious instruction for their children and at the same time maintain the public schools, and then be accused of disloyalty. The danger to the continued existence of the language could be a campaign argument only within the German community, but i t was passionately voiced there. "Maintenance of the German language was a major aim and goal of the parochial school. Nobody has accomplished more i n this respect in Wisconsin. It is the spring that has watered the German plant and kept i t alive. Before i t , the other organiza­ tions which are so proud of upholding the German way of l i f e — the German Clubs, the Singers and the Turners, even the German press — must modestly step aside. The German parochial school, especially the Lutheran, i s and remains, i f the truth be told, the mighty for­ tress of German speech and German mores" (H, II, 1 5 4 ) . 5 6 . 4 5 The Republican Party was in power when the Bennett law was passed in 1889. The state went Democratic the next year. Though Raney expresses doubt that the Germans were the cause of the over­ turn, the Germans themselves were without skepticism. The Luther- -328- ans after victory kept the leadership in the effort to maintain the German language and mores. But these leaders too were grow­ ing old when the F i r s t World War overwhelmed them. 46 The Catholic church in Wisconsin was practically in the hands of the Germans un t i l after the opening of the twentieth century. The f i r s t bishop of Milwaukee, John M. Henni (1805-1881) who became archbishop i n 1 8 7 5 , was by a l l accounts, Catholic and Protestant, a man of singular energy and a b i l i t y . His preliminary pioneer ser­ vice in Ohio prepared him to face similar conditions in 1844 when he came to his new diocese. He was highly influential in building up Catholic German settlements. The number of his priests multi­ plied from 4 to 50 in six years and similar growth in every depart­ ment continued or was exceeded. Green Bay and LaCrosse became the sees of separate dioceses in 1868 and their connection with the metropolitan see soon to be created remained very close. 47 The German bishops from LaCrosse and Green Bay succeeded him in Milwaukee and ruled u n t i l 1 9 3 0 . As Henni grew old he himself evoked the question of his successor by petitioning in I 8 7 8 for a coadjutor with rights of succession. His nominees were the Ger­ mans who later actually succeeded him, A controversy arose at once, for the "English-speaking11 priests, most of whose names were Irish, formed a committeai^ndleither as individuals or as a body began to campaign. Of the Catholics of Wisconsin they said, "About 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 were Irish and of Irish descent, about 1 1 7 , 0 0 0 were German and of German descent, and the remaining 5 0 , 0 0 0 were of French, Polish, and other national descents" (Ba 4 7 ) . One of them wrote, "These German priests have frequent meetings, the principal and ulterior object of which is to perpetuate a young Germany here... to perpet­ uate the curse of Babel in Language" (Ba 4 6 ) . Speaking of the arche- piscopal candidates they said, "The whole province seems to be pret­ ty well germanized.... The appointment of either would confirm, perpetuate, and intensify the germanizing process." Thomas Pagan in the public press "asserted that Heiss [who became archbishop first} could not write grammatical English and that . Jie blundered in public addresses.... The two local Catholic weeklies, the Eng­ l i s h language Catholic Citizen and the German language Columbia, clashed in editorial battle over nationalistic attitudes toward the succession" (Ba 49)• Henni f i n a l l y silenced everybody, and 1880 saw Heiss transferred from La Crosse to Milwaukee. This struggle was but a preliminary skirmish to the great .battles treated else­ where (#49 .60) over foreign language among the Catholics in the 1880*s. The most influential voice from Milwaukee was that of the Pastoral Blatt, established by Heiss for a priestly clientele in 1866 while he was s t i l l with Bishop Henni before the creation of the La Crosse diocese. A significant sentence published in 1884 i s probably founded upon observation of conditions in Wisconsin: "Even now, to many a German priest brought up in this country the giving of instructions and of preaching is easier in English than in German" (Ba 53) • .48 The weakening of the German s p i r i t in Wisconsin in the years preceding the turn of the century was manifest even to those most reluctant to admit i t . The 1 8 8 0 fs were the golden age. Older - 3 3 0 - immigrants had grown rich enough to lead a leisurely l i f e and pro­ mote common enterprises; newcomers were numerous. But this flour­ ishing period was of short duration. "The older generation soon f e l l off in numbers; the recent immigrants quickly became assimi­ lated in a much larger proportion than their predecessors" (H, II, 253)• The American-born became leaders. The Germans lost part of their clannish tendencies. "In earlier years i t was something quite rare to find Germans in a society where only English was spoken. This was true in a l l domains of l i f e , not only in social gatherings but likewise in the f i e l d of p o l i t i c s , yes, even to a certain extent in purely business organizations, Germans and Anglo- Americans remained separated even when pursuing the same goals... It used to be that the great secret societies — insofar as they were not completely German, like the Hermannssohne — created lod­ ges with a German language r i t u a l . Now that happens only rarely. For example, the lodges of the Knights of Pythias using a German r i t u a l were abolished about ten years ago [about I 8 9 2 ] , though after a bitter struggle. The oldest of such organizations, the Free Masons, today has in Wisconsin one German lodge" (H, II, 2 5 6 ) . Wisconsin's Deutsch-Amerikaner concludes i t s 1902 survey sadly; "The German element as something separate in the body of the Ameri­ can population has greatly fallen into decay. The ranks of the f 0 1 d Men1 have grown thin — very thin; only rarely does one see a lance broken to champion the earlier, specifically German views... The whole s p i r i t of the age has been altered, and the German Ameri­ cans of Wisconsin have not gone untouched by this change" (H, II, 259)• -331- 56,49 That the general use of German in Wisconsin was threatened even in the 1880's is manifest from several quotations above. By the end of the century the defections were rather the rule than the exception. Presumably Ernest Bruncken, who took over and com­ pleted Hensi-Jensen1s Wisconsin's Deutseh-Amerlkaner, i s the wri­ ter of this comment on events in the 1890*s. "The younger element studiously withdrew from the influence of the specifically German cultural accomplishmBnts and only unwillingly tolerated German re­ maining the uniformly employed language of business and debate in the Turnverein" (Hi II, 167)• "Anyone not speaking English f l u ­ ently was no true American" (H, II, 24?). And Bruncken concludes for 1902 that the younger generation is American " i n s p i r i t , word, and deed.,,. The German language is s t i l l heard in very widely distributed c i r c l e s . . . but s t i l l we are no longer Germans" (H, II, 2 6 0 ) . The use of the German language in that part of Wisconsin de­ fined above as of most interest to us has been best conserved in the Sheboygan-Manitowoc area and in part of the Watertown area. It was in 1951 nowhere the language of children talking among themselves, but in the areas mentioned i t was, in some places and in part of the population, the language of children addressing parents. The recrudescence of pri&e in using the language was m then apparent in only a few places. 50 Germans In Iowa are numerous enough so that i n 1930 there were 300 or more i n every county except i n a tr i a n g l e based against the center of the Missouri border. However, i n much of the state there were no concentrations stretching over several continuous counties, and no attempt w i l l be made here to account f o r a great many small settlements, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the north. Aside from minor a c t i v i t y along the Missouri River, settlement was from east to west or, i n the portion se t t l e d early from the M i s s i s s i p p i River front, north­ westward along the streams. On the M i s s i s s i p p i , the towns of Bur­ l i n g t o n , Davenport and Dubuque were the p r i n c i p a l r a d i a l points. In the early days Burlington was the most important as a way sta t i o n f o r German immigrants, but ultimately Davenport became dominant. Keokuk, Muscatine and Clinton were also of some significance. These towns were places of temporary residence, not only f o r people set­ t l i n g farther west i n Iowa but also f o r those i n states beyond, i n ­ cluding Kansas. Each of these towns had an immediate neighborhood containing German settlements, largest f o r Dubuque. 51 In the eastern half of Iowa areas of German settlement other than those near the c i t i e s on the M i s s i s s i p p i includes (a) the Bremer County area centered north of Waterloo (which i s some 90 miles d i r e c t l y west of Dubuque, 61-2*0$ (b) the Behind-the-Big- Bend area centered halfway .between Clinton an4 Cedar Rapids (ap­ proximately at the junction of £L-36f37$^6,^7)5 (o) the Amana area, including settlements i n a d i s t r i c t 30 miles west of a l i n e running approximately from Cedar Rapids to Iowa C i t y and on farther south (Counties 6 1 - 3 ^ , 3 5 , ^ , ^ 5 ) ; (d) the Ottumwa ( i n 61-63) Area, of no great importance; (e) the North-of-State-Center Area (the T i l l a g e of State Center i s about 15 miles west of Marshalltown i n 61-32; 22 and 23 are other important counties). In the western part of the state the c i t i e s of Des Moines, Council B l u f f s and Sioux C i t y need some small consideration but p a r t i c u l a r l y the Iowan Inner West, an area of varied settlement based on three counties along the western part of a l i n e from Des Moines to Council B l u f f s and extending northward some four counties for a t o t a l of about ten or twelve counties. This area was s e t t l e d primarily i n the 1870 1 A few settlements not f a r from the Minnesota border merit our at­ tention, p a r t i c u l a r l y those i n Kossuth County, 52 The h i s t o r y of German settlement on the Iowa side of the M i s s i s s i p p i River began as soon as that on the eastern bank. In the decade before Black Hawk*s War i n I 8 3 2 there were beginnings i n the southeast, but growth i n earnest began only a f t e r that event, A census of Iowa taken i n I 8 3 8 , reduced here to rounded thousands, showed 23$000 inhabitants; 13i000 of these were i n the four southeastern counties. The next three counties upstream i n ­ cluding Scott County where Davenport i s situated, each contained some 1,200 inhabitants. A l l other counties had le s s than 1,000 inhabitants except Dubuque where there were 2,^00 people. Another census i n 1 8 ^ showed a t o t a l of 75$000; ^5,000 of these were i n the two t i e r s of counties above the Missouri border. The three counties upstream were s t i l l very nearly equal to each other i n s i z e , Scott, the smallest, averaging just under 3t000 inhabitants Dubuque had iJ-,000, and the other r i v e r counties had from one to three thousand. The t e r r i t o r y of Iowa was organized i n 1838 with i t s f i r s t c a p i t a l at Burlington, displaced i n 1841 by Iowa C i t y . A f t e r the st a t e 1 s admission to the Union i n 184-6, the c a p i t a l was not moved west to Des Moines u n t i l eleven years l a t e r . In general the settlement of the state west of Des Moines was contemporary with the settlement of Kansas. The occupation of the land i n both states was completed i n the l a t e I880 fs. Compared with Kansas, Iowa was more securely held by then, and the hard times of the nineties seem to have weighed les s upon i t . S t i l l , Iowa took s i x t y years f o r a process that occupied t h i r t y years i n Kansas, and therefore we f i n d i n i t a greater v a r i e t y i n the age of foreign settlements. Develop­ ments i n the eastern part of the state resemble those i n Indiana, I l l i n o i s , and that part of Wisconsin which has interested us; set­ tlement i n the west has closer p a r a l l e l s to settlement i n Kansas. 53 Upstream i n Iowa along the M i s s i s s i p p i River, the f i r s t town i s Keokuk on the Missouri border, founded i n 1820. The town f l o u ­ rished i n the 1850 fs and 1860's and contained no small proportion of Germans. I t maintained a Turnverein that collapsed before 1900 and a Gesangyerein which lasted longer (Ei 315)$ possessed a Ger­ man newspaper t i l l a f t e r 1900, two between I867 and 1899 • I t s Evangelical and Reformed church counted k6Z members i n 1950. Simi­ l a r conditions reigned i n the next town along the M i s s i s s i p p i , Fort Madison (founded 1805), but the German element was somewhat weaker. An Evangelical Missionary was working there i n 1850 (Sch l±3b), 305 members i n 1950. Lutherans did not prosper i n t h i s area. The Harmonie-Verein founded i n 1858 at Fort Madison had dissolved by 1900 ( E i 326). Conservation of German i n the two towns was i n ­ h i b i t e d by the f l o a t i n g nature of the population. 5^ Back country i n the county of these two centers, Lee County (61-75) there were also German settlements. Both German Catholic pastors and Evangelicals were at work i n the county i n I 8 3 8 ; even­ t u a l l y both had churches i n the two large towns and three more iece inland, the Catholics stronger at West Point and St. Paul, and the Evangelicals at Franklin,,and Donnelson. In I 8 3 8 the Cath­ o l i c Germans at Sugar Creek near Fort Madison numbered 38 (Ei 1 8 0 ) . The Evangelicals b u i l t a church at F r a n k l i n i n 18^9 (Sch 1 9 1 ). In t h i s same area at Franklin and Donnelson and e a r l i e s t of a l l a l i t t l e f arther north at West Point, beginning i n 1839 a Mennonite settlement grew up consisting of people d i r e c t l y from the Pala­ t i n a t e . Only the congregation at Donnellson persisted into the twentieth century. The others dissolved l a r g e l y because many mem­ bers i n the l 8 7 0 , s moved to Kansas, notably to Mound Ridge (West Zion Church). 55 Burlington. Iowa, i n Des Moines County ( 6 1 - 6 6 ), was founded i n I 8 3 3 . In 1900 Eiboeck estimated that 1 2 , 0 0 0 of i t s 2 7 , 0 0 0 i n ­ habitants were German (Ei 331)• Germans began coming very early, fo r the F i r s t Evangelical Church had i t s beginning i n 1841 (Ei 3 3 7 ) , and i n 18^3 the L6w Germans and High Germans ..split over a question of doctrine (Sch I 8 9 ) . The unbelievers were also troublesome then. "As i n a l l western c i t i e s then there were many among the Germans who flamed into wrath against any believing preacher, because they saw i n him a ' J e s u i t 1 , who strove to bring f o l k back under fthe old yoke 1 and into • s t u p i d i t y 1 . . . |Tsuch a party] consisted mostly -332m: of brethren from the saloons" (Mu 1 0 3 ) , A l l Iowa, that i s , a l l the r i v e r counties, were prosperous during the 1840 • s and boomed i n the 1850*s before the panic of f 5 7 t and Burlington i n those years was i n the forefront of prosperity. In a l l the r i v e r towns the f48ers flocked i n , and the pious were nearly swarmed under by the r a t i o n ­ a l i s t s and the enemies of r e l i g i o n . Therefore, while churches f u r ­ nish a guide to German a c t i v i t y , they represented a smaller propor­ t i o n of the Germans than i n many sections of the country. S t i l l they were numerous, the Evangelical churches increased from one to three i n Burlington; the l a t e r ones were organized i n 1864 and 1877• The Iowa Synod Lutherans ( l a t e r American) achieved a church i n the near neighborhood before 1 9 0 0 . A German Lutheran church of the Wartburg Synod, eventually part of the Lutheran Church of America, was organized i n 1 8 8 7 . There were two German Methodist churches, one dating back to 1845 and the other to 1 8 7 1 . Other German Me­ thodist churches grew up i n the country so that i n 1890 there were seven with 409 members. A separate German Catholic parish, St. John's, was established i n 1855 (Ei 3 3 6 f f . ) . In 1948 i t s school (296 pupils) was larger than those i n the other two parishes com­ bined. The Turnverein was organized i n 1853 &&d prospered f o r many years as did other German societies and lodge chapters. How­ ever, from I 8 9 9 to 1900 the Turners l o s t h a l f of t h e i r membership. Eiboeck f e l t at that time that German enthusiasm was low; at l e a s t he says, "Formerly there was here an i n t e l l e c t u a l l y strong and cultured German element," and refers sadly to the"ever-decreasing band of German pioneers" (Ei 3 3 1 ). He includes as pioneers those -332<* who arrived i n the l 8 5 0 f s . In Burlington at the Bethany Church of the Wartburg Synod of the Lutheran Church of America, German preaching occurred twice a month from 1929 to 1942, and then once a month u n t i l 1948. German speech had been common enough a f t e r the F i r s t World War so that f o r some years i t was an advantage i n certain parts of the c i t y to have a German speaking cl e r k . By 1966 German i n town had become merely a t o o l f o r expressing joking comradeship f o r those born before 19l4» In Des Moines County outside of Burlington, Eiboeck says, "you can f i n d whole d i s t r i c t s inhabited by Germany as f o r example around L a t l y and F r a n k l i n M i l l s and other places, where they have formed t h e i r congregations and have t h e i r own churches and schools. Around Danville, New London, Pleasant Grove and i n the southern and nor­ thern part of the county, i n Burlington and Union Townships the German element i s strong and many old s e t t l e r s are to be found" ( E i 3 4 8 ) . The county averaged about 30$ of foreign white stock i n 1930 just west of Burlington 39%• In the r u r a l areas of the county there were i n 1966 individuals who expected those born before 1930 to be able to speak German with them. 56 In the country upstream as f a r as Muscatine, i n the county of the same name (61-56N), the proportion was l e s s . In Muscatine the percentage of f.w.s. again rose to 30, but was below 25% i n sur­ rounding townships. Muscatine possessed 50 inhabitants i n I 8 3 7 , and, though a county seat, achieved incorporation only i n 1851. Eiboeck boasted that "In the upbuilding and development of the c i t y , the Germans have done many times more than the old Anglo- Americans who arrived before them. Thus i t was exclusively the Germans who organized the f i r s t chemical f i r e - f i g h t i n g company.11 The Evangelicals began work i n Muscatine i n 1 8 4 8 . In July of that year t h e i r minister, Konrad Riess, found that "A large German im­ migration from Wiirtemberg had just a r r i v e d , and with 18 f a m i l i e s Riess f i n a l l y effected the organization of the German Evangelical Protestant Church11 (Sch 1 9 0 ). In 1855 a German Congregational Church was founded; i t and the Evangelical combined i n 1884 and from then t i l l the end of the century Pastor Paeth served them. In I 8 6 3 the Germans were f i r s t able to elect a mayor. In 1897 seven of the eight c i t y councilmen were Germans. The year 1865 seems to have been p a r t i c u l a r l y prosperous^ f o r i n that year a Ger­ man workmen's mutual a i d society was established, and also the Turnverein, which however collapsed i n I 8 9 6 (Ei 4 8 8 ) . There were other exclusively German s o c i e t i e s , but German members were nume­ rous i n several "American11 lodges. There were s i x German churches * Evangelical (E-R), Iowa Lutheran (American), Congregational, Metho­ d i s t , B a p t i s t , and Catholic. The German Anzeiger flourished as a newspaper from 1874 u n t i l a f t e r 1 9 0 0 , and there were other German papers. S t i l l i t i s clear that by 1900 the German population was turning away from German i n s t i t u t i o n s ; the form of the name of the mayor, who had been born i n Hesse-Cassel i n 1 8 4 5 , i s some in d i c a ­ t i o n — o f f i c i a l l y Mr. Schmidt c a l l e d himself Barney. In Muscatine the American Lutheran church i n 1966 was having German services three or four times a year. On Good Friday of that year 53 persons attended. English services were attended regularly by four to f i v e -332*. hundred. Only l a t e a r r i v i n g immigrants s t i l l spoke German. I f the next generation had learned the language i t had forgotten i t . 57 The German cha r a c t e r i s t i c s of Davenport (61 -47S) awakened the greatest enthusiasm i n Herr Eiboeck i n 1 9 0 0 . As a headline f o r h i s section on the c i t y he declared, 11 The mighty protector of the German Way of L i f e i n Iowa i s Davenport" (Ei 3 8 5 ). He says further, "The young German-Americans have now grown up and occupy a place as good as youth enjoys anywhere i n the world. The young men have f o l ­ lowed i n the footsteps of t h e i r fathers whose industry and f r u g a l i t y they s t i l l possess — i f possible, more i n i t i a t i v e , " and he expa­ t i a t e s on the prosperity of the c i t y , whose inhabitants then num­ bered 4 5 1 0 0 0 . The area around Davenport was Indian land u n t i l af­ te r the Black Hawk War of I 8 3 2 . The town of Davenport was l a i d out i n I 8 3 6 . The f i r s t German also arrived i n I 8 3 6 . In speaking of conditions twenty years l a t e r Eiboeck characterized i t as "then a small country town, where true, hearty German l i f e and a c t i v i t y had developed" ( E i 456 ). The proportion of Germans became very high, especially about 1845 when many Germans came, ultimately to a t t a i n prosperity, some with money on a r r i v a l (SB 1 9 6 ). In 1930 i n Davenport and the townships i n i t s neighborhood the percentage of f.w.s., nearly a l l German despite the Swedes and I r i s h , was from f o r t y to f i f t y percent. F.w.s. includes only immigrants and t h e i r children, and by 1930 there were very many of l a t e r generations. Koeamer f i x e s the beginning of a s i g n i f i c a n t German element i n Iowa with "the suppression of the Schleswig-Holstein movement i n 1 8 5 1 . Some of the distinguished men who were involved i n t h i s movement s e t t l e d i n Davenport and the neighborhood, and drew a f t e r them very numerous and extr a o r d i n a r i l y able men from the duchy11 (K 2 9 4 , c f . B 1 9 4 ) . Eiboeck a t t r i b u t e s the strength of German culture i n Davenport i n large part to the strength of the German schools. One was established i n 1 8 4 7 , and another, founded i n 1 8 5 2 , f l o u ­ rished u n t i l the l 8 7 0 f s . There were s t i l l others, but when about 1875 German was introduced into the public schools, the private schools, parochial establishments excepted, closed. The prepon­ derance of the influence of the Schleswig-Holstein r e v o l u t i o n i s t s and of Forty-Eighters among the early s e t t l e r s i s suggested by the l a t e dates of the foundation of the German churches. The f i r s t Protestant congregation was a German Methodist church organized i n 1856 (Ei 4 7 7 ) . Though a Catholic parish was created i n Davenport i n I 8 3 9 , a separate German parish was not -undertaken u n t i l 1853* With the panic of 1857 i t p r a c t i c a l l y ceased to ex i s t but was re­ vived i n 1859 and prospered ultimately. Davenport became the see of a Catholic diocese i n I 8 8 3 . In 1900 the school of the German church was attended by 135 pupils. Three I r i s h parishes were some­ what smaller; only the cathedral school was better attended. The f i r s t two bishops were I r i s h . One of the Lutheran churches, Mis­ souri Synod, leaves i t s date of organization a question mark but i t was before 1900$ the other congregation of the 1 9 t h century, T r i n i t y , was founded i n 1 8 ^ 0 . I t is. ^ he larger — 895 members i n 1948 (500 i n 1 9 0 0 ) . The single fowm Synod church (American) also of the nineteenth century, i s of about the same si z e . However i t might be with the churches, German socie t i e s were numerous? a singing club was founded i n 1848 (Ei 3 9 2 ) , a Turnverein i n 1852 (Ei 4 2 6 )• The Turners were more vigorous than anywhere else i n Iowa. In 1900 there were 654 members i n the main chapter and 98 i n another. The only other chapter claiming more than 80 members then was at Des Moines and i t had but 1 4 5 . Furthermore Davenport 1s membership had increased by a hundred i n the year preceding and most other towns had a declining membership. People from Schleswig- Holstein were dominant i n most s o c i e t i e s , but not content with that, they founded a Low German Guild i n I 8 8 9 . Further we need not follow s o c i a l organizations, but they supported theater and opera. There was also an active German journalism beginning i n 1850 — a d a i l y appeared i n I 8 5 6 . Ultimately the exuberantly German character of Davenport disappeared, p a r t l y because of the pressures of the F i r s t World War, but l a r g e l y because the c i t y grew with population from many places and became cognizant that i t was a t r i - c i t y with Rock Island and Moline across the r i v e r where the Germans were a minor element, secondary to the Swedes. The r u r a l d i s t r i c t surrounding Davenport i n Scott County ( 6 l - 47S) has remained more German than the c i t y but i t has acquired no Lutheran churches, nor Evangelical (and Reformed), nor German Cath­ o l i c parishes, perhaps because the early people from Schleswig and Holstein (especially strong at Walcott — B 194) were d i s i n c l i n e d to e c c l e s i a s t i c a c t i v i t y . Buffalo, downstream toward Muscatine, was once something of a German center, but by 1900 Eiboeck was l a ­ menting "The old are s t i l l German to the core, but the young do not - 3 3 2 k - have the r i g h t drive; they no longer speak, think and f e e l German1' (Ei 481). The Turnverein was s t i l l a l i v e then — but with only eleven members. 58 The contrast between the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n about 1947 and that of 1900, i s , as already hinted, great f o r Davenport. There, says Eiboeck," the children of German parents are brought up as Germans i n the best sense; they not only speak German i n the fami­ l y , but l i v e , think, and behave as t h e i r good parents have taught them" (Ei 3 8 5 ) . Even the "Anglo-Amerikaner" brought t h e i r c h i l ­ dren up thus. Eiboeck f e l t that the German schools there were of the greatest importance, and he praises t h e i r schoolmasters not forgetting either the zeal of the pastors of Holy T r i n i t y Lutheran Church and St. Joseph's Catholic Church f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n German (Ei 3 9 1 ) . In 1947 at the Holy T r i n i t y Missouri Lutheran Church German was dropped from services. About 40 out of a congregation of 900 had been l i s t e n i n g to preaching i n German once a month. The accelerated s h i f t i n l i n g u i s t i c development i s to be explained not only by the pressures of the F i r s t World War, but also by the moving i n and out of population. Even before the war i n 1916 the Missouri Lutheran Sunday School of Davenport was English, and twice a month English and German were both heard at services i n the church. Sixteen out of 22 confirmations were i n English. The greater faithfulness to German of Davenport i n the early years was probably because the immigrants were not so great a mixture of people from a l l parts of Germany as i n other towns. Northwest Germans predominated, and therefore the language used had more -333- unity than i n Burlington and Dubuque where many provinces c o n t r i ­ buted to the settlement. 5 6 . 5 9 Clinton, Iowa, i n the county of the same name (61-47)# was i t s e l f not founded u n t i l 1855 (Ei 496) i n the mudflats as a saw­ m i l l center, but, so close by as to be incorporated with i t soon, was Lyons, which was established somewhat e a r l i e r , and Comanche, si x miles downstream, was a town by 1 8 4 0 . Clinton became a r a i l ­ road hub as well as a lumber center. Germans came i n at once and the foreign white stock of the c i t y and i t s neighborhood was nearly 50% i n 1 9 3 0 , and the Germans were the only important stock to be considered. Eiboeck was d i s s a t i s f i e d with the neglect of things German i n 1900 (population then 2 2 , 0 0 0 ) : "German societies have :\ not gained the footing i n Clinton that they have i n other large r i v e r towns and t h i s i s a source of wonder i n view of the numeri­ c a l l y great German population. I t seems that the lack of German unity and the Americanization of the majority of the Germans here has done away with the j o v i a l public l i f e and the celebrations of of the Germans" (Ei 4 9 2 ) . He was unduly perturbed? Clinton was quite German f o r at le a s t another quarter of a century. The source of his error was probably that here a r e l i g i o u s s p i r i t was more im­ portant to the Germans than gemutlichkeit. The Missouri Lutheran St. John's Church was organized i n 1855* Though the Iowa Synod Zion Church (American) was not organized u n t i l I 8 8 3 , Clinton be­ came a stronghold of the synod. In the middle of the twentieth century the Missouri Lutherans numbered 1 , 2 8 5 , the American Lu­ therans 2,009» The Iowa Synod moved t h e i r Wartburg College there - 3 3 4 - ( i t was i n Galena, I l l i n o i s , i n 1868) and kept an establishment i n Clinton u n t i l a f t e r 1930 ( i t i s now i n Waverly, Iowa). The i n s t i t u t i o n was quite German i n character even a f t e r the F i r s t World War. Nor was Clinton without German s o c i e t i e s . In 1866 when the population was some 5 0 0 , f o r t y Germans organized. In 1877 t h i s verein combined with the Turners. To be sure, the Tur­ ners numbered only 30 i n 1900 and had l o s t 8 members i n the pre­ ceding year. A German newspaper, f i r s t undertaken i n I 8 6 7 , f l o u ­ rished eventually. Clint o n , which Eiboeck thought so decadent, clung to German speech. Not u n t i l 1920 did the American Lutheran parochial school y i e l d to the pressures f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n English, and children were s t i l l confirmed i n German i n 1 9 2 2 . Wartburg Academy continued to use German as the basic language f o r some years s t i l l and the students spoke i t with each other. People of t h e i r age who l i v e d on i n the town continued to be able to speak the language. The Missouri Lutheran church s t i l l had some services i n German i n 1 9 4 8 . . 6 0 P r a c t i c a l l y every v i l l a g e i n Clinton County i s mentioned by Eiboeck as being a s i g n i f i c a n t German settlement (Ei 496) and i n 1930 a l l but one township had a concentration of f.w.s. ranging between 35$ and 60%. The Missouri Lutheran churches at Grand Mound and Charlotte, one north, the other south i n the county, had i n 1948 some 500 members eachj the churches were organized i n 1871 and 1 8 7 3 i the church at Dewitt, established i n 1925 l i k e l y s p l i t off from Grand Mound, served 675 souls. None had any German ser­ vices i n 1 9 4 8 . The people at Dewitt and at Wheatland farther - 3 3 5 - west were from Schleswig-Holstein (B 1 9 4 ). Beyond Charlotte and the northern county l i n e there was a t i e r of townships which, es­ p e c i a l l y at i t s eastern end, became heavily German (ca. 40$ f.w.s.), Sabula was the r i v e r town here, but i t never grew large, and the Lutheran churches (American) 12 or 15 miles inland were more im­ portant than that at Sabula. Farther west Eiboeck mentions Maquo- keta as being a center f o r many r u r a l Germans (Ei 5 0 3 )• Indeed i t was able to maintain a German newspaper, and to the north there were two Lutheran churches. Sabula and Maquoketa are i n the south part of Jackson County ( 6 1 - 3 7 ). I t s northern townships may be assigned to the Dubuque area. . 6 1 Dubuque ( i t s county bears the same name, 61-27) was part of the lead mining d i s t r i c t , also a trading post, and has a hi s t o r y stretching back into time, but i t s f i r s t Germans appeared i n 1833 (Ei 5 0 5 ), and that was the year i t attained municipal status. E i ­ boeck says that there were as many Germans i n the town and county here as i n Davenport and i t s county, but not so many from a given area i n the old country. "The Germans of Dubuque are gathered from a l l sorts of regions. The best represented are the Luxemburgers and Swiss, the Badenese, the Wurtembergers and people from Meck­ lenburg. Just as Germany was s p l i t before 1870 into numerous l i t ­ t l e 'fatherlands,* so are the Germans of Dubuque s t i l l d i s t r i buted" (Ei 5 0 4 ) . At t h i s time, 1 9 0 0 , the manufacturing establishments of the c i t y were the most numerous* i n Iowa and very often owned by Germans. "Almost every employee i n the various f a c t o r i e s has, be­ sides a good salary, a share i n the business" (Ei 507) • But so­ c i a l l y Eiboeck found that the c i t y had deteriorated. "The Germans - 3 3 6 - i n Dubuque have remained German, to be sure, and have reared t h e i r children i n true German fashion, but have nonetheless somewhat neg­ lected German s o c i a l l i f e . . . . In the 50's and 60's, while the. Turn verein was s t i l l i n f u l l bloom, when T i v o l i Garden on f i n e summer Sundays had thousands of guests, when German f e s t i v i t i e s were s t i l l held, i n which Germans of a l l denominations and from a l l provinces took part, then a l l the 'old Germans' were s t i l l young. The old people s t i l l a l i v e are too old, and the young people are now more or l e s s Americanized. The old joyous German l i f e and the former closeness of the Germans i s f o r the most part only a sweet memory11 (Ei 5 0 8 ). The Turnverein expired i n 1897 and i t s h a l l was taken over by the newly organized German Society. Other German societies went back to as early as 1 8 4 6 . The importance of churches at Du­ buque began early. The town became the see of a Catholic diocese i n 1837 (Shy\702), but progress was slow f o r some time. The Cathe- IV d r a l was not completed u n t i l 1861 (Sh^645) . S t i l l the diocese be­ came an archdiocese i n 1893$ and i n 1880 there were i n Dubuque two German Catholic churches (Pa I , 4 6 2 )j i n 1900 they numbered three, St. Mary's, with 484 pupils i n i t s school, Sacred Heart with 620 and Holy Ghost with l 6 0 . The cathedral and two I r i s h churches mus­ tered 765 pupils together. The f i r s t bishop (Loras) was German. He died i n 1 8 5 8 , and the diocese then f e l l into I r i s h hands, where i t remained u n t i l 1929• The Germans were not always s a t i s f i e d with t h i s s i t u a t i o n . An Evangelical congregation was being served i n 1847 (Sch 4 3 4 ) . Faust mentions for 1880 one Lutheran, one German Presbyterian, and three or four small Protestant organiza- - 3 3 7 - tions; Eiboeck i n 1900 could l i s t only one German Lutheran and one German Congregational (Ei 5 0 9 )• Apparently the Iowa Synod concen­ trated a l l i t s members into one congregation which had m u l t i p l i e d into f i v e by 1950 with a t o t a l of 1 , 972 members. St. John's, l i s t e d as the Lutheran church by Eiboeck, had 494 members i n 1 9 5 0 . Wart- burg Seminary of the Iowa Synod was established i n 1854 ( E i 1 8 8 ) . Eiboeck f a i l e d to l i s t St. Paul's Lutheran Church (Missouri Synod) which was organized by Pomeranians i n 1 8 6 5 . Though i t fared well i n the long run, St. Paul's,! with i t s congregation of Pomeranian o r i g i n had a t r a d i t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c conservatism and at one time i t l o s t to Saint Mark's (United Lutheran) many members who were unable to understand German, but the language was discontinued from services i n 1 9 4 6 . The pastor continued i t s use i n work with the old f o r some years. Something s i m i l a r was true i n the other c i t i e s . The German population of a l l had thus arrived at nearly the same stage l i n g u i s t i c a l l y . . 62 The German r u r a l §,rea dependent upon Dubuque may be regarded as the r i v e r townships for f i f t e e n miles i n each d i r e c t i o n and the two northern t i e r s of townships i n Dubuque County. Downstream both Bellevue and St. Donatus had German Catholic and Lutheran churches by 1 9 0 0 . The Catholics were Luxemburgers, the Lutherans Hanover­ ians. To be more exact at St. Donatus i n 1888 out of 100 families i n the parish 85 were Luxemburgers (GL 2 8 8 ) , and just to the north Saint Catherine's parish had 70 f a m i l i e s , 58 Luxemburgers, 4 other German, 8 I r i s h . Immigration began i n 1846 and there was a church by 1 8 5 0 . At Bellevue only hal f of the 120 German Catholic families - 3 3 8 - were Luxemburgers; there were 30 I r i s h f a m i l i e s besides. The town was founded i n 1837 and the f i r s t Luxemburger came i n 1853* Eight miles south southwest of Bellevue, the parish at Springbrook had 109 German and 6 I r i s h f a m i l i e s i n 1888; 80 families were Luxem­ burgers, and they began coming i n 1 8 5 6 . There were also German Catholics i n the southwestern part of the county at Cascade (78 out of 112 f a m i l i e s were Luxemburgers, GL 291) and at Worthington. The l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n with Luxemburgers and Hanoverians was curious. U n t i l the F i r s t World War each group communicated i n t e r ­ n a l l y i n i t s own d i a l e c t . With the other group immigrants spoke i n Standard German and persons of the second generation used Eng­ l i s h . Children arrived at school with no knowledge of English but that language quickly became a lingua franca. However, d i a l e c t was common enough so that children learned something of the d i a l e c t d i f f e r e n t from that of t h e i r parents. A f t e r the war the develop­ ments were rapid i n Engl-izing. Inland a few miles the place name Zwingle and a church that was Evangelical and Reformed i n 1950 suggests that there was a colony of Swiss there. The Germans north of Dubuque had one center at S h e r r i l l ' s Mound 15 miles from Dubuque near the r i v e r and another, t e r r i t o r i a l ­ l y l a rger, i n the northwestern part of the county some twenty-five miles from the c i t y . At the former there were Germans by 1 8 3 7 , Catholic services by 1 8 4 6 ; i n 1888 the parish contained 210 German fa m i l i e s , h a l f from Luxemburg or T r i e r near by (GL 2 9 4 ) . In the l a t t e r D y e r s v i l l e , larger than the others but younger, and Holy Cross, Luxemburg and New Vienna have Catholic churches, as does Petersburg just beyond i n the next county, a l l but Holy Cross with - 3 3 9 - German pastors i n 1900. "In 1846 Bishop Loras [of Dubuque] v i s i t e d New Vienna, where he found 250 Germans, a l l Catholics" (Sh IV, 246; cf. E i 308). These people were primarily Luxemburgers. In the same year the f i r s t founders gave the name of t h e i r province to the neighboring v i l l a g e , but people from Oldenburg arrived the next year. In 1900 says Eiboeck, copying Gonner (GL 293) "the parish [of Luxemburg3 consists of Luxemburgers, Westphalians, Hanoverians, and Oldenburgers" (Ei 3 0 9 ). The people at Luxemburg feuded with the bishop i n the l 8 6 0 f s , and here i s what Gonner says of the s i t ­ uation at Holy Cross. "The parish counts 130 f a m i l i e s , of which 82 are German and 16 Luxemburgers. In spite of the preponderant number of German Catholics i t unfortunately has had f o r a long time an I r i s h p r i e s t " (GL 2 9 4 ). I t continued to have an I r i s h p r i e s t u n t i l a f t e r 1900. The d i s t r i c t l o s t part of i t s Luxemburgers by emigration, and part of that was to Tipton, Kansas (GL 3 1 4 ) . 63 Clayton County (61-13)1 next upstream from Dubuque, i s qual­ i f i e d by Eiboeck as "the Germanest County i n northern Iowa" (Ei 6 9 7 ) . There were pioneers there by the l a t e l 8 3 0 f s , but German colonization gained no headway fo r some time. Of the s i t u a t i o n i n 1900 Eiboeck says: "On account of i t s great German population the county o f f i c i a l s are mainly German; the richest farmers are German and the most outstanding businessmen are German. You f i n d Germans everywhere" (Ei 528). Eiboeck could have added that they are much less numerous along the south border of the county, so that they are separate from the Dubuque Germans. He mentions as German, Guttenberg and f i v e towns i n the central part of the coun­ ty. Of these, the county seat, Elkader, had a Turnverein and a - 3 4 0 - German newspaper. There are German protestant churches (Lutheran and E-R) i n the area, two Catholic. One of the Catholic churches and one of the oldest Protestant (Lutheran-American) are at Gar- n a v i l l o . A Presbyterian missionary was working with the Germans there i n 1848 (Sch434). A Turnverein seems to have just expired there i n 1900 (Ei 533t 2 9 2 ) . Eiboeck does not mention the Germans along the northern border of the eountyi though at Monona i s found the largest Lutheran church of the county, 1087 members i n 1 9 5 0 , established before 1 9 0 0 . Two other churches nearby are also l a r g a Saint Sebald i n t h i s county was the scene of the organization of the Iowa Synod i n 1854 (Ei 1 8 6 ) . Just beyond t h i s county to the west i s E l g i n where German Baptists became strong and organized a church i n I 8 7 9 . P o s t v i l l e just over the county l i n e to the north at i t s western end possessed a German newspaper and a Turn­ verein. Farther north, the county seat of Allamakee County ( 6 l - 1 1 ) , Waukon, was 25$ German i n 1 9 0 0 : two Evangelical and Reformed churches with a combined membership of 893 i n 1950 are the German churches of the town. . 6 4 The Western Settlement Association of Cincinnati ( a l l German), organized i n 1852 (B 1 9 4 ), bought the s i t e of Guttenberg. deter­ mining immediately that "only Germans should be tolerated" (Ei 530) there. The proportion of educated s e t t l e r s was high. U n t i l 1885 only one Anglo-American family had penetrated the b a r r i e r . By 1900 f i f t e e n per cent of the inhabitants were no longer German (Ei 5 2 9 )• The town then maintained a Turnverein. The s p i r i t of the Forty-eighters was evidently strong, f o r i n 1900 no German Lutheran church had yet been established i n the town, and St. 3 4 1 - Mary's Catholic Church was not e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y large. I t s school had 164 pupils, 28 i n 1948. However, i n 1950 the American Luther­ an Church, founded a f t e r 1 9 0 0 , had ?12 members. Guttenberg never became large. I t made only a feeble e f f o r t to become a railhead i n Iowa. Perhaps the desire to maintain the wholly German charac­ t e r of the town hampered e f f o r t , but the r e s u l t i n g quiet i n busi­ ness did not keep enterprising men i n the town, and so the Anglo element entered. The population i n 1950 was 1 , 9 1 2 . Guttenberg just a f t e r the Second World War had not quite reached the same l e v e l of language usage as the communities that had grown fas t e r . This town was forced to use English exclusively i n i t s schools a f t e r the F i r s t World War, but f o r years the English of the pupils r e f l e c t e d German use at home. By 1951 those born before 1911 were s t i l l able to speak German, but did not usually do so even at home, and no children were acquainted with i t . Certain new c i t i z e n s who had spent t h e i r l i v e s i n or near Chicago, so immured among fellow countrymen that t h e i r English was imperfect, were the object of c r i t i c i s m by those born i n Guttenberg. 5 6 . 6 5 Bremer County (61-north of 24) i s the center and concentra­ t i o n point of the area which we have christened with i t s name, but the area should be conceived of as occupying a l l adjoining coun­ t i e s and even t e r r i t o r y beyond to the northwest. Scandinavian (especially Norwegian) and Czech settlements are important i n much of the northern part of t h i s area but the German enclaves among them are not n e g l i g i b l e . The most northwestern of these centers, not ten miles from the Minnesota border and nearly seventy from -342- Waterloo at the area's south edge, i s St. Ansgar. In 1874 there were organized there Immanuel and, about 10 miles to the south, St. John's Lutheran Churches (Missouri). Immanuel had nearly 600 members i n 1 9 5 0 , and the Iowa Synod Church at Grafton about 10 miles to the southwest 8 7 1 . North of Bremer County i n the area that has been defined, there are some two score German Lutheran, Evangelical and Reformed, and Catholic churches having German pastors i n 1 9 0 0 , but they w i l l not occupy our attention further? except to say that a German set t l e d some f i f t e e n miles above the Bremer County northern border by 1854 (Ei 6 9 6 ) . In Bremer County i t s e l f there are twenty-four German churches (none Catholic) with concentrations of them i n various parts of the county at Sumner, Waverly, Denver and Readlyne. Only the western townships are r e l a t i v e l y free of people of German o r i g i n , mostly northwest German o r i g i n . Eiboeck declared Bremer County the "most German" a f t e r Clayton i n northern Iowa (Ei 697)1 he evidently meant to except only the Davenport area f o r a l l Iowa, and probably ac­ corded the palm f o r the north to Clayton County because of Gutten­ berg. He further adds: "German s o c i a l organization, such as la found i n the M i s s i s s i p p i River towns, does not e x i s t here; the ec­ c l e s i a s t i c a l overshadows the worldly, although there i s no trace of bigotry" (Ei 6 9 8 ). There were then a German newspaper i n Waver­ l y and Wartburg College which ultimately absorbed four other Iowa Synod i n s t i t u t i o n s including the college at Clinton. Bremer Coun­ ty was organized i n 1 8 5 1 , was reported to b e " s e t t l i n g up rapidly" i n January 1854 by the Dubuque Daily Herald, had i t s f i r s t Luther­ an organization i n I 8 5 6 . I t does not, however, seem to have ad- - 3 4 3 - vanced with any great speed u n t i l a f t e r the r a i l r o a d from Dubuque to Sioux C i t y went through; the l i n e reached i t s western destina­ t i o n i n 1 8 6 9 . This land grant r a i l r o a d was leased to the I l l i n o i s Central, At very nearly the same time the Missouri Synod entered the t e r r i t o r y and became prosperous though not serving as many churches as the Iowa Synod. German settlement seems to have had i t s f i r s t focus 5* and the majority were i n the early 1850*s* There i s no evidence of a l a t e r movement of / note from the city to Kansas* Therefor© our greatest Interest In St, Louis is for the period before the depression of 1873, 93 St# Louis Germans t i l l 1B^0. Hie Evangelical and Reformed minister and historian, Carl B« Schneider* affirms, "When Missouri was admitted as a state In 1821, no Germans from abroad had as yet arrived" (Sch 18)« fie seems to have been mistaken, though perhaps some had arrived and had already leftt at any rate in 1818 in St. Louis an immigrant aid society was established to help Irish and German settlers (Me 237) # and In the same year Henry von Phul pledged $50 and paid #30 toward the construction of the Catholic cathedral (BO I, 2?2)i It is possible that he was American born, but Father Hothenstelner affirms that "there had been German Cath- ollos since the foundation of the city f 176^), The f i r s t Canonical Pastor, ?• Bernard de Llmpaoh, a Capuchin, was a German (appointed 1770].... By the ti>e of Bishop Da Emirs'a ocolag!l818] the number of German Catholics and priests had increased considerably" (So XX, 172)* No one, despite such evidence, accounts the Germans of St. Louis as of any great importance until 1832 when part of the set­ tlement inspired by Duden (see below) stayed on in the city Instead of going farther. These educated men were a l i t t l e later Joined by others from the same party who had at fi r s t made an effort at farm­ ing. To o,uote Koerner, "In the years 1833 and 1834 fragments of the Bhenish Hessian and finally of the Giessner Emigration Society had remained behind, and there soon developed a vigorous German l i f e [in St. Louis], Physicians, language teachers, and merchants settled there. By 1834 Christian Bimpage from Mecklenberg had set up an * Intelligence and Commission Office" . • *, He was best known as the founder of tthe newspaper] the »Anzelger des Westens.* ... The f i r s t number appeared on the 31st of October, 1835" (K 317). Frederick Stelnes (quoted by Bek XVI, 119) Insists upon 1834 as the year the Influx began. "When I oame to St. Louis (in the early part of 183*0 there were eighteen German families and a few unmarried Germans in the city. During the summer of 1834, however, the flood of German immigration began to pour in.* In 1837 a Mu- tual Aid Society was organized (K 333)• In the same year Catholic Bishop Rosatl wrote, "German ser­ vices are being held «•« in St. Louis" (Ro I, 172). Pastoral work by the Catholics among Germans had begun earlier. German Protes­ tant religious meetings had begun by I832 and the immigrants organ­ ized the German Evangelical Church in I834. In that year a Presby­ terian minister wrote, "The congregation of Germans sometimes number about 200, We expect ... ere long ... the erection of a German house of worship...• It has been a great eyesore to the priests of Rome, who have become exceedingly jealous and watchful" (Sch 7*0. The German Methodists founded a society In 1841 (CE, articlet Methodism). The Lutherans do not seem to have organized a church until the coming of the "Saxons," but a committee appointed In 1834 by their Synod of the West "reported, in I836, that i t had found many Lutherans In St. Louis" (Sch 67), 94 The "Saxons." led in their f i r s t few month* in the United States by the Rev. HartIn Stephen until his followers discredited him and deported him to Illinois, arrived at the beginning of 1839 in St. Louis. They were Lutherans* politically persecuted in Dresden, zealously religious and uncompromising in their views, hostile to a l l idea of union, even with less exigent Lutherans. Later under the leadership of the lev. C.P.W. Walther, they founded what ultimately became the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, dis­ cussed at more length elsewhere. The group numbered 602 on Its arrival In America (Po 559). There were some defections and some additions later. After a short period in St. Louis most of tine company settled in Perry County (see below) but between 100 and 200 chose to stay in the city (Po 602), They formed the St. Louis congregation which became C.P.W. Walther*s in 1841. On their ar­ rival in St, Louis the Saxons were well received by the Americans, but were objects of seom for most of the Germans who had either different religious views or antl-rellglous convictions* They themselves were warned by at least one of their pastors to stay completely aloof from the Inhabitants of St. Louis (Po 242). 95 ©ie rationalists and freethinkers were strong (Po 31?) among early Germans in St, Louis. They became yet stronger when the in­ tellectuals of the thirties were joined by the Forty-elghters. But the Protestants also grew strong and the-Catholics too. The ardent differences between the various groups together with their enthus­ iasm for participation in local, state, and national politics led not only to manifestations that were sometimes violent (Fo 252), but also to a swift development of bl-llnguallsra among the leaders. They sought allies outside their nationality, The rush of Germans Into the city In the years succeeding 1839 made chaotic much of -3?9** their Institutional l i f e . In 1843 Bishop Bosatl estimated that there were 6000 German Catholics in St, Louis* in 1844 he said that there were 7000 with three churches, one each for the north­ ern, the southern and the central part of the city (Ho I, 818-27), Between 1837 and 1840 six cultural societies were founded (Sch 29)« Military companies multiplied at similar rates1 in 1843 there were five of them (Po 258), 96 The military propensities of the Germans and their political sympathies made them the main support of the federal government In 1861, thereby sharpening the social line between them and the rest of the clty #s Inhabitants, Here were two forces working linguis­ tically in opposite directions, Army l i f e multiplied contacts with English, political hostilities brought isolation for the stay- at-homes. After Union political views became socially acceptable, the war raised the status of Germans, however, not only because they were on the winning side but also because munition making in the area f e l l largely to them and they prospered while some who had been well-to-do found themselves in straits. St, Louis had been growing very fast, from less than ?000 in 1830 to something under 80,000 in 1850 of whom some 30$ had been bora in Germany. "In I858 St. Louis had 14 German churches, 27 German societies, 2 German dallies and 5 weeklies" (sch 422)• 97 A notion of the rate of Increase of the German-speaking popu­ lation is provided by the foundation dates of the German Catholic churches (Ho, passim) of the Lutheran churches, Missouri Synod, and of the Evangelical churches. -380- Foundation Dates German Catholic Missouri Lutheran Evangelical Before 1851 5 3 3 («44 , «45,*45»*48,«49) ( *39 » '47 , , 49 ) ( *43 , t 43» l 48 ) 1851-i860 2 3 2 < f55»*6o> ( , 58»*59»*60) <*52,«5S) 1861-1870 2 3 2 (*65-»6?) ( *65 f *69» , 69 ) ( *68, »69, , 69t»7 1871-1880 4 2 1 C , 71,*74,»7?»«79) <*72,»74) ( »75 ) 1881-1890 1 0 6 ( «85 ) (•86t«86,«85,*88,«89 I89I-190O 4 4 5 ( * 91 , , 92 , »93 , , 93 ) <*94,•94,*95»*96) {*91t*92,*94,«96* 1901-1910 0 3 ? {.•01t*04,«08) 1911*1920 0 1 ? ( »17 ) In 1948 there were 24 Missouri Lutheran churches, 33 Evangelical and Reformed, In 1890 there had been In the city five German Methodist congregations with IO65 members. 98 Various sections of St, Louis were German quarters. An early northern suburb was called Bremen, It was quickly absorbed Into the city, but i t remained a separate entity with very l i t t l e contact even with other Germans, South St, Louis was taken over by the Germans, largely Saxons, The Swablans were near the river. Provincial patriotisms were strong, though intermarriage between different provincial strains occurred. The old French settlement, originally beyond the city to the south, Carondelet, was engulfed by the German occupation. On south s t i l l farther, almost to the 381- southern border of the next eounty South German settlements grew up, notably at the Gravwls Settlement, 15 miles away, kO or 50 families in 1835 (Sch 21)$ to the north, too, as far as the Mis­ souri Elver, Until well into the twentieth eentury South St, Louis was stable in Its Teutonic character. Almost everyone went to paro­ chial schools through the dosing decades of the nineteenth cen­ tury* Practically a l l the men worked in German-owned companies, If not in retail trade nearly a l l in breweries. There were almost no intermarriages. There were few opportunities, and they were frowned on, This condition began to change In the early twentieth century when the American-bom of the late comers went to work. Though the Germans did not desert the old ground, they were export­ ing the superabundance of natural Increase, 99 St. Louis up until 1900 in the German sections of the city the German language was supreme, Bi-lingual ability was fairly wide spread, but German was the normal language of many children at play and of workmen in the breweries, and of people in the re- t a l l shops, in the churches, and in the homes. Dialects were main­ tained, for the people from one region were usually clustered to­ gether and intent on preserving their regional characteristics. Where miscegenation between dialectal groups took place, English tended to prevail? the children of such families played In English, Practically a l l children attended parochial schools where they became acquainted with both English and Standard German. The most important tendency toward breaking down resistance to Engl-izlng -382- was the acceptance by German girls of going out for hire in Amerl- can families* this phenomenon came about in the closing years of the nineteenth century* In the next decade and a half the pres­ sures for displacement of German became great* By I898 in the Iron* gelleal Synod in St. Louis t the movement for services in English was under way* In 1906 some children among the Missouri Lutherans were being confirmed in English * In 1910 six Missouri Lutheran churches in the cltyi each with 3©0 to 3000 mothers had allowed English to enter their services. Two of the largest of theset how- evert had not completely displaced German forty years later* In the suburbs in 1910 English had penetrated Into el^tt churches* In 1916 into eleven* In one of these» Black Jack# there was s t i l l some German in 19^8 f In the fi r s t decade of the twentieth century a child who became an Evangelical and Beformed minister and whose family moved into St* Louie from a rural settlement where his or­ dinary speech had been German became sufficiently Ingl-lEed so that he attended English rather than German services after arriving in the city. As to the Catholic church* Hothenstelner in his work published in 1928 says of conditions during the First World War* mThe use of the German tongue In churcht had been long ago restricted to a minimum by the pastors themselves• and generally discontinued in the schools* The language question in the German parishes of St* Louis was si&lvlng Itself in the natural my of gradual reduc­ tion and extinction*. Force was not necessary* not even advisable* But the war phrensy put i t Into the heads of some patriots* that the small remnants of Germanism must be eliminated* [The Arch- bishop replied!*} *As I understand It, we are not making war on languages, but on false principles. In most of the so-called German churches English is used to a greater extent than German, The announcements are made in both languages, and as a rule, only one of the Sunday sermons is In German, The question of elimi­ nating the German language is being considered,** (Ho II, 712-3), Thirty years before It could hardly have been said that the lan­ guage question "was solving Itself in the natural way," but tumult then was not caused so much by dissension within the German congre­ gations regarding the choice of language as by militancy on the part of the Engl1sh-speaklng, that Is, Irish, clergy. In 1948 six of the 24 Missouri Lutheran churches in St, Louis had some services in German, By then only certain of the old retained proficiency in German, .00 The Down-Blver district of Missouri began to receive speakers of German very early, "George Bollinger [of German stock), a na­ tive of North Carolina, settled on the Whitewater Hiver in Bol­ linger County [ (£0 - Just south of west part of 498) about 100 miles south of St, Louis and about 25 miles Inland from Cape Gi­ rardeau) between 1794-97 and, in 1803, induced some North Carolin­ ians to join him. Timothy Flint,,, [visited and described in 1826} this * Isolated but pure German Settlement, where these people have in fact preserved their nationality and their language more unmixed than even In Pennsylvania,, •. They are principally Luliherans and some of them directly from Germany, but the greater portion from North Carolina and Pennsylvania1" (Sch 18), In spite of the arrival of Europeans this group continued to he regarded as North Carolina Germans. In and just south of Cape Girardeau County (60 — south of 49S developing from this settlement) 8 Missouri Lutheran and 3 Evangelical and Reformed churches grew up. There was also a rural Catholic German church. In Cape Girardeau the Missouri Lutheran church was organized in 1854, and another, 2 miles northwest in 1844, another s t i l l at Illrao close by in 18481 two farther inland in 1865 and 1866. In 1890 there were two German Methodist congre­ gations in the county -with 300 members. In Cape Girardeau German Catholic immigration began to be Important In I834, but i t was not until 1868 that a German parish was created, for the Irish were numerous there too (Ho II, 242). The Catholic Germans at Cape Girardeau had their rural support in Scott County to the south. There the parish of New Hamburg was created In 1848 and closer to the Cape, Kelso In 18?8 {there had been a German school earlier) (Ho II, 238, 244). Somewhat farther away at Oran "forty families, a l l German Alsatians," required the establishment of a parish in I893 (Ro II, 613). It is apparent that significant Immigration continued a long time. Down the river from St. Louis though the "North Carolina Germans" long retained their language, by 1950 German speech had ceased to be a factor in the l i f e of Cape Girardeau and the country to the south. Indeed In 1910 the Lutherans at Cape Gi­ rardeau heard English twice a month in addition to German, In 1916 three times. Similarly at Gordonville a few miles west, —383**' and at Jackson to the northwest, ,01 The best known Down-Stream group of Germans was that of the SM9n, toM^TSAfif spoken of above. Perry, Cjifrty (£0 — 4©S), next upstream from Cape Girardeau County, was the scene of the settle­ ment In the spring of I839. The location was chosen by Stephen In preference to more fertile land, on the Meramec River quite close to St. Louis, because "Stephen's mind was fixed on the wil­ derness" (Po 376)* that i s , he wanted Isolation. Though the bishop was soon rejected, the taste for separateness continued among those of his followers who had left St. Louis, and the Germans of Perry County have had a reputation for clannlshness. The course of their for times was not always smooth, but they remained conservative, a center of reserve strength for the Mlseourl Synod, not as dynamic In pushing Its Influence as C«F,W* Walther and his people in St, Louis, but reliable in their resistance to outsiders. Their eleven churches are sown over the southeast two-thirds of the county and the north tier of townships just to the south. They fi r s t landed at the mouth of the Brazeau River1 and spread from there* Altenburg, the largest of their six early villages, is somewhat inland, Altenburg itself ultimately received an additional^ church, that became American Lutheran, and so did Pocahontas on the south edge. Aside from this, Missouri Synod territory Is monolithic. At the northern and northwestern border of these Lutherans in Perry County they give way to Catholic Germans who are closely akin to those farther upstream In St, Genevieve County, They have national churches at Perryville (org. 1866) and Blehle (1867-1870) (Ro I I , 241 & 245) * In the northern part of the county* Badenese at Apple Creek who had been coming a few years before built a Catholic chapel In 1828, The Perry County Saxons were long regarded by Missouri Luther­ ans elsewhere as a citadel for the conservation of the language. The reputation Is In part only the persistence of century-old tradition, but to support It Is the fact that three of the oldest congregations heard English only once a month in 1931 (FX 244) , Eleven of the 13 churches were s t i l l having some services in German in 1948* At that time a l l those bom before the First World War were s t i l l proficient In German, but in "visiting* with each other they seldom used i t , and children knew no German, The church at Perryvllle (established 1866) had English services in part In 1910i similarly at two other churches on the fringe, but a l l three s t i l l had some German in 1948• .02 In Saint Genevieve County (£0 — 49) the town of Salnte Gene­ vieve was founded in 1735 by the French and remained French deep into the nineteenth century, but already in 1840 the Catholics there heard preaching in German as well as In English and French, and in that year the Vlnoentlan fathers were attending German set­ tlements at Riviere aux Vases and Zell hard by. Zell later had Weingarten as a f i l i a l (Ro II, 77). The country around Ste. Gene* vleve settled up with Germans so that In 1875, of the 400 Catholic families, 150 were German (Ro II, 75). By this time there was intermarriage between French and Germans. In the mid-twentieth century the district which covered most of the county seemed domi­ nated by German stock. In Ste. Genevieve the French In early days absorbed many of the Germans linguistically. The Irish objected vigorously in 1854 to accepting Father Charles Ziegler, born at ste. Genevieve, as their priest, because he was German, but he could not speak German, only French and English. German brides talcing French husbands as late as the 1880* s became speakers of French, but their children were for most purposes converts to English* In 1914 services at the Mis­ souri Lutheran church there were already partly in English. The rural German element in the neighborhood of Ste. Genevieve had not a l l given up the language of their fathers in 1951» but In general only the quality of their English spoke of their earlier habits. At Weingarten twelve miles inland cemetery inscriptions were usual­ ly in German until 1900, but by the time of the First World War It had fallen completely Into disuse, This Is a Catholic community, and in them the language of record tends to shift earlier than in Protestant communities, ©3 Farther inland in mining; country (J& — 48) the French set­ tled f i r s t , but Germans, Missouri Lutherans and some Catholics, ultimately became one-third of the population in places. They came from various parts of Germany* An Evangelical missionary attempted work here in 1857 but the Missouri Lutherans with seven churches won out. The three oldest — Pilot Knob, Iron Mountain, and Far- mington — date from 1868, 1870 and 1873, Only the Farmlngton church exceeds 100 members. In 1948 i t had 598, Here the popu­ lation could turn to farming. At Farmlngton and In neighboring villages where the German element Is Protestant, linguistic de- velopment has been similar to that in rural St. Genevieve County. In 1910 there was regularly some English in the Lutheran services. German at church was abolished during the hysteria of the Great War, but was resumed afterward for one service a month on Sunday afternoon. In 1931 i t was dropped completely at the initiative of the congregation. By 1951 only those bom near the beginning of the century could speak German and few of these were practicing their knowledge. In the area just south of St. Louis some con­ servative areas existed In 19501 at Beck and Antonia the Missouri Lutherans s t i l l worshipped sometimes in German. .04 The Lower Missouri Area attracts commentators on German set­ tlement for an earlier date than; St, Louis on account of Gott- mn mm aost s t r i k i n g f a c t about them l a that In 1888 a l l members of the GfA*B* bore German namest Outside of St* Louis as wel l as In i t the Union troops who e n l i s t e d i n Missouri were very often Germans* The people of Hermann had already distinguished themselves m i l i t a r i l y * Early i n the 1840*s they organised a com** P&ny ^ J&e^ers and most of these served i n the Mexican Mar* i l l At Hermann few early inhabitants were enthusiastic about r e l i g i o n * at l e a s t not about any s t r i c t denomination* fhe Bmn* g e l l c a l and Befonned church at Hermann (627 members i n 1950) had i t s roots i n two organisations set up In 1841 1 * decade l a t e r the Eeformed minister Blrkner was scandalised no end by conditions* As regards h i s predecessor he sfys* * h l « whole care f o r the souls of h i s f l o c k consisted i n playing at cards and drinking wine with them *#« and yet even t h i f preacher was' scolded as a * p r i e s t * 1 [For myself] a succession of offenses and Insults began* which are not ended as yet [1S53]* (Sch 196)* fhe church had becomet however# a permanent i n s t i t u t i o n * but i t demonstrated the indepea** dence c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Hermann by remaining a •'free* church un«* attached to a denomination u n t i l 1905* The German Kethodlsts began services i n 1844* but were not organized t i l l 1876* and were so poverty s t r i c k e n that they could not b u i l d u n t i l 1883* The ~39f* Lutherans did not succeed in securing a footing in the town. Among the founders of Hermann were 33 Catholics* they organized in 1840 and built a church in 1845* But the attitude of the town was hostile in early days. Father Tuerk was pastor from 1851 to 1861, "The anti-Catholic spirit of many of the Inhabitants of the town made trouble for the good and faithful priest, whose abrupt man­ ners and curt sayings were used as occasions for vituperation" (Bo XI, 400), The parish contained many people living in the country especially to the southeast. In 1900 i t was maintaining two schools, one In town with 106 pupils, one 6 miles out with 25 (school enrollment 95 in 1948, 198 in i960) • Across the river and somewhat to the west are starkenburg and Bhineland where there are Catholic churches, small but of German background. There is also a smalldS-* church at Bhineland. To the south of Hermann almost a l l of Gasconade County, which stretches for nearly 40 miles, is predominantly German1 this In­ cludes Swiss at the village of that name ten miles inland (G8 28). The river frontage is not long, some 15 miles. In this h i l l y area there are some 15 E-H, Missouri Lutheran and German Methodist churches1 as examples, the Lutheran church at Bosebud and the E-H church at Bland near the south extremity and Stolpe (E-B) somewhat west of Hermann may be mentioned. By 1951 Hermann began to make a touristic asset of its German character. In that year a Halfest was instituted and in the 1960»s the occasion attracted crowds. 12 Hermann was faithful to German a bit longer than either Wash­ ington or St. Charles. Originally, It was so officially German that for many years court house records were kept in German, and an ordinance provided that German must he taught In the public sohools. In the Evangelical ohuroh in January, 1910, one English church service a month was accepted* In 1936 English and German services were held on alternate Sundays* In 1941 further reduction took place. In 1951 and until 1956 there were two German services a year, fhe average attendance at church was then 3661 90 attended the German service on Good Friday in 1951f 55 that on Ascension Sunday* After 1956 German service was held on the Halfest with an imported llturgist or minister. This service was the inly Halfest feature in which the German language featured except for the names of certain dishes served up on the occasion, notably Brotwurst and Schnltzbrot. In 1951 children In confirmation classes showed no knowledge of German, did not recognise a benediction in German nor the word Frlede (peace). On the other hand In 1951 nearly a l l those born before 1930 could speak German and those in riper adult* hood used German in casual intercourse1 for instance a Catholic expressman born about I896, on making a delivery, passed the time of day in German with the Evangelical minister who was somewhat his Junior in age. In the country about Hermann there were s t i l l spots where German was then oftener current. At Stolpe children were learning German in the homes, and adults conversed more fre­ quently In German than at Hermann. Country people in Hermann to shop frequently gossipped In German. Across the river in Rhine- land there were then (1951) twenty-five Catholics who confessed In German, and those bom before 1910 spoke German together, some -399- that were younger also. In 1966, the generation bom at Hermann between 1917 and 1930 could s t i l l "get along" in German. Their children "understood some things." Children of school age ac­ quired what German they knew In classes at school. 13 The Westphalia district, that i s , Osage County (60-36) and that part of Cole County (60-35) east of Missouri*s capital, lies between Jefferson City and Hermann. It is very largely Catholic German* The point of f i r s t settlement, some 16 miles southeast of Jefferson City, became Westphalia and the year was I835 (Ho I 689)« The setters were partly Bhinelanders, partly Vestphallans* They turned out to be a quarrelsome lot, or at least ready to take up arms against a series of Jesuit priests, among them Father Hellas, who ^beginning in I838 was an apostle to the whole district where he stayed until his death in 1874f he was very successful elsewhere. Between I838 and 1844 the number of souls under his care increased from 620 to 2500 (Ho II 358), Father Bothenstelner attributed the contentiousness of the people at Westphalia to the pressure of "Latin farmers" among them, men "infected with the revolutionary spirit" (Bo I, 699). In any case Father Hellas who had made his headquarters In the village left i t in 1842, nailing to the church door a couplet in Latin saying, "Let him who covets hardships . . . come to Westphalia and he will find hardships aplenty." There were presumably Latinlsts to read the message. By the beginning of the Ci v i l War the oorabattive generation was no longer active, and in 1862 their pastor wrote, "The spirit of the people i s , in general, good. They have learned that in annoying and contradicting their - 400 - priests there Is neither peace nor the blessing of God* (Ro II, 364), For a town Its size (234 Inhabitants In 1920, 319 In 1950), West- phalla Is well-known, largely because of Its demonstrative German character* Everybody Is German, and among these people disputatious behavior is not taken seriously. At Father Hellas*s f i r s t arrival "regular services were held at Westphalia, where the people were low Germans, at Loose Creek the home of the Bhlnelanders, at Hich Fountain, the bulk of whose parishioners were Bavarians, and at Taos which was mainly settled by Hanoverians and Belgians* (Bo I 695). In 1840 from a group of 30 families the parish at Blch Fountain, 7 Or 8 miles southeast of Westphalia, was organizedi two years later "250 families arrived from Bavaria to escape the unjust laws which Bavarian liberalism had foisted on the people" (Bo I, 698 quoting Hellas). It contin­ ued to be piously Catholict Its "school district never had more than one Protestant landowner.... The school, though not paroch­ i a l , is practically Catholic" (Bo II, 368). Fattier Bothenstelner made this statement in 1928, but the Catholic directories have listed It like the parochial sohools, 200 pupils In 1900, 113 In i960* An abortive Utopian colony of Swiss joined them In 1844, but New Helvetia seems to have le f t few remnants in the population (Sohults- Behrend in SB, II, 30). In the charaoter of the German speech of the area dialectal distinctions resulting from their regions of origin In Germany persisted at least into the mid-twentieth century. —401— 57.14 Of the other German parishes of the Westphalia district, four more merit some attention. Loose Greek, five or six miles north of Westphalia, together with Bonnot's Mill as far again to the north on the Missouri River, were settlements that antedated West­ phalia because of French pioneers, South Germans arrived among them at about the same time as the north Germans came to Westphalia. Bonnot*s Mill was the despair of the early priests, and did not ac­ quire a permanent parish until between 1900 and 1915i but Loose Creek parish throve from early times* Jefferson City became the state capital in 1826. A Catholic parish was organized from Ger­ mans and Irish In I838 by Father Hellas. Nourished by the popu­ lation from the rural settlements, St. Peter's became largely German, and i t remained the only Catholic church In the capital until well into the twentieth century. In 1956 It became the cathedral of a newly created diocese. Sight miles south of Jef­ ferson City is St. Thomas. From 3 or 4 German families about 1843 i t Increased to 21 In 1854 and to 35 in I860, and continued to grow so as to be able to build a brick church and maintain a school beginning in 1895 (138 inhabitants in 1920i 86 pupils in 1900, 92 in I960). 57.15 The Germans at Taos. 9 miles east of Jefferson City (60-35). because they furnished the f i r s t settlers in the Sclplo settle­ ment in Kansas, are of particular Interest tc this study. Belgians were associated with the Germans in bosh communities. Taos re­ ceived Its name only after the Pacific Ballroad went through and named its station In 1855• out Father Helias reported the neigh- •402- borhood as having 20 Catholic families In I838. The next year there were 42 families. He erected a church i n 1840, moved there in 1842 after leaving Westphalia, and remained u n t i l his death. He was himself a Fleming and i n 1847 he was Joined by 50 Belgians. To the northeast of Taos there was level land to the taste of Flemings, but the parish developed as primarily German. At least Father Hellas*s successors were German and the emigrants to Kansas were mostly German. Taos grew but l i t t l e . Its parochial school had 68 pupils i n 1900, 165 in i960. ,16 The Germans of the Westphalia d i s t r i c t , western Osage County and eastern Cole County were f a i t h f u l to German for a long time. A wholesale delivery man of German origin whose territory i n ­ cluded the whole d i s t r i c t said in 19511 "Around Westphalia, that's a l l they talk, kids and everybody." The inhabitants of Westphalia placed a few strictures upon such a statement. A man bom about 1913, who spoke German habitually with his contemporaries, said that his two oldest children, bom i n 1935 and 1937, could not speak German but could understand i t , but that the younger ones could not even understand. Telephone conversations i n the com­ munity were often in German, but not to keep outsiders from under­ standing, as often happens on country lines — the effort would have been ineffective — simply because German was the natural means of communication. Father Michael Eneeht whose long tenure ended In 1961 found i t well to speak often i n German though not from the pulpit. In 1966 persons bom i n the early years of the century s t i l l spoke German every day more or less, but never ex- «»4<53— pected persons born after the beginning of the Second World War to be able to understand these. The Catholic cemetery at West­ phalia contains a majority of German inscriptions on monuments installed before 1910i English was f i r s t used to commemorate a 19-year-old g i r l who died in 1892. German disappears from the monuments in the late 1920*s. Habits in the district elsewhere were not greatly different, though at Loose Creek the mixture of French and German parishioners made English prevalent on tomb­ stone Inscriptions after about 1888. Practically no German ap­ pears after 1904. (There is only one stone In French, I869), In the cemetery at Taos, the mixture of the Flemish element seems to have had some effect. A sudden desertion of German for inscrip­ tions occurred about 1910. The pastor at St. Thomas in 1951 heard confessions In German from those born before 1905, The^ were not many homes with growing children where German was being actively used, but the people making confessions were not merely repeating empty formulae. They had studied German In school, had heard It at home, and were able to speak German. Those born In 1920 had heard much, but their German had fallen Into disuse. Those born In 1930, ignorant of German* considered their ignorance a superiority* The English of many was highly accented. .1? Western Cole County ( £ 0 - 3 5 ), though in 1845 an Evangelical missionary thought the whole county empty of Germans (Sch 1?6), became in considerable part Protestant German. At least until the middle of the twentieth century Jefferson City was sharply divided socially and territorially Into groups. The Catholic Germans men- 404- tloned above saw l i t t l e of the Protestant Germans who established a Missouri Lutheran and an Evangelical and Reformed church. The lat t e r had i t s beginnings i n 1858, membership 723 i n 1950. The Lu­ theran church, 1366 members i n 1948 did not organize u n t i l 18701 It i s supported by a rural area of considerable extent with four churches of which the oldest was founded i n 1843. Those are located, west of the Catholics, a l l i n Cole County. On the western edge of the county there are also two American Lutheran churches. The total membership of a l l six of the outlying churches Is nearly the same as that of the church i n the capital. In this Protestant territory, German was perhaps as well con­ served as among their Catholic neighbors to the east. The HISSCSMI Lutheran church at Wardville and the American Lutheran church at Russelvllle, at least, continued with German services through 1948. At Russelvllle German services occurred every other Sunday. On German days, the children attended only Sunday school. A Lutheran parochial school in the area did not give up teaching German u n t i l the 1930*s. Children born about 1925 learned some German at home. In Jefferson City the Evangelical Church had a l l German services u n t i l 1900i half German u n t i l 1920. The pastor who arrived i n 1921 spoke a German that offended his listeners, and German services were dropped, The Germans In Jefferson City appear to have dropped German rather suddenly under the pressures of the F i r s t World War. The shift was easier because the language of the Immigrants was so varied. They came from a l l parts of Germany, 18 Up the Missouri from Cole County and Jefferson City German settlements are more scattered. In Moniteau County (60-24) next - 405 - upstream are ttro Protestant German centers, the county seat, C a l i ­ fornia, and Jamestown, and one Cafcholio center, Tipton. Six miles south of what became California, Evangelical missionaries were at work by 1346 (Sch 176), The Pacific Railroad was bu i l t through California In I857 or 1858, and Its coming must have been the oc­ casion of the request for a resident Evangelical pastor i n 1856 (Sch 423) • Pastor August Roder who was there i n 1860 agreed to become the f i r s t Evangelical (Klrchenvereln) missionary to Kansas, His work i n Kansas was short (Sch 432). The Evangelical and Re­ formed church in California had 455 members: in 1950, that i n the country 93. The Missouri Lutherans organized a congregation i n 1860, membership 327 in 1948. The Catholics established themselves in California In 1859, mostly Germans (Ro II, 257), 250 souls i n the parish In 1880, 45 parochial pupils In 1900, 98 i n i960. Twelve miles west of California l i e s Tiptont "with 1000 Inhabi­ tants In 1870, lit] was nearly one-half German* (Pa 445), It had 1170 inhabitants i n 1920, 1234 i n 1950. It i s a Catholic center (100 parochial pupils In 1900, 208 In i960). Catholic missionaries began to work among the Germans there In 1851 or I853 (Ro II, 255)• The people were Rhinelanders, and they behaved li k e the people at Westphalia for twenty-five years, quarreling as to whether the church should be In town or in the country. At Jamestown and v i ­ cini t y northeast and near the river there were Germans for Father Hellas to v i s i t In 1842 (Schmidt 84) and Evangelical missionaries in 1848 (Sch 177). A Missouri Lutheran church was organized in **40©— 1856* These groups remained small. So did those In the next county upstream. Cooper County (60-23), although Booneville had Germans and German services as soon as the Jamestown d i s t r i c t . Booneville developed as something of a conglomerate. The Lone Elm Lutheran church about ten miles south (310 members In 1948, organized I896) i s in a somewhat more s t r i c t l y German neighbor­ hood. Similar conditions obtained i n the southeastern part of Saline County (60-12), next upstream, Almost no Germans settled In the northern part of that county. The settlements upstream from Jefferson City to the Concordia d i s t r i c t give l i t t l e evi­ dence of the conservation of German. In 1916 the Missouri Luth­ eran church at California already heard English in part. •19 Cole Camp Is situated 58 a i r miles west of Jefferson City. It i s i n Benton County (60-32). but the German d i s t r i c t which bears i t s name occupies only the northeastern part of that county and stretches Into the adjacent parts of Pettis County to the north and Morgan County to the east. We are here among the north­ ern tributaries to the upper part of what i s now the Lake of the Ozarks, In country that is not particularly f e r t i l e . Exportation of population thus soon became necessary. Some emigrants moved north into the Concordia area, but in Kansas a number of settle­ ments have population from the Cole Camp d i s t r i c t , for example, the Block Germans, the Hepler-Brazllton Germans, the Pittsburg Germans, the Coffeyville Germans, the Independence Germans, the Linn-Palmer Germans, the Odee Germans, the Upper Lyons Creek Germans. The d i s t r i c t i s almost solidly Lutheran, largely Mis­ souri Synod, Cole Camp <889 inhabitants in 1920, 813 in 1950) station for families eomlng from Germany. Sedalia (In 60-22), some twenty miles north from Cole Camp (about 21,000 inhabitants in both 1920 and i960), Is by far the largest torn in the neigh* borhood. It gathered together a German element — German Catholic parish, Missouri Lutheran church and E-R church a l l of moderate size, ,20 In the Cole C®mp district in 1948 three of the six Missouri Lutheran churches m the heart of the district were s t i l l hearing some German in church services. Specifically in 1951 &t the Lake Creek church, the oldest, there was German service only once a month in addition to English services every Sunday, fhe amount of German, however, was so limited because of a requirement made by the pastor before accepting the call* fhe most conservative con­ gregation heard half English, half German preaching* In Cole Camp Itself, the Missouri Lutheran church had some services in English as early as 1916$ in 1948 the addition of German to the English services occurred there twice a month, The American Lutherans in Cole Camp had at this time reduced German to once a month* So had they also at Stover beginning In 19441 In the years preceding English and German preaching had been equally frequent* By 1961 German services In churches of both Lutheran denominations were extinct, The Cole Camp town churches held out t i l l then, Stover gave up In 1955• German disappeared from the schools before 1930* Consequently, any born later than about 1915 learned only dialect* Those born before 1925 were speakers and those born within seven or eight years after that understand German. A few gained greater proficiency. In stover in 1966 there were some born about 1945 •.409* who knew a l i t t l e German, and the very old s t i l l employed i t with each other, — their children too in conversing with them. At Cole Camp the situation was somewhat more conservative, There were some children who understood Low German. To the northwest the Missouri Synod church at Mora, as at Cole Camp, was hearing some English la 1916, and, again as at Cole Camp, was s t i l l having some German in 1948. At Sedalia, however, In 1948 no German -was used in services, though in 1916 English had been heard only in the evenings. .21 The Concordia District is found in the two Missouri Biver counties on the south hank last upstream before Jackson County where Kansas City 1st they are Lafayette (60-11) and Saline (60-12) Counties, part of Li t t l e Dixie, Until the Civil War with its ao- companying economic disasters for the slave economy, the Germans had only footholds at certain points, notably at Concordia Itself where they organized a Lutheran church in 1840 and at Lexington where they began to call for Evangelical preachers in 185! (Sch 423). Prom Concordia, 55 miles from Kansas City and over twenty miles back from the river, they gained territory right up to Its bank, Lexington on the river, some 35 miles from Kansas City, was not so important as a center or radiation, but in the bottomland up­ stream and in the back country to the south German holdings spread and joined the lands of the Concordia radiation, leaving a district of light penetration only for a few miles downstream from Lexing­ ton. The Missouri Synod and the Evangelical Synod; (later E-B) shared this territory, with the Lutherans stronger, particularly at Concordia and the Evangelicals in force at Lexington. There 410- were also i n 1890 i n Lafayette County six German Methodist churches with 321 members, fhe Germans, mostly Hanoverians, acquired their lands by a process of i n f i l t r a t i o n with later consolidation, which went on into the twentieth century. It did not lead to much expor­ tation of population, but there are settlements In Kansas with fam­ i l i e s related to those i n the Concordia d i s t r i c t , partly through common dissemination from the Cole Camp d i s t r i c t , partly more d i ­ rectly as Is the case for the Hudson Germans i n Kansas, Concordia (1300 inhabitants In I899, 962 i n 1920, 1218 i n 1950) became some­ thing of a cultural center with the establishment by the Missouri Synod of St, Paul*s College in I883 (146 students i n 1948), and remained, as i t was in the beginning, essentially German in back­ ground, Lexington (4122 inhabitants in i860, 5046 In 1950) was never a German town. It has continued to be Southern, while the Germans have taken over the land round about, fhe German churches in the whole d i s t r i c t number something over twenty (depending on boundaries), Concordia*s Lutheran church had 1530 members i n 1948$ other Lutheran churches attained as high as 621 members (Emma). For the Evangelical (and Reformed) 504 members at Higglnsvllle was a maximum, In Blackburn at that time the E-R church had 221 mem­ bers, the Lutheran 215. ,22 In the Concordia District the i n f i l t r a t i o n process made the use of English in outlying portions rather common early. The Mis­ souri Synod churches at Corder and Waverly to the northwest and north had admitted English by 1910, and by 1916 so had the churches at Higglnsvllle (northwest) and Sweet Springs (east). But services -411- at Concordia were solidly German u n t i l 1932 or 1933 except for evening services beginning In 1920, and in 1951 while preaching in English occurred every Sunday there were German sermons three tines a month. On the f i f t h of August, 1951» 333 persons attended the German service, 511 the Englisht many attended both. But at that time few were speaking German at home, only where an old mat­ riarch 3 t i l l abode. At Blackburn some eight 'air miles to the northeast, the Lutherans were then hearing German once a month, but i n 1941 the Evangelicals had abandoned i t altogether. At the time of the F i r s t World War the Evangelical pastor had an imper­ fect command of English, and the congregation desired German. The resulting troubles were great. The shift there was presumably rather fast, for records i n German had continued u n t i l 1934, and at that time an older person tolerating English preaching was a rari t y . In 1951 even the old, when gathered together for a funer­ a l , spoke English. But the old, here as at Concordia, could speak German, Hanover dialect. 23 Kansas City. Missouri, was never a German town l i k e St. Louis. In the city on the Mississippi in 1900 lived 58,781 persons bom in Germany out of a total population of 575*238, that Is, just over 10 percentj i n Kansas City there were 4,816 out of 163,752, or not quite 3 per cent. Consider also the number of German churches in 1900i Catholic — St. Louis 18, Kansas City 3i Lutheran — St* Louis 15, Kansas City 1, possibly 2$ Evangelical — St. Louis 21, Kansas City 1. There were also 6 German Methodist societies i n St. Louis and 3 In Kansas City. After proper allowance for the difference i n the size of the c i t i e s , the conclusion i s s t i l l -412- evident, Kansas City's development from three separated nuclei render early statistics difficult of access and of l i t t l e interest! Catholic needs among Germans here were manifest by 1851. and In 1866 they gained a separate parish (Ro II, 48), Identical dates for Protestants are evident, since Parkvllle and Independence, both at Kansas City's door, were requesting Evangelical pastors in 1851 (Sch 423), and a plea for support of an Evangelical congre­ gation in Kansas City, founded the year before, went out in 1866 (Sch 432), Missouri Synod activities in Kansas City, Missouri began in 18791 its Immanuel Lutheran church was not established In Missouri until 1885, a year later than the organization date of Immanuel in Kansas City, Kansas, The Germans In Kansas City were never able to hold a section of the city for any Ions period as their own quarter. A f i r s t center was early invaded by down­ town business and by other immigrants1 another was displaced by the Union Station In 19141 others beyond Portleth Street were weakened by the taste that the well-to-do developed for the dis­ trict south of old Westport. S t i l l , the general area of Westport held almost a l l the census tracts containing in 1950 more than 30 persons born in Germany. The tract containing the most, 63, was on the state line between Westport Road and 47th Street, Immanuel, ' the oldest Missouri Synod church, is at 42nd St, and Tracy. A nua- ber'Qf Germans, but not a great number, were temporarily resident In Kansas City before going on to rural areas in Kansas* The re­ lationship with the Germans of Kansas City, Kansas, does not seem to have been great after the earliest years. But It must not be thought that Germans had no influence upon the development of Xansa City, Missouri, 'Hie owners of the early packing house firms were in large part Germans and lived on the Missouri side, Later A.B, Meyer and Wm Volker, both born i n Germany, helped greatly i n the development of Kansas City, and Volker particularly, who arrived i n Kansas City in 1882, did much to promote things German, His fai t h i n Deutschturn emerged early after the eclipse of the F i r s t World War, S t i l l , German history i n Kansas City i s not of such great moment for the study of Germans in Kansas as the history of the German communities in Chicago, Cincinnati or even Milwaukee, Linguistic conservatism was not great) Missouri Lutherans were a l ­ ready: listening regularly to sermons i n English In 1910. .24 St. Joseph (opposite J&-E2?) has had about the same proportion of German inhabitants as Kansas City, half a per cent more m 1900. The greatest importance of i t s German element for Kansas was during the years before Kansas achieved statehood, for early settlers as far west as Nemaha County (30-P4) often spent some time i n St. Jo­ seph or nearby before entering Kansas. But German activ i t y In St. Joseph did not begin much before the territory of Kansas was opened for settlement. Though the location had been a trading point from 1827, the ci t y was not founded u n t i l 1843. German settlers arrived almost at once. Father De Smet remarked that in 1842 the town did not exist, but that i n 1847 there were 350 houses, among which lived some Germans (Ho II, 61). By I856 there were enough of them to justify founding a separate parish for themt In I860 a church was under construction (Bo II, 62). In 1851 **4l4- there were requests for Evangelleal pastors from both St. Joseph and from Savannah. 18 miles to the north (Sch 423). In 1866 21on Evangelical church of St. Joseph joined the Klrchenvereln (Sch 432). An Independent German Lutheran church with 25 members existed In 1876, The Missouri Lutherans organized a church in 1881. The Evangelical Association (E.U.B.) was also active at St. Joseph beginning in 1871? Its adherents organized a church in 1877 which struggled for some time (PI 85, 151)• but ultimately became strong enough to spawn a f i l i a l . There were In 1QO0 also a GmTmBM Reformed church founded in 1874 and a German Methodist organized In 1849, St. Joseph became the see of a Catholic dxo- oese in 1868. The bishops were Irish, but the vicar general from the erection of the see until after 1915 was the German pastor of St, Joseph*s German parish. By 1900 St. Joseph had acquired another Catholic church with a pastor bearing a German name. In the mid-twentieth century the total membership of the Protestant German denominations mentioned was 2200. The German Catholic churches had 450 pupils in their parochial schools. Hence, we may conclude that among Germans the Catholics and Protestants were nearly equal in numbers. St* Joseph*s large meat packing Industry brought to It other Immigrant stocks, particularly Poles. The de­ velopment of the German group here may be considered a parallel to that of the settlement in Kansas City, Kansas, where meat packing was even more Important, It was less conservative linguistically, however, Missouri Lutherans heard English on Sunday evenings in 1910, only English In 1948, •415* 5?.25 Other German settlements In the counties facing Kansas across the Missouri River never became large, out are of interest for the Immigration into Kansas during the t e r r i t o r i a l period. Between St. Joseph and Kansas City* Parkville, farthest downstream with 13 German families and Weston with 30 requested Evangelical ministers (Sch 424) i n 1851. A small church had developed at Park- v l l l e as early as 1844 (22 families In I885, 139 members In 1951)* Weston was founded In I837, In 1847 a German Methodist church was organized, s t i l l existing in 1900, 20 members in I885. As to Cath­ ol i c s , some time before 1865 "the parish of Weston,., numbered f i f t y German families who were reported to Archbishop Kenriok as troublemakers of the worst kind* (Bo II, 62). In view of the tur­ bulent character of Weston during steamboat days such a statement i s no surprise. At Parley between Parkville and Weston, the Mis­ souri Synod established a congregation in I869, Weston was a point whence Germans crossed over into Kansas as well as sympa­ thizers with slave-holding. Hone of these towns had Missouri synod services i n German in 1948, 57*26 For the area immediately above St. Joseph the presence of German Evangelicals i n I851 at Savannah has already been mentioned. Between there and St, Joseph the Evangelical and Reformed churches at Amazonia to the west (163 members in 1950) and at Cosby, origin­ a l l y Reformed, primarily Swiss, to the east (220) came into being. There were 280 Swiss in this county in I890 (G S 28). The Evan­ gelical Association also became active i n this area and in the Cosby neighborhood organized a mission in 1868 among *a number of German families 1 1 who had s e t t l e d there * early In the s i x t i e s * They had a desire f o r r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n * t h i s was not usually the ease among the early settlers'* (KL 68) • Their congregation numbered 200 In 19*^81 Some 15 miles west of Savannah (about 20 a i r miles northwest of St. Joseph) near Oregon the Association began work In 1858* Concerning the general s i t u a t i o n In t h i s area P h i l i p Poor reported! * There are a good many Germans on the Missouri side of the r i v e r * The most of the® are unconverted* Unbelief and intern** peranee has degraded the people* I have found a few f a m i l i e s * * * who received me kindly* (PI 22)* Organisation began In 1866 (PI 58) and the area was Important to the Association f o r some time* but In 19^8 the three congregations of the d i s t r i c t together numbered only 150* The German Methodists also found adherents In t h i s area. In the two counties upstream from St* Joseph there were In 1890 eight of t h e i r s o c i e t i e s with 338 members* S t i l l f a r ther upstream some 15 a i r miles beyond the Kansas border two Missouri Lutheran churches at Corning and Craig mark the l o c a t i o n of another small German set** tlement, more contributory to Nebraska than to lansas* The church at Coming was organised In i860, that west of Craig In 18?6* In­ land somewhat there were Swiss at Hew Conceptinn i n Nodaway County (GS 28) * Through t h i s area German may be regarded as In complete decay i n 1950* Corning*s services were a l l English i n 1916* *2? South of Kansas..pity there are no German settlements worthy of the name within twenty miles of the state l i n e * and even some** what further from the border only one Penn German group r e l a t i v e l y close to the c i t y w i l l engage us* A l i t t l e to the Northwest of GmrdBti C i t y * which i s 50 miles southeast of Kansas C i t y and 2** miles from the Kansas l i n e Amish who eventually became (Old) Mennonltes se t t l e d In 1868 * They s p i l t , l a r g e l y over the language question* In 1885* The lar g e r and more conservative group continued to use German exclusively t i l l 1896* The two congregations were merged i n 19^7 — 223 members In 195? (HE, IV, 6?8)* *28 Ab^tat 60 miles south from Kansas City * and-25 to 35 miles d i s ­ tant from Kansas, the Roekville**Germantown settlements are situated* We s h a l l not consider the southwestern Ozark group* Germsntown at the northeast comer of the d i s t r i c t ( i n Henry County, Jj>0 — 3D * * * at f i r s t c a l l e d Deepwater u n t i l another v i l l a g e nearby appropriated the name* "The f i r s t settlement on Deepwater Creek MS made i n I836, by the Walbert and Sohmeddlng f a m i l i e s , the advance guard of a large colony of Hanoverian Catholics 1 1 (Ho I , 692)* fhe s e t t l e r s were assigned, a resident p r i e s t i n 18^0* During the l a t e 1850*s the p r i e s t at Germantown helped with the Germans i n Kansas C i t y * In i 8 6 0 he t r i e d to establish himself at St* Joseph, but came back to Germantown as a more cooperative settlement * When the Confederates took over h i s newly^bullt church as a barracks he l e f t , but the people were not driven out* In 1900 t h e i r school had 95 p u p i l s , The settlement did not remain eit h e r e n t i r e l y Hanoverian or e n t i r e l y Cathollet a small Informed church (E-H) came into being (5^ members In 1950)* A number of Swiss joined the others (86 i n the county i n I890) (GS 28) t Germantown did not win the r a i l r o a d In 18?0 , and i t s prosperity which was promising i n the l a t e 1860*s vanished* Montrose, four miles awa^* through which the railroad was built, became neither a metropolis nor a true German center. The Rockville portion of the district Is located on the Osage liver. A Lutheran church, Missouri , Synod, was organized 5 miles west of Rockville in 1868. It became moderately prosper­ ous (218 members in 1948). At Appleton City, halfway between Book- vi l l e and Germantown another Missouri Lutheran church came into being in 18?0 (159 members in 1948)t the members of this church heard both English and German in 1916, only English In 1948. Deutschtum at Rockville did not grow as much as at f i r s t antic1* pated, for Lutheran churches set up a few miles to the south and west (the Missouri Synod congregation in 1895) are small (51 and 21 members about 1950). The Evangelical and Reformed church at Rockville, though i t labeled itself "community" attained only 83 members in 1950. There is no evidence that German has continued to be spoken in the Rockrille-Germantown district in the latter part of the twentieth century* Indeed at Appleton City English, as well as German, was the language of sermons in 1916. 29 German was for years a dominant language m*nj Missouri settlements. As late as 1889 there were numerous public schools in that state where German rather than English was the language of instruction to the exclusion of English (FK 235)# opposing currents were already running strongly. German persisted best as a spoken language in Missouri in the oldest centers, which were also the most solidly populated* Some limitations to this state* ment are necessary for Saint Louis, but the Mississippi and lower -1*19- Missouri valleys and the oldest parts of the Cole Camp and Con­ cordia d i s t r i c t s have been the most conservative. 57.30 German settlements i n Nebraska are quite numerous, but they are more l i k e l y to be separated from each other by settlements of other immigrants from Europe than i n the states farther east, arid even somewhat more frequently than i n Kansas. As i n Kansas, the Russian Gesii&n settlements, both Volgan and Mennonite, are important and t h e i r early history has something i n common with that of t h e i r k i n i n Kansas. A number of them w i l l occupy us, but a f t e r passing mention nothing more w i l l be said of the important Volga German settlements i n the beet growing d i s t r i c t of the counties adjoining Wyoming. In Scotts Blu f f County alone, there were 2,228 persons born i n Russia of German mother tongue i n 1920. The interchange of population between the settlements of Kan­ sas especially i n the north and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , those of southern Nebraska has been noteworthy. In 1930 a l l Nebraska counties but those where the population i s the l i g h t e s t had as residents over 300 persons born i n Germany or t h e i r children. Excluding the l i g h t l y populated counties and the Nebraska panhandle s t i l l farther west the section that remains i s that part of the state l y i n g south­ east of a l i n e from the northwest corner of Colorado to the point at which the Missouri River arrives at Nebraska. A l l t h i s south­ eastern half of the state i s of interest to us, excepting, f o r the most part, a band 30 to 50 miles wide along the l i n e s p e c i f i e d - 4 2 0 - above. Also except f o r Omaha a band some f i f t e e n miles wide along the Missouri River contains r e l a t i v e l y few inhabitants of German stock, (a) This s t r i p excepted, the t e r r i t o r y north of the Platte River f o r a hundred miles west from i t s mouth contains a great many German settlements, which, except i n the area»s center (Stan­ ton County), are less interrupted by settlements of other stocks than elsewhere i n Nebraska, (b) The c i t y of Lincoln and the counties to the west and the south that are within the Blue drain­ age system have important settlements of both Reich Germans and Russian Germans. A band of counties along the south bank of the Pla t t e are inhabited with few exceptions by other stocks separating the area containing L i n c o l n from that north of the P l a t t e . The Cfcech settlements south of Linco l n cut out a d i s t r i c t of appre­ ciable size from the Lincoln-Blue complex, (c) The four or f i v e counties of southeastern Nebraska contain settlements of some i n ­ terest. The areas so f a r designated are east of the 98th meridian, that i s , mainly i n the longitudes of the Kansas Pre-West. These areas are treated below i n an order revolving counter clock wise from Omaha about a point south of Lincoln. (d) The area farther west within 30 miles of the Platte River u n t i l i t comes closest to Kansas and then the counties along the Republican River close to the Kansas border are treated l a t e r . 31 The t e r r i t o r y of Nebraska was opened to settlement i n 1854 at the same time as Kansas. I t did not, however, become a state u n t i l I867, s i x years l a t e r than Kansas. The l a g i n settlement -421- was le s s than s i x years, f o r p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s hastened the ad­ mission of Kansas to the Union and delayed s i m i l a r action i n Ne­ braska, but people did come more quickly to the southern t e r r i t o r y than to the northern, i n part because p o l i t i c a l controversy pro­ moted e a r l i e r settlement of Kansas, i n part because, Nebraska being somewhat farther west than Kansas, the westward movement reached i t l a t e r , especially since Nebraska was farther up the Missouri River and thus more d i f f i c u l t f o r boats to reach. However, some s e t t l e ­ ment along the Pl a t t e and the Missouri began with the opening of the t e r r i t o r y . With the coming of the railroads a decade and a h a l f l a t e r the occupation of the land proceeded s w i f t l y . The Union P a c i f i c along the P l a t t e was completed i n 1866 as f a r as Kearney just be­ yond the 99th meridian (at t h i s point the r i v e r i s nearest Kansas), the rest of the way through the state by 1868. The Burlington b u i l t west from Plattsmouth to Lincoln i n I869-7O, and by 1872 on to Kearney (through area b described above). Lines from Kansas and from farther down the Missouri River soon ran up to j o i n these l i n e s . The Union P a c i f i c obtained a land grant of alternate sec­ tions 20 miles on each side of i t s r i g h t of way along the P l a t t e . The Burlington a l i t t l e l a t e r secured a grant of s i m i l a r charac­ ter but, because of holdings already claimed by others, nearly half of the lands given i t were beyond the Union P a c i f i c * s to the north, f a r from i t s own l i n e s but i n t e r r i t o r y l a t e r holding set­ tlements of Germans. The tempo of German immigration into Nebras­ ka grew apace between 1866 and the l a t e 1880*s5 very nearly i n -422- accordance with the same pattern .as i n Kansas, new settlements were established and older settlements grew larg e r . Kansans who had ear­ l i e r l i v e d i n Nebraska usually came from settlements farther east i n that state, but not always; there was some res t l e s s moving about among the Germans as among other stocks, p a r t i c u l a r l y between points not f a r distant from each other. 32 Omaha, which f i r s t burgeoned with the opening of the t e r r i t o r y i n 1 8 5 4 , has not been an outstandingly German c i t y , but Johnson 1s l i s t of 116 e a r l i e s t s e t t l e r s which he assembled i n 1879 includes eleven German names (Jo 2 9 8 ) . Part of t h e i r owners were Penn-Ger- mans, and a Lutheran church f o r them was organized i n 1 8 6 2 . A Lu­ theran congregation f o r immigrants from Germany did not follow u n t i l I 8 7 3 . A German Catholic church founded i n I 8 6 9 preceded i t by four years (Jo 3 0 5 )• There was i n I 8 7 9 one German newspaper, mentioned by Johnson; Andreas's history names none f o r 1882. In 1900 the o r i g i n a l German Catholic church had only 56 pupils i n i t s schools, but the schools of two other parishes served by p r i e s t s with German names had a t o t a l of 498 pupils. By t h i s time there were two more Missouri Lutheran churches i n town. Later at mid- century when Omaha numbered nearly 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 inhabitants ( 2 6 , 5 0 0 i n 1879) the Missouri Lutherans had 8 congregations i n Omaha, 3 of which had been organized a f t e r 1 9 2 5 . The F i r s t had one-third of the t o t a l membership, over 1 , 5 0 0 . The large American Lutheran church, not founded t i l l 1 9 1 2 , had almost as many members. There were also three Wisconsin synod churches. The Evangelical and Re­ formed church, the r e s u l t of a fusion of one Evangelical and one - 4 2 3 - Reformed, had only 137 members. Prom the beginning other foreign stocks, Swedes, Czechs, Poles, occupied public attention as much as the Germans i n Omaha. The Germans of Omaha have been less conservative of t h e i r language than certai n settlements to the northwest of the c i t y . Only one of the half-dozen Missouri Lutheran churches had any German services i n 1 9 4 8 . I t had been founded i n 1 9 1 8 , one may suspect, because the larger F i r s t Church had given i n to pressures f o r English. In 1910 twice a month i n the evening one of the two churches then recorded had English services, i n 1916 every evening. Among the towns near Omaha English entered Lutheran services twice a month by 1 9 1 6 . In the Evangelical and Reformed church i n 1951 there had been no services i n German for some time, but i n the Ladies Aid the language of devotion and of business was German; s t i l l s o c i a l conversation at i t s meetings was a l l i n English. The Catholic cemetery contains German i n s c r i p t i o n s not uncommonly u n t i l 1 9 0 0 , afterwards r a r e l y , but there are samples as l a t e as 1 9 3 7 . 33 In the immediate v i c i n i t y O m a h a a c i r c l e of German churches developed. To the south at P a p i l l i o n , there were some Catholics, but a Missouri Lutheran church founded i n I 8 6 7 grew strong, s p l i t over a controversy i n 1 9 0 8 , and thus gave off a German Nebraska Synod congregation ( l a t e r Midwest Synod) which i n l a t e development took on a community aspect. I t had at f i r s t , however, c a l l e d i t ­ s e l f Friedens, s h i f t i n g l a t e r to the English name T r i n i t y (WW 3 5 6 ) . In 1948 the Missouri church had 451 members. In 1916 sermons were i n English there every two weeks. To the west, the American Luther- -424- ans ( t h e i r c i t y church was o r i g i n a l l y i n the western suburbs) have developed during the twentieth century large organizations at M i l ­ l a r d and Elkhorn. Farther north the German Nebraska Synod estab­ l i s h e d i t s e l f at Bennington i n I 8 9 8 and erected a larger church i n 1925• Not f a r from there a Missouri Lutheran congregation organized i n 1886 and had 264 members i n 1 9 4 8 . L i n g u i s t i c a l l y i t was completely German i n 1 9 1 6 . Rural Douglas County, at l e a s t un­ t i l the expansion of suburbia, tended somewhat more toward Deutsch- tum than Omaha. 34 Fremont on the Platte may be considered as the base of a f i r s t band of settlements to the northwest of Omaha. The band extends northward along the valleys of the Elkhorn River and Logan's Creek, then beyond to the proximity of the southeastern corner of South Dakota (Yankton). One of the founders of Fremont i n I 8 5 6 was John A. Kuntz, but there were others with non-German names, and while a German element developed i n the town, i t was not strong or at l e a s t not strongly r e l i g i o u s at f i r s t . The only German church there i n the l 8 7 0 f s was that of the Evangelical Association organ­ ized i n I 8 7 3 . In 1884 there appeared a Missouri Lutheran congre­ gation which had 1092 members i n 1 9 4 8 , large f o r a town of somewhat le s s than 2 0 , 0 0 0 inhabitants. Contributions of population from Cedar B l u f f s not f a r off to the west across the r i v e r and from the area north of Arlington to the northeast doubtless b u i l t up the German element, as also did the immigration of the l 8 8 0 f s . Many Germans i n Fremont were overwhelmed by the hysteria of the F i r s t World War. Such was the case f o r the German Nebraska church - 4 2 5 - (see further 5 7 ^ 9 ) • The Missouri Congregation did not yield? preaching i n German went on twice a month u n t i l the Sunday a f t e r the attack of the Japanese on Pearl Harbor when i t was abolished? attendance at German services then was not greater than 2 5 . Ten years l a t e r there were s t i l l those who asked t h e i r pastor to use German i n private devotions, but those who were born a f t e r 1910 never revealed t h e i r knowledge of the language of t h e i r fathers. Many of these people of German o r i g i n had come to Fremont from other places. 35 Fontanelle, up the Elkhorn and some ten miles from Fremont, perhaps 30 miles northwest of Omaha, i n 1880 was a v i l l a g e of 200 inhabitants; i t has now disappeared from many detailed maps. I t was, however, of some importance from I 8 5 5 t the year a f t e r i t s foundation, u n t i l i 8 6 0 . I t s founders included Germans, but these immigrants were only i n c i d e n t a l l y members of that group. S t i l l , the next year a man born i n Westphalia arrived v i a Quincy and he induced other Germans from both Germany and I l l i n o i s to j o i n him. In i 8 6 0 a German Lutheran church was organized at Fontanelle (WM 8); i t eventually became part of the German Nebraska (Midwest} Synod} i t erected an imposing building. A company to f i g h t the Indians which was assembled i n 1869 from people near Fontanelle was commanded by Captain Kline and c a l l e d "the Germans" (Jo 257)• At Fontanelle i t may be assumed that there were German services i n 1950t since the pastor had been born i n Germany (WM 3 2 1 ) , but already i n the 1930's the amount of German used i n preaching was quite l i m i t e d . - 4 2 6 - 36 Beginning not f a r to the north of Fontanelle and extending over a width of four townships to the west and f i v e to the north (that i s the northern part of Dodge County and nearly a l l Cuming County) there developed a rather s o l i d mass of Ger­ mans who became mainly Lutherans, Missouri Synod. The s e t t l e ­ ments i n the southern portion of the d i s t r i c t , those i n Dodge County, are p r i n c i p a l l y along the Elkhorn Valley as i t comes down from the Northwest, flowing by Scribner, Hooper, Winslow. None of these towns was predominantly German i n population i n 1880, but the Germans were occupying the r u r a l area. Near Hooper there was at le a s t one German i n 1858 (AN 6 6 9 ). He came from Wurtemberg. The e a r l i e s t of the Missouri Lutheran churches was 5 miles northwest of that town,* i t was organized i n 1 8 6 9 ; others followed i n 1871, 1876, 1 8 8 4 , 1888, and 1911. The two largest of these churches, one, i n town at Scribner, the other, s i x miles . east of Hooper, numbered somewhat over 400 members each i n 1 9 4 8 . The German s e t t l e r s along Logan's Creek, which, coming down from the north, flows into the Elkhorn near Hooper were Lutherans of a d i f f e r e n t stamp who eventually became members of the German Nebraska Synod. At the lower end, the Logan congregation was founded i n the country but eventually was merged with the Zion church at Hooper organized i n I 8 9 0 . Im­ migration here continued l a t e , f o r the R e v e r e n d F.M. Nolte, who i s counted a son of Zion church (WM 3 3 5 ) $ was born i n Lippe- Detmold i n I 8 9 O . The group which b u i l t a church s i x miles north -427- of Hooper began meeting i n 1864, achieved organization i n 1870, and added a school i n 1885 (WM 336)• Their names indicate that they were North German, Certainly the group that organized a few miles farther upstream (9 from Winslow and Hooper) and Ueh- l i n g were f a i t h f u l to Low German, U n o f f i c i a l l y they c a l l e d t h e i r f i r s t church erected i n 1879 the , ,Dree-Husen-Kirch M (the Three- House Church) because of i t s peculiar structure (WM 337)• Uehling received i t s name from a s e t t l e r who arrived i n i 8 6 0 . In northern Dodge County f i v e of the seven Missouri Lutheran churches were s t i l l having some German services i n 1948, though at Dodge and Snyder on the western edge there was preaching i n English by 1916. The Logan Valley seems to have been less i n ­ s i s t e n t on German services, l i k e l y because standard German was foreign to them. 37 Though Cuming County too i s mostly Lutheran, three German Catholic parishes near the south l i n e of the county, those at West Point, Monterrey, and Howells, very nearly sever into two parts the Lutheran t e r r i t o r y . German Catholics at St. Charles, downstream a l i t t l e from West Point, were organized into a parish i n 1866 (Jo 260). The Cuming County Lutherans occupy the Elkhorn Valley above West Point, but also spread out over most of the north part of the county. In 1857 eight men with German names (Jo 256, AN 598) formed a town company at Omaha and l a t e r established themselves at what l a t e r was named West Point. They were evidently Pennsylvanians, - 4 2 8 - f o r they f i r s t c a l l e d t h e i r settlement Philadelphia, There were Indian troubles, and most of the o r i g i n a l eight do not ap­ pear i n accounts of l a t e r years. But German names p e r s i s t , and i n 1868, the Evangelical Association formed a German church (AN 6 0 2 , Jo 2 6 0 ) . In that year too a German newspaper was established and was f l o u r i s h i n g i n I 8 7 9 , In I 8 7 9 a German Methodist body was formed. The Missouri Lutheran congregation of the town counts i t s beginning from 1871 (906 members i n 1948 i n a town of 2 , 6 0 0 ) , though the people f i r s t gathered outside of town on Rock Creek. To the west of West Point beginning at some miles distance Missouri Lutheran churches were organized outside the main v a l ­ l e y and progressively farther away i n 1 8 6 8 , 1 8 7 6 , 1882, 1 8 8 6 , a l l with memberships between 175 and 290 i n 1 9 4 8 . The Missouri Synod organizations invaded the v a l l e y to the north of these congregations i n I 8 9 2 at Beemer ( e a r l i e r c a l l e d Bismarck) and i n 1903 at Wisner (302 and 553 members i n 1948) . The German Nebraska Synod had arrived at Wisner somewhat e a r l i e r i n I 8 9 5 (WM 375) and t h e i r church was s u f f i c i e n t l y strong i n 1906 and 1912 to entertain the synodical meetings. A few General Con­ ference Mennonites also had a church here. North of West Point, a Missouri Synod church was established perhaps ten miles away i n 1874 and another at Bancroft i n 1905• Cuming County has re­ mained quite German i n character; the dates cit e d above i n d i ­ cate immigration over a long period. In Cuming County a l l eight of the Missouri Lutheran churches -429- were i n 1948 s t i l l having some services i n German. At Bancroft and Beemer, however, English had entered services by 1916. In West Point i n 1951 those services were l i m i t e d to s i x a year with an attendance of about 40. Persons born about 1910 were s t i l l able to speak German but were not using i t ha b i t u a l l y . The s i t u a t i o n was s i m i l a r at Wisner, both i n and out of church. German services took place every f i r s t and t h i r d Sunday of the month; from 6 to 20 attended. In the r u r a l congregations only one had German every Sunday, a sermonette. 38 Wayne County, to the north of Cuming County, had no i n ­ habitants before I869. "In the spring of 1870, a colony of Germans located on Spring Branch i n the southwestern part of the county" (Jo 572). The churches for t h i s group grew up at or near what became Winside (not i n the extreme southwest). A German Reformed church (now E-R, 104 members i n 1950) was b u i l t i n 1881 (AN 1477). A Missouri Synod church followed i n I89I (460 members i n 1948), and from i t i n 1901 a German Nebraska Synod congregation s p l i t off (233 members i n 1949) (WM 376). In the eastern part of the county, at Wayne (founded i n 1874, 3600 inhabitants i n 1950) and east and southeast of the town German congregations developed i n the iSSO's, i n town a Nebras­ ka Synod church with German members i n 1881, a Missouri Luther­ an i n 1882 ten miles to the southeast and another several miles to the east i n 1874 (373 members i n 1948). I t was the apparent center of rad i a t i o n . The Bancroft church over the county l i n e to the northeast did not originate t i l l 1905 (595 members i n - 4 3 0 - 1948). While there are small German churches beyond Wayne County up to the South Dakota border, the only one deserving mention i s a comparatively isolated group at Coleridge where the American Lutheran church founded i n 1884 had 737 members i n 1 9 5 0 . The Nebraska Synod church at Wayne had services i n both German and English for some years. A purely German church was organized i n I 8 8 9 . The Young People 1s Society organized i n 1901 was German; i t was replaced by an English-speaking Luther League i n 1925 (WM 3 7 4 ) . In a l l t h i s region three \ Missouri Synod churches out of ten had some services i n Ger­ man i n 1948. 39 The second band of German settlements, extending north from a base on the Pl a t t e at Columbus, i s about one county i n width except near the r i v e r , and i t runs up to South Dakota. Columbus (population 1 1 , 0 0 0 i n i 9 6 0 ) i s 85 highway miles west from Omaha, 48 from Fremont. The town company of I 8 5 6 i n c l u ­ ded men with German names (Jo 4 9 5$ AN 1 2 6 3 ), and Germans among the early inhabitants were s u f f i c i e n t l y numerous so that 4 out of 11 newspapers subscribed f o r i n 1857 by the municipality (payment i n town l o t s ) were German. Later developments, par­ t i c u l a r l y the coming of the Union P a c i f i c Railroad i n 1866, made the population more diverse i n character, but Germans were numerous enough to organize a Reformed church i n 1872 (AN 1273t Jo 499 says 1 8 7 5 ) i and Germans became so prevalent i n the r u r a l back country that the overflow from i t as well as d i r e c t immigration sustained the German element. In 1951 the Missouri Synod congregation was two-thirds urban, one-third r u r a l . The l a t e immigration also included a rather small num­ ber of Black Sea Germans who arrived i n 1873 (Eis 1 0 0 ) . The foundation of the Reformed Church suggests a large element of Swiss among the Germans uhere, which was the fact (397 i n the county i n I 8 9 O ). A v i l l a g e near Columbus named G r u e t l i was t h e i r creation (GS 5 5 ) . At mid-twentieth century the Evangelical and Reformed church of Columbus had 313 members, the Missouri Lutheran 1173 (the congregation was organized i n I883). The German Nebraska Synod church was formed by secession from the Reformed i n 1 9 2 8 , and i t prospered (WM 313)• The Protestants were North Germans, Oldenburgers and East F r i s i a n s . The Columbus Catholics were of various n a t i o n a l i t i e s , and one parish sufficed them t i l l a f t e r 1 9 0 0 . By 1915 a Polish church had been established. The I r i s h element which had been strong i n early times seems to have l o s t the b a t t l e early, f o r German Franciscans were i n charge from before 1 9 0 0 . In i 9 6 0 four of the seven monks bore German names, two P o l i s h , and one was an Irishman who had been acquired a f t e r 1 9 4 8 . The parochial school attendance at the German church i n 1948 was 3 0 1 . At Columbus i n the Missouri Lutheran Church i n the early 1 9 3 0 *s, there was both English and German preaching every Sun­ day. About 1935 German services were reduced to every other Sunday and t h i s s i t u a t i o n s t i l l existed i n 1951 except that the pastor could omit German at his d i s c r e t i o n . During three Sun- -432- day s of that year (1951) attendance was as follows: Date German service English service June 17 429 July 1 73 428 July 15 74 398 The Second World War had no effect upon r e l a t i v e attendance, but the advancing of age did. Those attending German preaching i n 1951 were "espe c i a l l y old people who needed the 'good1 of the language;" 50 of those who came to German services came to Eng^ l i s h when there was no German. There were a few children s t i l l learning German. There were also old people t a l k i n g together i n d i a l e c t . One sometimes heard German on the streets. Across the Platte f i f t e e n a i r miles to the southeast of Columbus i s "the center of a German settlement i n large part Catholic. Near t h i s point was the Luxemburg settlement whose church contained 40 Luxemburger fami l i e s i n 1888. The f i r s t of t h e i r kind arrived i n I 8 6 9 . In 1888 the rest of the people i n that parish and i n the one at David C i t y were a l l German (GL 3 1 7 ) . By 1948 the p r i e s t s were not German, but from the old, German could s t i l l be heard i n the neighborhood. 57 .40 Rural Platte County attracted many Germans. S h e l l Creek, comes down from the northwest; some s i x miles north of Colum­ bus i t i s running east and so continues f o r f i f t e e n miles, then turns to the south to flow into the Platte River east of Schuy­ l e r that i s about twenty miles downstream from Columbus. "The -4*33- Germans possess the lower Sh e l l Creek Valley, with a l l i t s t r i b u t a r i e s , and are mostly Lutherans" (Jo 4-97). The s e t t l e ­ ment referred to did not extend as f a r as the mouth of the creek, but i t did extend from somewhere northeast of Columbus for ten or twelve miles downstream. In Bismarck Precinct on the creek i n Pl a t t e County northeast of Columbus s i x men fu r ­ nished biographies to the Andreas Nebraska history; f i v e of them bore German names; two were born i n Oldenburg, a t h i r d s pecified Prussia. The two Oldenburgers arrived i n I 8 5 6 and and i 8 6 0 , the f i r s t a f t e r 4 years i n "the east," the second d i r e c t l y from Germany (AN 1 2 8 3 ). In the precinct just to the north, out of three men furnishing biographies, two were Olden­ burgers, both from the Watertown-Mayville d i s t r i c t of Dodge County, Wisconsin ( 5 6 . 2 7 ) . In 1871 the Missouri Lutherans or­ ganized a church twelve miles northeast of Columbus ( 5 5 3 mem­ bers i n 1 9 ^ 8 ). A German Baptist (North American) congregation was founded i n I 8 7 3 (93 members i n 1 9 5 3 ) t and a German Nebraska Synod church (10 miles northeast) was established i n 1881 (WM 3 1 4 ); i t prospered. Creston and Leigh, v i l l a g e s about eighteen miles north of S h e l l Creek, show the same mixture of denomina­ tions and probably have some relat i o n s h i p of o r i g i n . The Luth­ eran churches at Leigh were founded i n 1881 and 1 8 9 4 ; the one l a t e r established (Missouri Lutheran) prospered (371 members i n 1 9 4 8 ). The Creston Baptist and German Nebraska organizations are both small. - 4 3 4 - F i f t e e n miles to the northwest of Columbus and.extending thence to the edge of the county there i s a much l e s s s o l i d Protestant German area (Missouri Lutheran), The oldest, l a r g e s t , and most eastern of i t s churches was founded i n 1879 (436 mem­ bers i n 1 9 4 8 ). A l l these settlements were included within Union P a c i f i c lands; the lands to the north were i n the Burling­ ton grant. 41 The center of the S h e l l Creek area to the northeast of Columbus was even more conservative of German than the town. The small S h e l l Creek Baptist church furnished radio programs i n German at l e a s t through 195** • The Lutheran church was keep­ ing up i t s services i n German quite w e l l . The outlying congre­ gations related to S h e l l Creek had, however, dropped German by 1 9 4 8 ; indeed at Leigh there was some English by 1 9 1 6 . On the other hand, i n the d i s t r i c t to the northwest of Columbus the oldest church and two others s t i l l more remote preserved f r e ­ quent services i n German i n 1 9 4 8 , but churches near Platte Center somewhat nearer Columbus had abandoned them. 42 Near the north border of Platte County, which i s almost t h i r t y miles from Columbus, there are f i v e Catholic churches which were i n 1900 attended by German Franciscans. In 1 9 4 8 , part of the s t a f f was P o l i s h but the precincts, i . e . townships, along the county l i n e i n both Pl a t t e and Madison Counties are rather German than Po l i s h . The pupils i n the Catholic paro­ c h i a l schools i n 1900 totaled 5 8 4 , i n 1948 there were 346. In both years Humphrey had the largest numbers 285 i n 1 9 0 0 , 170 - 4 3 5 - i n 1 9 4 8 . William Eimers, resident i n Humphrey Precinct, i n 1875 promoted colonization (AN 1282). The s e t t l e r s were i n part Luxemburgers (GL 317). In I 8 7 6 a German colony was established at St. Bernard " i n the north central part of the county" (Jo 5 0 2 ).* Just beyond the Catholic area two Missouri * Johnson says St. Barnabas, but inasmuch as St. Barnabas does not appear on early or l a t e maps of the county or i n Catholic d i r e c t o r i e s , i t i s probable that he was expanding c o l ­ l o q u i a l St. Barney into St. Barnabas rather than St. Barnard. Lutheran churches, one at Madison, the other seven miles southwest of that town, have rather large congregations ( 4 8 3 and 443 i n 1 9 4 8 ); they were founded i n 1885 and 1877 i n d i c a t i n g that t h e i r early members arrived at nearly the same time as t h e i r Catholic neighbors. This period of settlement i s some­ what l a t e r than the corresponding period both to the north and to the south, though the beginnings of settlement by other na­ t i o n a l i t i e s at Madison and to the east occurred i n 1 8 6 9 . Con­ sidering the lateness of o r i g i n , German was not too well con­ served i n either Protestant or Catholic congregations near the Platte-Madison County l i n e ; 2 out of 5 Missouri Lutheran churches s t i l l had some services i n German i n 1 9 4 8 . 43 The Germans i n northern Madison County and Pierce County beyond are numerous. The Elkhorn River here flows nearly eastward and i s joined by i t s north Branch i n northeastern - 4 3 6 - Madison County. The approach furnished by the v a l l e y was im­ proved by the building of a r a i l r o a d up from Fremont i n 1879• Germans explored the country near what was to be Norfolk at the r i v e r junction i n 1865 and twenty-four f a m i l i e s , 125 persons, came to s e t t l e the next summer. They missed being the f i r s t i n the county by one month. They had come on from the Watertown d i s t r i c t (56.27) i n Wisconsin (AN 1258, Jo 953k Norfolk, founded by 1 8 6 6 , became a railway terminal f o r some time (11 ,000 inhabitants i n i 9 6 0 ) , and thus attracted a few Volga Germans (Sa 7 ^ ) . In 1882 s i x of the 23 men furnishing the Andreas History of Nebraska with biographies were born i n Germany. That h i s t o r y records that the German Lutherans b u i l t a church there i n 1867* and that another was b u i l t i n I 8 7 8 . The Missouri Lutherans f i x as the date of t h e i r organization 18715 presumably they b u i l t i n I 8 7 8 . This congregation gave r i s e to two others i n town, t o t a l membership 2 , 6 5 8 i n 1 9 4 8 . The church of I 8 6 7 would be the Wisconsin Synod Lutheran church, St. Paul's, on the north edge of town. I t i s prosperous. The Gemman Nebraska Synod church, organized i n 1902, struggled un­ t i l a f t e r the Second World War. The Catholic church, estab­ l i s h e d i n 1882, was only p a r t l y German. Norfolk and i t s section of the Elkhorn Valley contained some elements conservative of German. In the town i t s e l f the oldest Missouri Lutheran church and the Wisconsin Synod congre­ gation s t i l l had services i n German i n 1951. For the l a t t e r the services were twice a month. In the Wisconsin Synod ceme- - 4 3 7 - tery German was common quite l a t e ; f o r one spouse who died i n 1951 the German of the mate who had died i n 1939 was continued. Here approximately half of those born about 1910 were able to speak German. . 4 4 To the west of Norfolk up the Elkhorn, the s e t t l e r s who arrived on Battle .Greek i n I 8 6 9 included men with German names from Missouri. A Missouri Lutheran church was established there i n 1872 ( 745 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . S t i l l farther west up the v a l ­ l e y a church of that denomination was organized i n I 8 8 7 (476 mem­ bers i n 1948) at Tilden, 21 road miles from Norfolk. Three smaller churches developed l a t e r between the two and i n the v a l ­ leys to the south. To the east the Germans were not as strong though at Stanton ( 1 , 4 0 3 inhabitants i n 1950) which l i e s some ten a i r miles downstream, a Wisconsin Synod church was founded i n 1871 which gave off a small German Nebraska Synod church i n 1 9 0 5 . Up a small creek to the northeast of Norfolk, a Wiscon- , s i n Synod2 members). Eastward from St. Peter fs, the southwest church of 1 8 8 6 , there are f i v e churches a l l rather small along the state l i n e , dating t h e i r or­ ganization from I 8 9 8 to 1907• One of these, the ALC congregation i n Byron (300 members i n 1950) has at lea s t half i t s members res­ ident i n Kansas. These people figure i n our Kansas analysis as the Byron Germans of Republic County ( P — 1 , A, l\B:75). S e t t l e ­ ment near the eastern county l i n e between the two county seats, Hebron and Fairbury, began e a r l i e r , but the three churches are a l l small. Another group of s i x German Protestant churches l i e s beyond the non-German northeastern quarter of Thayer County i n the cor­ ners of the three adjoining counties to the northeast, that i s , i t i s centered about twenty miles north by west from Pairbury. The oldest and one of the two largest i s a Missouri Synod church southeast of Tobias with 3^0 members and some German services i n 1948 • I t was founded i n 1879• Neighboring d i s t r i c t s did not re­ gard the people here as very German. Sh Along the Kansas border i n Thayer County the two central - 4 5 1 - Missouri Lutheran congregations s t i l l had some German services i n 1 9 4 8 , but the four outlying had abandoned them. The whole d i s t r i c was made up either of German monolinguals or of b i - l i n g u a l s u n t i l 1917» Many going to school f o r the f i r s t time knew no English u n t i l that time* In 1951 si member of the group by b i r t h but re­ siding elsewhere, speaking of the county, said, MNow you can go fo days without hearing any German,11 Among the American Lutheran churches, the church at Deshler w i l l be our f i r s t example. There i n 1951 there were German services as well as English three times a month. The attendance at German s ervices varied between 35 and 8 5 , at English between 300 and 3 5 0 . At that time a 13-year-old boy, a man 60 and a woman 70 were conversing together i n German on the street i n Deshler. In 196ij. t h i s church s t i l l had one of the two pastors i n the Southeast Nebraska Conference s t i l l able to preach i n German. The other was at Bruning on the north edge of the county. At Hebron, the county seat, i n 1951, German was the language of sermons at the American Lutheran church whenever there were requests f o r i t , but they occurred r a r e l y . However, English ser­ vices do not seem to have been introduced u n t i l 1943• There were then i n the town three or four families speaking German habitu­ a l l y at home. Near Hubbell i n the southeast corner of the county English services began i n 1 9 3 2 ; we are here on the edge of the d i s t r i c t . For d e t a i l s on Byron see Section 4 8 . 7 5 . . 5 5 At what became Jansen Mennonites settled northeast of F a i r - bury (31 above P2), Cornelius Jansen, born i n Germany but long resident i n South Russia and a successful business man, contin— ued his career i n America by becoming a land agent f o r the Bur­ lington* On f i r s t a r r i v a l he was exposed to the persuasions of the immigration o f f i c e of the Santa Pe as well as that of t h e i r northern competitors. He appears to have had the same hesitan­ cies as other Mennonites u n t i l he was given strong economic mo­ tives by the Burlington; then became so eloquent for Nebraska that the Kansas promoters found him a successful competitor. Taking advantage of a connection through his wife, he persuaded a group of the members of a minor Mennonite subdivision, the Kleine Gemeinde, to follow him to lands near Pairbury, Nebraska, more pr e c i s e l y to 2 0 , 0 0 0 acres i n Township 3 Range 3 East, that i s with a center 15 miles from the Kansas border and 100 miles west from the southeast corner of Nebraska (Sm 172A, Jo 1+.02, AN 9 9 5 ) . This was i n 1 8 7 4 ; i n 1887 a r a i l r o a d l i n e was b u i l t through the colony and a town founded which was cal l e d Jansen. Cornelius, or rather his son Peter, had stayed i n the neighborhood on some 7 , 0 0 0 acres that he had acquired f o r himself. The s e t t l e r s on a r r i v a l numbered 350 and i n 1879 had increased to 500* The very conservative and picturesque imembers of the Kleine Gemeinde did not continue to dominate the landholdings. Other Mennonite groups soon arr i v e d ; many of the Kleine Gemeinde people moved on to Meade, Kansas,(Meade County, F 29* B). Others transformed themselves into members of a related sub-sect, the Evangelical Mennonite Brethren church (not to be confused with the Mennon­ i t e Brethren or North America, which i s much larger and more important i n Kansas). This sect organized a congregation i n 1879* and the Krimmer adherents did too i n 1 8 8 0 . Such was the exodus of Mennonites i n the early years of the twentieth century that the EMB church at Jansen remained alone after 1947 (73 mem­ bers i n 1954) (MS 1 1 1 9 0 ) . Jansen became a gathering point f o r other Germans, but the departure of the Mennonites took away the l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative element. 56 At Fairbury which i s six miles away and beyond i n the east­ ern and southeastern part of the county, there are ten German Protestant churches, each with 100 to 300 members dating back to as early as 1885 and 1 8 8 8 . Settlement began by i 8 6 0 (WM 3 2 9 ) . There i s considerable d i v e r s i t y of character i n these congrega­ t i o n s . The one i n the southeast corner of the county at Lanham with one-fourth of i t s members i n Kansas, the Lanham Germans of Washington County ( £ 2 , C) i s a good example; see Volume I I , Sec­ t i o n 14.8• 94• At Lanham the Hanoverians and East Fr i s i a n s each with his d i a l e c t early chose English as t h e i r lingua franca. There were no German services a f t e r 1942 except on Good Friday; the l a s t German service on that occasion was i n 1951* 57 Four miles west of Beatrice i n the next county east, Gage (31 above P3)* a Mennonite church was established i n 1877 as central f o r a group not from Russia, but from the Danzig area. They too were brought by Jansen, who i n o r i g i n was one of them. These people who had arrived the year before were o r i g ­ i n a l l y 34 families with 138 members. They were well-to-do and spoke standard German i n Europe as a means of s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a - k$k> t i o n from t h e i r farm servants, who were low German speakers taken from the surrounding population* The name of t h e i r congregation (346 members in 1 9 3 5 ) , Wehrlose, defenseless, gives a hint as to why people of such a class l e f t Germany. Prussian m i l i t a r i s m and conscription was threatening them. They were joined by ten fami­ l i e s from the Khiva settlement i n Asia i n 1 8 8 4 . The Mennonites soon spread into Beatrice and organized a church there. Most of the Prussians have lands to the northwest of Beatrice which stretch westward ten or f i f t e e n miles to beyond the county's edge. The town church had 174 members i n 1 9 5 3 , the country church 338 (ME I 2 5 6 ) . 58 These Mennonites from Prussia near Beatrice with t h e i r steadiness of population, t h e i r economic success, t h e i r sense of aristocracy and t h e i r use of Standard German so that the written language could s t i l l support o r a l speech, preserved t h e i r language we l l f o r many years. In 1951 the r u l i n g generation, those born about 1910 or 1915 were s t i l l speaking German together though those younger had i n t h e i r families abandoned German f o r English. The language of t h e i r minister was not e a s i l y German; therefore there was no German except as the second service on holidays and i n song ~ two hymns a Sunday. Their cemetery i n s c r i p t i o n s be­ came la r g e l y English at the time of the F i r s t World War, but ex­ ceptions persisted as la t e as 1945* though only when a spouse had died i n 1922 or before. Peter Jansen established himself at Bea­ t r i c e i n his l a s t days and i n the preface of his memoirs, Decem­ ber, 19139 wrote, "After considerable deliberation I decided -455- to use the English language, r e a l i z i n g that i n a few years most of ray descendants w i l l not be able to understand t h e i r o r i g i n a l mother tongue, the German. Although I myself have become a pa­ t r i o t i c American, I s t i l l f e e l that the knowledge of two or more languages i s a decided advantage, and I regret that the German i s not kept up amongst our growing generation" (Ja 1 3 ) . 59 North of these Gage County Mennonites, at Plymouth and be­ yond, more German s e t t l e r s took up farms i n the Burlington land grant u n t i l they came into contact with the Saline County Bohem­ ians i n Wilber. The dates, I87I4. and 1 8 7 5 , of f i r s t church or­ ganization among Lutherans (Missouri 9 n.w. Beatrice, American 6 s.e. ^ i l b e r ) indicate that these German s e t t l e r s i n the Blue Valley were there e a r l i e r than the Prussian Mennonites. Two more Iowa Synod (American) Lutheran churches developed at De- w i t t i n 18814. and 1897 and the younger congregations with 286 and 300 members are nearly twice as large as the older, but part of t h i s membership i s supplied by converted Czechs. In 1879 there also existed i n Clatonia precinct, that i s , east of Wilber, a German Methodist church (Jo 3 5 5 ) , and there are two Wisconsin Synod Lutheran churches i n the same neighborhood. At Plymouth there was also organized a Wisconsin Synod church, an Evangeli­ c a l and Reformed, and i n 1903 a Missouri Lutheran. These s e t t l e ­ ments north and northwest of Beatrice have helped to contribute to the prosperity of the churches i n the c i t y ( 1 2 , 7 0 0 population i n I 9 6 0 ) . St. John's American Lutheran had 891 members i n 1 9 5 0 , St. Paul's Missouri Synod 568 i n 19148. There i s also a Wisconsin - 4 5 6 - Synod church. Soirre of those who moved into town, however, came from the east. In t h i s Reich German d i s t r i c t to the northwest of the Prus­ sian Mennonites, where Plymouth and DeWitt are to be found, at Plymouth and at T r i n i t y church, 5 miles east of i t , Missouri Lutherans s t i l l had some German preaching i n 19^8, so also f a r ­ ther east on the Blue above Beatr i c e p The i n s c r i p t i o n s i n the T r i n i t y Church cemetery shifted t h e i r majority from German to English about 1925• Late examples i n German were carved i n 1938 and 19i)-0 f o r spouses of persons who had died much e a r l i e r . The American Lutherans a few miles west of Plymouth f i r s t heard Eng­ l i s h sermons i n 1 9 3 6 , but i n 1951 Bohemian neighbors found that only old Germans spoke the language that they had brought with them. IhoBnatricenitself i n 1951 the American Lutheran had two services a month i n German mainly f o r the people who had r e t i r e d from the settlements to the east. The Missouri Lutherans had none 060 The center of a conservative Deutschtum i s the r u r a l d i s t r i c t east of Beatrice at the Hanover Congregation, that i s , Zion church American Lutheran, 8 miles southeast of ^ i c k r e l l , and not much further from Beatrice; i t had 799 members i n 1 9 5 0 . There are two other more recent and smaller churches nearby. The south of the county f o r eight miles was part of the Otoe reservation u n t i l I 8 8 3 and thus not open for settlement. The East F r i s i a n s that established themselves i n t h i s s t r i p form part of the State Line Germans of Marshall County, Kansas (P^, B Section 4 8 . 5 6 ) . Besides the State Line church there are s i x other small German churches i n t h i s area. In Gage county there were i n 1899 f i v e German Meth­ odist and Evangelical Association churches with 313 members. In the Hanover congregation there was no English i n services u n t i l the period of the Second World War. In 1 9 5 1 there were s t i l l German services every Sunday, but the pastor found then that f tthe people were not coming out as they used t o M to these services. In 1964 German services were abandoned completely, but at Ladies Aid the conversations were s t i l l frequently i n German. However, only a few persons born after 1942 knew any German. In the cemetery English i n s c r i p t i o n s prevailed i n the l a t e 1 9 2 0 fs, but German persisted t i l l 1 9 4 2 I n 1951 other American Lutheran # A curious case i s presented i n the i n s c r i p t i o n s for Henry Wolpen ( 1874-1957) and his wives. His f i r s t wife ( 1876-1921) i s commemorated i n German. A monument was erected, apparently short­ l y afterward, f o r his second wife, also with an i n s c r i p t i o n i n German with the date of her b i r t h (1885) included; she had not yet died i n 1 9 6 6 . Henry's own monument bears only English dates be­ sides his name. churches i n t h i s part of Gage County had German sermons too, though fewer. By 1966 services were i n a l l exclusively i n Eng­ l i s h . In the south part of the county at Wymore and at Barnston German was abandoned i n church services about 1937• . 6 1 In southeastern Nebraska no German settlements developed permanently within 15 miles of the Missouri River except at Arago -458- which has since disappeared as a town. I t was about 12 miles northeast from P a l l s City and a l i t t l e farther from the south­ east corner of the state. A congregation, created by the Evangel­ i c a l Synod and l a t e r a member of the German Nebraska Synod (Mid­ west), originated i n 1 8 6 9 . The German community was more pros­ perous i n early days than l a t e r ndue to the population s h i f t west­ ward, the building of r a i l r o a d s , etc. r r (WM 3 2 2 ) . Times were so good i n 1882 that seven men provided biographies f o r the Andreas hist o r y , a l l with German names, s i x born i n Germany. Two of these men had arrived at Arago i n 1858 and 1859. Between t h i s point and P a l l s C i t y a Missouri Synod church was organized i n l 8 8 l (member­ ship 305 i * i 1948) and i n 1901 another i n town which reached the same si z e . There were i n the county in 1390 six Evangelical As­ sociation churches with 394 members, two German Methodists with 1 0 8 . A l l other German congregations i n Richardson County were at least as small, and only i n Arago Precinct was the proportion of foreign white stock above 30% i n 1 9 3 0 ; there i t was 39%. The Arago area conserves l i t t l e German. .62 The next group of settlements of interest i s a l i n e that runs at ri g h t angles to the drainage and to the r a i l r o a d l i n e s , from Auburn southwestward Jbo Steinauer. Auburn i n 62 road miles almost straight south from Omaha and about 30 miles north of the Kansas l i n e . The l i n e of settlements i s about 25 miles long; Steinauer i s 15 miles from Kansas. The German Nebraska Synod congregation southwest of Auburn traced i t s o r i g i n to the fact that ! , i n the spring of 1865 thirteen s e t t l e r s from I l l i n o i s were -459- prevented from going further because of cold weather and lack of provisions 1 1 (WM 309) • They organized i n 1867* These people were predominantly East F r i s i a n s . The Hickory Grove church west of Auburn was not organized t i l l 1877; o r i g i n a l l y i t was of the Ohio Synod, l a t e r ULC; i t throve (369 members i n 1950)• I t s people were also p a r t l y East F r i s i a n s ; more l a r g e l y Hanoverians. Stein­ auer at the other end of the chain i s named f o r a s e t t l e r of 1856j i t s Evangelical and Reformed church had 311 members i n 1950. The Missouri Synod church, not far away, southwest of Elk Greek was organized i n 1871 and had 405 members i n 1948• A l i t ­ t l e farther along the l i n e at Table Rock, the ALC church (326 members i n 1950) was founded i n I 8 7 3 . Churches of 1884 and 1902 complete the chain. In the s t r i p of settlements from Auburn to Steinauer, the country near Auburn contained a d i s t r i c t that long clung to the language. The Hickory Grove congregation heard only German t i l l 1937 • In 1951 on one Sunday a month there was i n addition to an English service one i n German attended by 35 or 40« Services i n German ceased almost immediately afterward. The q^iek decline was caused by a weakening i n the knowledge of Standard German. Persons born as l a t e as 1925 were usually conversant with Low German. In 1966 persons born before 1895 frequently spoke German with each other though not with younger people. At least one couple past eighty used German as t h e i r ordinary speech at home. In the cemetery where the graves are arranged i n chronological order the f i r s t i n s c r i p t i o n i n English appeared i n 1920, there 4 6 0 - were others, one each, i n 1 9 2 3 , 1926 and 1 9 2 8 , no more t i l l 1 9 3 6 ; i n t h i s period 18 adults were buried* German appeared on the two adult stones of 1937 and 1 9 3 8 . The f i v e monuments f o r adults who died i n 1939 are a l l i n English except f o r one verse carried on the rear of one stone. After 1942 there were no more i n German. At the other end of the l i n e of settlements the Mis­ souri Synod church near Steinauer ( l o c a l l y pronounced as though spelled Steener) s t i l l had some services i n German in 1 9 4 8 . Czech neighbors regarded the Germans as rather confirmed speakers of English. 63 To the northwest of the Auburn-Steinauer l i n e of settlements i s an area l y i n g i n a diamond shape on a map. I t i s roughly 25 miles square with a tentacle northward beyond the diamond, and contains a score of Protestant German churches. In general the area occupies the northern half of Johnson County and a t r i a n g l e i n Otoe County based on the south border and occupying nearly h a l f of the county. The southern extremity of the diamond i s at Tecum- seh and the eastern beyond Talmadge; these places witnessed the foundation of German churches i n 1885 and 1 8 8 6 . The oldest part i s at S t e r l i n g near the western corner of the d i s t r i c t ; at Ster­ l i n g there was a s t r a i n of East F r i s i a n blood, p a r t l y i n the Ger­ man Nebraska Synod church which was small. The Lutheran Schism apparently ran i n favor of the Iowa Synod here, f or the Missouri church, founded just west of town i n l874> numbered only 189 mem­ bers i n 1948 while the ALC congregation organized i n 1 8 9 5 served 605 members i n 1 9 5 0 ; another of i t s bodies organized to the west - 4 6 1 - at Adams i n 1939 counted 305 souls. Most of the other German churches of the d i s t r i c t including that of the German Nebraska Synod were organized i n the l 8 8 0 f s or very early l 8 9 0 f s j certa i n urban f i l i a l s of country churches were l a t e r , and a German Meth­ odist congregation at St e r l i n g may be e a r l i e r ; a c i r c u i t r i d e r was working out of Humboldt beginning i n i 8 6 0 . On the northern tentacle, the ALC congregations at Avoca (474 members i n 1 9 5 0 ) , Hanoverian i n background, and northeast of Otoe (356) may be men­ tioned. They were founded i n 1882 and 1 8 8 6 . Murdock s t i l l f a r ­ ther north i n the tentacle, has a Missouri Lutheran church founded i n 1892 (206 members i n 1 9 4 8)• At Syracuse at the northern t i p of the diamond where the tentacle i s attached, the Midwest Synod church (German Nebraska) had r o o t s i n l 8 8 l . I t was at f i r s t Iowa Synod; many withdrew i n 1916 to form another ALC congrega­ t i o n , which had 770 members i n 1 9 5 0 . Those remaining then aban­ doned the old a f f i l i a t i o n . 61^ In the Sterling-Syracuse d i s t r i c t viewed l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , the Missouri Lutherans near St e r l i n g ceased a l l services i n German i n 1 9 5 6 . Confirmations i n German were given up about 1921}.. Cemetery i n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e i r cemetery followed approximately the pattern described below f o r the German Nebraska cemetery. The German Nebraska Synod was born i n S t e r l i n g because Pastor Wolff, who had been i n charge of i t s 5 General Synod Lutheran congregations since 1 8 8 3 , f e l t that the work i n German should be i n charge of German pastors (WM 17 )• An old l a b e l painted on i t s frame church i n 1906 announced i t as the l fSanct Johannes Gemeinde 1 8 9 0 . " In the small cemetery, i n s c r i p t i o n s i n English began to appear about -1*62- 1900, but German i s predominant u n t i l about 1925 and persisted u n t i l 1935• Adolph and Sophie Wusk, who died i n 1935 and 1937, are commemorated i n English, but the i n s c r i p t i o n on the grave of t h e i r son, who died i n 1925, i s i n German. The Jugendverein presented a German Bible to the church i n 1927; i t saw very l i t ­ t l e use. There was no break i n the community's l o y a l t y to German u n t i l the pressures of the F i r s t World War weree exerted. Then public use of German disappeared permanently i n town, but r u r a l l y , children born i n 1925 learned to speak German. Examples of those born as l a t e as 1953 able to understand German were to be found i n 1966, but only people i n the age range of 80 years were active­ l y using German. The s i t u a t i o n was similar at Syracuse. The F i r s t Lutheran Church there l e f t the Iowa Synod i n 1920 i n resistance to the pressures against exercising an "inalienable r i g h t , the Mother Tongue," and sought refuge i n the German Nebraska Synod "which at that time did not show these tendencies" (WM 355)* These synodic pressures were being exerted p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e i r former fellow Gemeinde brethren, the members of the Luther Memorial church who had seceded from F i r s t i n 1916 to maintain t h e i r i n ­ alienable r i g h t to use English. The Luther Memorial church car­ r i e d the well-to-do with i t , and i n 1966 these champions of Eng­ l i s h were s t i l l prosperous. Retired farmers i n their s i x t i e s , however, had i n 1966 no trouble i n finding those who would prac­ t i c e German with them. -463- The Avoca F i r s t Lutheran Church i n the tentacle i s eight miles north of Syracuse. I t s Hanoverian congregation gave up German services about 1 9 5 0 , but i n 1966 those born about 1930 were s t i l l ready to "josh around" i n German. Thus they proclaimed t h e i r brotherhood, but a l l serious communications were i n English. The cemetery of the Avoca F i r s t Lutheran shows that i n s c r i p t i o n s be­ came predominantly English about 1 9 2 5 . Anna Sophie Bey's com­ memoration i s on the same stone as her husband's, but altogether separate. She died i n 1898 and has a f u l l German text; h i s , made af t e r his death i n 1 9 3 2 , has only dates, though those are German i n order (day, month, year). The Missouri Lutheran church no&th of Murdock abandoned German about 1933* German was a current language i n the neighborhood u n t i l 1 9 1 8 , and those born at about that time acquired a smattering of German. Those born i n the 1 8 9 0 fs were s t i l l exercising t h e i r German sometimes i n 1966. At Talmadge the severance from German caused no schism. The town congregation of ALC founded i n 1905 had completely given up German by 1 9 2 0 , leaving the country congregation to i t s own de­ vic e s . As a language of the home German persisted long at Tal­ madge. A boy born in 1935 learned German as a c h i l d , though his parents were speaking to each other in d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t s . They gave up t h e i r habit at about the time of the Second World War, and the boy l o s t his p r o f i c i e n c y / 65 West of the 9 8 t h Meridian on the north shore of the Platte River, Grand Island, 91+ road miles west of Lincoln, i s the town most in t e r e s t i n g for i t s German settlements. In 1857 f i v e Ameri­ cans, who acted as surveyors and remained only two years, and 25 -464- Germans came from Davenport, Iowa, and founded the town (Jo 3 6 5 , AN 939) . The settlement did not remain exclusively German, even early. The coming of the Union P a c i f i c Railroad i n 1866 and the establishment of i t s shops gave a more cosmopolitan character to the town, 2 , 2 0 0 inhabitants i n 1879 (Jo 3 7 3 ) , i n I960, 2 8 , 0 0 0 , In the early days, the Germans received considerable reenforce- ments. In l8f>8 there were more people from Davenport (Jo 3 6 6 ) . Pred Hedde, one of the immigrants of 1857 , became an immigration agent f o r the State of Nebraska, stationed at Hamburg, Germany, i n 1872 (AN 9 3 9 ). A Catholic parish, labeled by Andreas as Ger­ man, was created i n 1870 (ca. 300 members i n 1 8 8 2 , 125 pupils i n parochial schools i n 1 9 0 0 , 311 i n 1 9 4 8 ) . I t became the cathedral of a bishop i n 1917 , and i t s staff ceased to be e n t i r e l y German. A Liederkranz was founded i n I 8 7 O ; i t erected a public h a l l . A Turnverein was organized i n 1874 ( A N 93 7y Jo 3 7 4 ) * A Lutheran church, Missouri Synod, was founded i n 1878 ( 1 , 148 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . I t s members were larg e l y Pomeranians. Seventeen fa m i l i e s seceded to form a German Nebraska Synod c h u r c h i n 1 8 8 3 ; i n 1950 i t s membership was n$Ofo r u r a l , plus 20% r e t i r e d farmers, and 30$ urban*1 (WM 324) • An Evangelical Association church drew most of i t s members from southeast of town (in the county i n 1890 were four stations of t h i s church with 194 members). There are also Holsteiners who have been drawn into no congregation. German Russians came to Grand Island to work i n the r a i l r o a d shops. There were 218 persons of German mother tongue from Russia i n the county i n 1 9 2 0 . Their p r i n c i p a l church was Congregational. "They - i * 6 5 - wanted to be to themselves" said the Lutherans; four families of the second generation were Lutheran i n 1951• North of the Platte River, St. Libory and Palmer may oc­ cupy us a moment. St.Libory, some ten miles north of Grand I s ­ land, i s so c a l l e d because of the desire of i t s early German se t t l e r s who came from the town of the same name i n I l l i n o i s ( 5 6 . 5 9 )• They were Catholics and a Catholic parish was estab­ l i s h e d , which however has remained small (no school i n 1 9 0 0 , 57 pupils i n 191*8). Lutherans also s e t t l e d nearby and a Missouri synod congregation was established i n 1871+ six miles to the northeast (1*79 members i n 191*8) which gave r i s e a few miles f a r ­ ther north to a f i l i a l at Palmer (22i* members i n 191*8). About t h i r t y miles west northwest of Grand Island l i e s a settlement, a l i t t l e beyond Ravenna, where a Missouri Lutheran church was founded i n 1 8 8 3 , another i n town i n 1918 (for both together 270 members i n 191*8)* At Grind Island i n r e l i g i o u s services the Reich Germans were more f a i t h f u l to t h e i r o r i g i n a l tongue than the ?olgans, f o r the Missouri Lutherans were i n 1951 s t i l l having German services at­ tended by 60 (while the English services were attended by 700), and the Congregationalists had given up German In 191*9 • The Vol- gan Congregationalists had become so few as to have to accept the services of the minister of the English church. Only the old were distressed at the s i t u a t i o n . The St. Libory and Palmer Lu­ theran churches were s t i l l having some German s ervices i n 191*8. The churches i n t h i s neighborhood had not f e l t public pressures - I n ­ d i r e c t l y i n 1917 , only through t h e i r pastors. The churches at and near Ravenna had no German services i n 191*8, but a f t e r I 9 6 0 German was s t i l l to be heard there i n d a i l y intercourse. . 6 6 Some 25 miles south of Grand Island beyond the Platte V a l l e y i n the headwaters of the L i t t l e Blue i s Hastings ( 3 , 5 0 0 inhabi­ tants i n 1 8 ? 9 , 2 2 , 5 0 0 i n I 9 6 0 ) . I t came into being i n 1872 when the Burlington Railroad was b u i l t through. I t s Reich Germans are less numerous than i t s Volgans, but they seem to have begun coming a l i t t l e sooner. Both a r r i v e d early i n Hastings' hi s t o r y . The s o c i a l d i v i s i o n between them had by no means been obliterated i n 1951• The south side was the wrong side of the tracks and there the Volgans had th e i r quarters i n two un i t s , one to the west, one to the east. An Evangelical church which soon became part of the German Nebraska Synod was organized i n 1 8 7 8 . I t s pastor, H. Siekmann, served both Reich Germans and Volgans. In 1890 the Volgans withdrew to themselves; both churches ca l l e d themselves St. Paul's and remained i n the Nebraska Synod, but the Reich Germans prefixed the word F i r s t to the name of t h e i r Gemeinde. They were prosperous, but beginning i n 1900, they be­ gan to share the f i e l d with a Missouri Lutheran church (76 members i n 191+8). There i s also a Wisconsin Synod church. No great pro­ portion of the members of t h i s congregation had been born i n Ger­ many. The Evangelical Association had a mission i n Hastings by 1882 (AN 3 4 3 ) . In t h i s county i n 1890 there were seven Evangel­ i c a l Association stations with 271 members. The Burlington Railroad brought the f i r s t Volgans to Has- - 4 6 7 - tings i n I876 (5 families from Kolb, Sa 33)> and the r a i l r o a d long continued to furnish the chief means of l i v e l i h o o d to the immigrants. Their numbers began to increase immediately, but i t was only a f t e r the hard times of the 1890's that the r e a l "boom years" arrived (WM 327). As at Lincoln the Bruderschaft thrived among the Volgans; small worship units sufficed them fo r some time, and various sects grew up. In 1951 there s t i l l existed the Midwest (German Nebraska) Synod church alluded to above, a Congregational church, and an independent Lutheran group which was quite conservative. The l a t t e r Was made up mostly of people from Prank with some also from Norka. S a l l e t wrote i n 1930 that the Volgans totaled 350 families (Sa 33)• In 1920 there were i n the county 783 persons of German mother tongue born i n Russia. Only a few of them l i v e d outside of Hastings. In Hastings the Reich Germans had by 1951 l e f t the German language to the past, but the Volgans were using German i n a l l three churches, almost e n t i r e l y i n the Franker church, every Sunday afternoon i n the Midwest (German Nebraska) church, and regularly i n the Congregational church. The l a s t named group continued services i n German at le a s t t i l l i 9 6 0 , presumably the others too. 67 The rest of Adams County outside of Hastings has notewor­ thy settlements. To the southeast of Hastings some eight a i r miles l i e s G l e n v i l . There i n 1905 & congregation, ultimately ALC, formed (397 members i n 1950) . Lutheran services, however, -468- began much e a r l i e r , i n 1 8 7 8 , for a congregation that ultimately became part of the German Nebraska (Midwest) Synod, The names of those active indicate that t h i s congregation was East F r i s i a n i n o r i g i n . So do those of Immanuel church, also of the Midwest Synod, a r u r a l church with Hastings as i t s post o f f i c e (WM 330)• Furthermore the township just west of G l e n v i l i s named Hanover Precinct, i n d i c a t i n g the presence of more North Germans. In 1930, the foreign white stock of t h i s precinct was 48$ of the population, that of G l e n v i l Precinct 52$, that of adjoining townships to the south and west somewhat l e s s . On the western side of the county opposite Hanover Precinct l i e s Holstein, plotted i n 1 8 8 7 . The concentration of Germans i s to the north of the hamlet. There a r u r a l Missouri Lutheran con­ gregation was organized i n 1 8 7 8 , one at Holstein i n 1 8 9 9 ; the two together mustered 381 members i n 1 9 4 8 . Some Catholics with a German pastor are nearby at Roseland. Northwest of Hastings too, some 15 miles, the Missouri Lutherans founded a church i n 1882 and another at Kenesaw at the same distance more nearly west i n 1904 (together 750 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . F i n a l l y just beyond the south county l i n e , 17 road miles from Hastings, and 23 from western Jewell County (N4) i n Kansas, i s situated Blue H i l l (population 574 i n 1950) i n a township c a l l e d Potsdam Precinct (42$ f.w.s. i n 1 9 3 0 ) . The Missouri Lutheran church at Blue H i l l was organized i n 1882 (572 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . A German Nebraska congregation seceded i n I 8 9 8 (20 families) and prospered (WM 3 1 2 ) . -469- In Adams County outside of Hastings, German has not been well preserved. Already i n 1916 part of the sermons were i n English at Holstein and Minden. Blue H i l l seems to have been the most conservative spot. There German services were dropped i n 1949; i n 1946 however "double-headers" were s t i l l occurring every Sunday. The old were d i s s a t i s f i e d a f t e r the change, but even t h e i r conversation was usually in.English; they simply missed the superior "good" i n German r e l i g i o u s speech. .68 Westward i n the t i e r of counties along the Kansas border i n northwestern Franklin County, there were four Lutheran churches with more than a thousand members. The German Nebraska church was organized at H i l d r e t h i n 1901, services from I 8 9 7 . "The beginnings were d i f f i c u l t f o r the congregation since the repre­ sentatives of the Iowa and of the Missouri Synods were vying fo r p o s i t i o n and possession. [Eventually the people) c a l l e d a pastor a f f i l i a t e d with the Midwest Synod. [At f i r s t ] 'congrega­ tiona l , * thanks to the staunch Lutheranism of the Ostfriesians, i t became Lutheran i n the end. L i n g u i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s produced another c r i s i s i n the form of a competitive Lutheran church af­ f i l i a t e d with the English Nebraska Synod" (WM 3 3 3 ). The two congregations united i n 1946, presumably signaling the v i c t o r y of English. At Arapahoe i n northern Furnas County two Lutheran churches heard English twice a month i n 1916, 640 members i n 1948. McCook (7t?68 inhabitants i n 1950) i s 27 road miles north of Oberlin i n Decatur County (F^), Kansas. In 1920 McCook1 s - 4 7 0 - county, Red Willow, contained 3&0 persons born i n Russia of German mother tongue. The colony had become important i n 1892; the people were r a i l r o a d workers. These people were Volgans, who evolved much as did those at Hastings, They were subject to the same stigmas as described f o r Lincoln, a s i t u a t i o n that makes the timid more conservative of the language and the ambi­ tious more anxious to be indistinguishable from the g.eneral popu­ l a t i o n . Reich Germans had preceded them i n the neighborhood. Eight miles southeast of town a Lutheran church, Missouri Synod, originated i n 1884 (143 members i n 1 9 4 8 ); the one i n town was not organized t i l l 1908 (372 members i n 1 9 4 8 ) . Twelve road miles west of McCook i s Culbertson i n Hitchcock County where i n 1920 there were 289 persons born i n Russia of German mother tongue. A few of these were Mennonites from near the Black Sea, but they were mostly Volgans. The f i r s t s e t t l e r , i n the county who took a claim very close to the s i t e of Culbert­ son i n I 8 7 3 bore a German name, Gesselmann, and so did a part of other pioneers who soon arrived, but they did not have to wait long f o r the Volgans, or the Mennonites. Mennonite Brethren organized a congregation i n 1879• I t grew to have 60 members and i n 195^ had dwindled to 18. As for the Volgans, Pastor Hetzler, a German Congregationalist, speaks thus of a v i s i t of 1881: " I found a r e a l settlement of Russian Germans, among whom a Congregational congregation had been founded about a year before. Most of them l i v e on the broad p r a i r i e . . . A f t e r supper (Friday) there was a prayer meeting i n Brother Weiek's house, to - 4 7 1 - which a l l the r a i l r o a d workers located there were inv i t e d " (Eis 144) . Hetzler's e f f o r t s gave r i s e to a permanent congregation. During the 1 9 4 0 's these Congregationalists regularly had services i n German. The Lutheran church, Missouri Synod, organized there i n 1907t had 300 members i n 1 9 4 8 . As f o r Dundy County to the north of Cheyenne County i n the northwest corner of Kansas there i s l i t t l e of importance i n spite of ALC churches at Benkelman and Haigler very near the state l i n e . The congregation at Haigler had only 68 members i n 1 9 4 8 , that at Benkelman 149 — organized i n 1 9 0 7 . The s i t u a t i o n at Haigler and Benkelmann was s i m i l a r to that at St. Francis i n Cheyenne County, Kansas, but less conservative because on the fringe of a larger settlement. The young people were glad about 1920 to admit English into the services. . 6 9 In Nebraska l i n g u i s t i c , conservatism as regards the use of German i s l e s s marked than i n several states with older settlements. Even for Russian German settlements the statement i s true, because, while German may frequently be heard from t h e i r people, they re­ ceived so many twentieth century immigrants that t h e i r evolution must be considered more rapid than that of many Reich German set­ tlements even of comparable s i z e . The h o s t i l i t y to German that developed during the F i r s t World War was i n Nebraska f i e r c e r and more long-continued than i n many other states. The resistance by the Germans was also greater at times, witness the pursuit through the courts of the r i g h t to give i n s t r u c t i o n i n German which brought about the Supreme Court decision of 1923 i n favor -472- of German, but the resistance was not t r u l y general. More usual was the behavior thus described: "At Fremont the Salem Lutheran church voted unanimously to withdraw from the German-speaking synod and unite with the English-speaking synod. The Turn- Verein, which had probably been more i n f l u e n t i a l than the churches i n holding immigrants to t h e i r German ways, declined r a p i d l y . In 1920 the Fremont Turn-Verein, organized i n I 8 8 7 , disbanded. Many of these societies had disbanded during the War and were never revived" (NH 3 8 - 2 0 2 ). The fate of the Turners here was no d i f ­ ferent from i t s fate i n general, but the behavior of churches i n the German Nebraska Synod has no precise p a r a l l e l i n other German church bodies. By 1919 f i f t y - n i n e congregations out of 185 had withdrawn from the Synod or disbanded (WM I 8 8 - I 9 6 ) . To be sure, these s t a t i s t i c s include churches belonging to t h i s synod i n other states than Nebraska, but .both strength and losses were mainly i n Nebraska. Insofar as the Russian Germans of Nebraska showed di f f e r e n t development from those i n Kansas, the difference may be ascribed to the fact that i n Kansas a larger proportion of these people were Mennonites and Catholics and thus preserved more unity than was true i n Nebraska. . . 4 7 3 - ^ 57.70 Oklahoma was the l a s t of a l l the states contiguous to Kan­ sas to receive Immigrants from Europe, The United States govern­ ment a f t e r i t had shrunk Indian T e r r i t o r y by the excision of Kan­ sas and Nebraska was i n no hurry to deprive the Indians of the rest of t h e i r lands and the pressure was not great u n t i l i n the 1880 fs settlement farther north had pressed westward beyond those parts of Indian Territory held by " c i v i l i z e d t r i b e s , " more cap­ able of l e g a l resistance to encroachment than more nomadic groups, and occupying land that was none too f e r t i l e . In the center of the t e r r i t o r y an area about f i v e counties i n size on which Okla­ homa C i t y now stands was c a l l e d the "Unassigned Lands" because no t r i b e had a t i t l e to them. To t h i s area the settlement ef­ f o r t s of the "Boomers" were directed i n the I880 fs, They were not successful i n obtaining l e g a l occupation by squatting, but* together with settlement pressures i n general, they obtained f i r s t i n I 8 8 9 the opening of the Unassigned Lands, and then i n 1890 a d i v i s i o n of the t e r r i t o r y into two t e r r i t o r i e s , separating from "Indian Territory" a western section, denominated "Oklahoma," which stretched farther to the east i n the north than i n the south. The "Unassigned Lands" were i n Oklahoma, Indian Territory was absorbed into Oklahoma only during the struggle to obtain admis­ sion to the Union i n 1906-07. 57*71 The Unassigned Lands had been opened by a "run" ( s e t t l e r s raced from a border to stake out t h e i r claims), and the same method was used f o r openings of other areas from I 8 9 1 to 1895• These "runs" were riotous, p a r t i c u l a r l y the f i r s t one and that - 4 7 ^ - of 1 8 9 3 , when the Cherokee Outlet was opened. This Outlet was generally known i n Kansas as the Cherokee S t r i p , or simply as the S t r i p . I t extended along the Kansas border from the point where the Arkansas River leaves that state to the point where the Oklahoma Panhandle begins at the 1 0 0 t h Meridian. The Pan­ handle beyond to the west was "No Man's Land." The S t r i p stretched southward from Kansas about s i x t y .miles. Many Kansans moved into t h i s area. South of the west part of the Cherokee Outlet and west of the Unassigned Lands was a large t e r r i t o r y , the Cheyenne and Arapahoe lands, opened i n 1892 — l e s s tumul- tuously because t h e i r f e r t i l i t y was not held i n high regard by many prospective s e t t l e r s , though i t was of a character to re­ ceive a d i f f e r e n t judgment from Germans acquainted with the steppes of Russia. What has been said above makes i t clear that no foreign settlement i n Oklahoma antedates 1889 ; s e t t l i n g l a t e r went on so r a p i d l y that, except f o r minor additions i n Indian T e r r i t o r y a f t e r the achievement of statehood, almost a l l f o r - l i n g communities had originated by 1 9 0 7 . . 7 2 Oklahoma received comparatively few of the members of the Old Immigration from the northwest of Europe. While the Reich German settlements sometimes received population from Kansas, the feedback was not great. The population born i n Germany reached i t s peak with 1 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 1 0 . In that year Kansas and Nebraska already had smaller t o t a l populations than Oklahoma and the numbers of those born i n Germany was on the decline i n those states, but Kansas had three and a h a l f times as many -^75- Germans and Nebraska f i v e and a half times as many as Oklahoma. We s h a l l therefore consider Reich Germans i n Oklahoma only b r i e f ­ l y . They were no where very heavily concentrated. 57.73 In Oklahoma out of seventy Missouri Lutheran congregations only f i v e had any German services i n 19^8. One was at Alva, where the people were probably Russian German. Another was at Adair i n the northeast; i t was founded i n 1919 (171 members i n 19^8). Another was at Granite i n the southwest (organized 1915t 19^ members i n 19*1-8). (In 1920 i n Greer County where Granite i s located there were only 31 persons born i n Germany, 7 i n Russia). There were no ALC or E-R nor other Missouri Synod churches near any of these three. 57.7^ East of Enid at B r e c k i n r i d g e the fourth of the Missouri Synod churches which heard preaching i n German i n 19*1-8 i s l o ­ cated. I t i s i n the center of a group of other churches of that synod (Carrier, Enid, Garber, Covington, Perry). They were or­ ganized between I897 and 190*h t h e i r t o t a l membership i n 19*1-8 was nearly 2200. The f i r s t Germans were participants i n the "run." Not f a r to the south at Marshall there i s an Evangelical and Reformed church (107 members i n 1950) . 57.75 Okarche held the f i f t h of the Missouri Lutheran churches where some preaching was done i n German i n 19^8. The church was founded i n 1892. The population of the town was 532 i n 1950. The Lutheran church had 392 members. I t was then the only German Protestant church, but the membership of the Cath­ o l i c church (200 i n i t s school i n 19*1-8) was very l a r g e l y Ger- man. Concerning Okarche, Ruth's guide to Oklahoma said i n 1957 (no notice on Okarche i n the 19^1 edition) , "As German- speaking Catholics, Lutherans, Evangelicals and Mennonites moved (into the area} the town became — and remains to t h i s day — a close k n i t German community," In the 1960*s German was s t i l l heard i n the town. North of Okarche not more than 35 a i r miles f o r the farthest, there are a l i n e of Evangelical and Reformed churches at Kingfisher, Loyal and Okeene, The members are doubt­ less the "Evangelicals" referred to i n Ruth's Guide, (For Men­ nonites, see next section) In 1950 t h e i r t o t a l membership reached only 3^6. Loyal 1s name before the F i r s t World War was K i e l . The fact indicates that the Germans were Schleswigers, and since people from there are often not ardently r e l i g i o u s , the German element may be considered larger than the church member­ ship suggests. 57»76 Just at the eastern edge of the Cheyenne-Arapaho lands near the southwest corner of the Unassigned Lands there was, be­ ginning i n 1880, a General Conference Mennonite mission at the Darlington Indian Agency, a short distance northwest of E l Reno, south of Okarche about 12 miles. The group c h i e f l y responsible was of the stock at Summerfield, I l l i n o i s , and Halstead, Kansas, Reich or Swiss Germans rather than Russian. The mission a t ­ tracted a certai n number of Mennonite s e t t l e r s a f t e r the Unas- signed Lands were opened and nearby a Mennonite church existed f o r some time beginning ca. I 8 9 I (ME:IV, 33* Data c i t e d below on the Mennonites are mostly from appropriate a r t i c l e s i n the -477- Mennonite Encyclopedia.) The number of Mennonites here was always small. •77 The attention of the Russian Mennonites of the concentrated Mennonite D i s t r i c t i n Kansas which contains Halstead was doubt­ less drawn to t h i s part of Oklahoma by the mission at Darlington. The Russian Germans did not become as numerous i n Oklahoma as the people born i n Germany, about two-thirds as many i n 1930i but t h e i r areas of concentration were greater, t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with Kansas closer, and t h e i r use of German endured l a t e r . Upon the opening of the Cheyenne-Arapaho lands i n 1892, the Mennon­ i t e s from Russia began occupancy. The area chosen began about f o r t y miles farther west than Darlington, l y i n g most notably i n Washita County, but spreading beyond northeast and south into other counties. The Mennonite Brethren were able to organize near the northeast corner of the county a church at Corn i n I 8 9 3 , the General Conference Mennonites another i n 1894. Cor- d e l l i i the county seat and the Mennonite Encyclopedia (pub. 1955) speaks thus of i t s ''Mennonites occupy nearly one-third of the county adjoining the c i t y on the northeast. Wheat farming i s predominant. There are 65 Mennonites l i v i n g i n Cordell and 2,000 within shopping distance." Bessie to the north i s the only other v i l l a g e i n the Mennonite area of the county. Weatherford (org. 195*0 and Hydro (org. 1906) to the northeast and Gotebo to the south developed churches. At Geary s t i l l f arther to the northeast the group (org. I897) was small. -478- 57.78 In 1935 the Herold Church (GCM), nearer Bessie than Cor- d e l l , reported that a l l i t s services were i n German; at Corn they were i n both English and German. The s i t u a t i o n at Corn was t y p i c a l ; use of Standard German was breaking down at the time, but Low German continued to be i n vogue. In 1965 those born as l a t e as about 1946 were able to carry on elementary conversations i n i t and t h e i r parents were frequently using i t h a b i t u a l l y with each other. Geary was no longer having services i n German i n 1935; those at Gotebo and at Hydro were s t i l l using both languages. 57.79 The Mennonites who came into Oklahoma i n I893 at the time of the Cherokee S t r i p Run proceeded to the southern part of the s t r i p and began communities that stretch from Enid t h i r t y - f i v e miles west. In the center of the d i s t r i c t i s Meno ( o r i g i n a l l y Menno), where the New Hopedale Church was founded i n 1895• "Most of the 175 inhabitants are Mennonites of Polish and Russian Men­ nonite descent" (ME). They and the people i n the rest of t h i s group of settlements had mostly come from McPherson and Marion Counties, Kansas, more p a r t i c u l a r l y from the area between Galva and Mound Ridge. The "Polish" element was made up of German speakers, part of the group that had s e t t l e d near Galva i n Mc Pherson County. Most of these people had been Holdeman Mennon­ i t e s i n Kansas, and at Fairviex* southwest of Meno there was a Holdeman church established i n 1895* The combined membership of the s i x Mennonite churches i n Major County containing both Meno and Fairview i n 1954 was l , 1 5 3 t The number of Mennonite members i s much smaller than i t was i n the beginning because schism - 4 7 9 - s p l i t the churches at Meno and Goltry, and at Fairview f i v e or si x evangelistic churches sprang up at the expense of Mennonite membership. From the Enid-Meno complex the Mennonites spread southwestward into northern Blaine County (Okeene), 1 9 0 3 $ and northwestward into the corner of A l f a l f a County (Goltry). There German speaking Amish neighbors s e t t l e d as also at F a i r - view, 80 The three GCM churches were a l l having services i n both English and German i n 1935* The s i t u a t i o n was s i m i l a r among the Mennonite Brethren. As l a t e as 1925 there had been those among them who maintained that prayer i n English was completely i n e f f i c a c i o u s , but a decade l a t e r young people born a f t e r 1918 were pushing these conservatives into o b l i v i o n . Throughout t h i s area German i n church was abandoned much sooner than d i a ­ l e c t i n household use; "Dutch" was not regarded as appropriate f o r worship. English as a formal language received approval as soon as Standard German became u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , and among the Holdeman group where formal education was f o r some time held i n low esteem the change was quite as rapid as elsewhere despite general conservative tendencies. The development of the name New Hopedale i s in d i c a t i v e of the progress of the l i n g u i s t i c s h i f t . In 1911 the congregation was c a l l e d Neuhoffnungstal. In 1935 i t was New Hoffnungstal. By 1948 i t was New Hopedale. 81 Here as at Corn, Low German lingered on i n i n f r e ­ quently used, however, by younger people, who here had more pretensions to being c i t i f i e d than i n the more southern d i s t r i c t . - 4 8 0 - In 1966 few children could do more than understand the d i a l e c t , more or l e s s . Many knew no German at a l l . Those born about 1930 could speak German, but were consciously inexpert. Those born about 1918 were expert enough, but used German only with those older, and even many quite old spoke to each other frequently i n English. German as the language of tombstone i n s c r i p t i o n s played l i t t l e part here. Even i n the f i r s t days English was common, and "by 1935 had completely prevailed. The stone commemorating Adam and Eva Eck bears a verse i n German but, while her dates, 1 8 5 7 - 1915> sire preceded by Geb. and Gest., h i s , I 8 5 6 - I 9 3 6 , specify Born and Died. The stone f o r the Rev. T.P. Wedel, who died i n 1 9 2 8 , bears a German verse, but a separate monument, commemorating his wife, has a verse i n English. 82 The Mennonites east of Meno were almost a l l close to Enid. The strong and early churches were those of the Mennonite Breth­ ren, the oldest founded i n I 8 9 3 . In 1954 the membership totaled over 2,000. There was Mennonite a c t i v i t y at Perry, f o r t y road miles east of Enid, but Lutherans were more important here, and Reich Germans prevailed. 83 To the north of Enid but not without a break there grew up Mennonite churches at Medford i n I 8 9 7 and at Deer Creek, a few miles to the east. Both places are 15 miles from the Kansas l i n e . The f i r s t s e t t l e r s arrived at the time of the "run," but churches were organized only i n 1897 and I 8 9 8 . Of Deer Creek the Mennonite Encyclopedia says? "The f i r s t s e t t l e r s came from Halstead and Mound Ridge, Kansas, and Donnelson, Iowa, and were - 4 8 1 - mostly of South German background•11 They had abandoned the use of German i n worship by 1935 and even of d i a l e c t rather com­ pl e t e l y by 1965i but the people at Medford, whose names were those of Russian Germans, were s t i l l using both languages, 57.84 The Mennonites i n the Oklahoma Panhandle have not been numerous but there are churches i n the two eastern counties, and i n comparison with the population Russian Germans are numerous. L i b e r a l i n Kansas 60 miles from Colorado almost on the Oklahoma l i n e i n Seward County (30-F28) may be taken as the landmark. I t has been a retirement center. Thirteen miles south of L i b e r a l there i s a Mennonite congregation at Turpin founded i n 1907 and i n some sort sponsor of the Kismet congregation north of L i b e r a l i n Kansas. Relations with the main Mennonite D i s t r i c t i n Kansas p a r t i c u l a r l y at Buhler are close. By the l a t e 1960 fs most of those conserving German had died; the exceptions were among the old. The church at Turpin i s a General Conference body; services were i n both English and German i n 1935* Twelve miles farther south and eight east at Balko there i s a Mennonite Brethren church founded i n 1906, 57^85 Eighteen miles southwest of L i b e r a l i s Hooker and eleven miles farther Optima. In the township l y i n g between the two, i n 1930 there was 38 percent foreign white stock. A Mennonite Brethren church, r e l a t i v e l y prosperous, 116 members i n 1954 serves Mennonites, but according to S a l l e t (Sa 38) there are many Volga Russians there who came from Dorrance i n Kansas i n 1908; they were o r i g i n a l l y from D r e i s p i t z . The Dorsches came - 4 8 2 - from Schwab, Russia, to Ramona, Kansas, i n 1905t and at l e a s t three came on to Hooker about 1927. One of t h e i r churches, Mo.Synod,is west of Optima founded i n 1914 (99 members i n 1948) and one at Hooker — 1917 (183 members i n 1948) . Both were having t h e i r services i n English i n 1948, and i n the 1960 fs the people at L i b e r a l did not regard t h i s area as p e r s i s t e n t l y German. 57.86 Volga Russians came from Kansas, p r i n c i p a l l y from Marion County, to the immediate neighborhood of the Mennonite groups already described. On the northwest border of the Corn-Cordell area they arrived i n 1893 (Sa 37) at Bessie and the next year Nebraska Volgans took lands just north — at Weatherford, says S a l l e t , but the American Lutheran congregation i s at Clinton, with 350 members i n 1950. The Bessie ALC, founded i n 1894, had 430 members i n 1950. Just south of the Meno-Pairview group peo­ ple from Messer l e f t Lehigh i n Marion County, Kansas, to estab­ l i s h themselves near Okeene and a b i t farther south at Hitch­ cock. They probably furnished the organizers f o r the North American Baptist church founded i n 1893 just to the east at Loyal and f o r the small E-R bodies at Okeene and Loyal (see Section 5 7 . 7 5 ) . 57.87 Marion County was a way st a t i o n f o r Volgans on the way to other parts of Oklahoma. In 1901 a group from Lehigh s e t t l e d between Tangier and Fargo says S a l l e t . These towns are west of Woodward, seat of the county of the same name. The Missouri Lutheran church i n Woodward founded i n 1903 (140 members i n 1948) presumably serves them. S a l l e t does not mention a set- - 4 8 3 - tlement farther on at Shattuck, seat of E l l i s County, just east of the northeast Texas Panhandle. In 1930 E l l i s County, Okla­ homa, contained 265 persons born i n Russia and just south of Shattuck there i s a single township which had 67% foreign white stock i n 1930. There i s a North American Baptist church there organized i n 1904. At Goodwin southwest of Shattuck a Missouri Lutheran minister was already preaching i n English as well as German i n 1910. Russian Germans also collected i n considerable numbers i n Oklahoma C i t y and Tulsa (233 and 341 i n 1930) . 57»88 Penn Germans i n Oklahoma were somewhat concentrated at Thomas, 75 a i r miles west northwest of Oklahoma Ci t y and not f a r from areas already discussed. South of Thomas, Amish, Old Mennonites, Dunkards and River Brethren s e t t l e d (RG 366) . The Amish were s t i l l having services i n German i n the 1950 's. 57.89 The conservation of German i n Oklahoma tended to be s l i g h t . S e t t l e r s of German stock were often of the second or t h i r d gene­ r a t i o n out of Europe, and ready to"give up t h e i r language.There were, however, numerous exceptions made up of l a t e a r r i v i n g im­ migrants from Russia. These l a t e comers tended to early Engl- i z i n g i n the second generation. 57•90 In Colorado there were Germans from very early. Indeed the goldseekers of 1859 and the following years were not i n f r e ­ quently Germans from the new settlements just established i n Kan­ sas. At l e a s t by 1870 there were ef f o r t s at organized German colonization i n Colorado (Hafen I 8 9 ) $ but Reich German s e t t l e ­ ments, though they drew some population from Kansas, had few re l a t i o n s with that state. -484- 57*91 Here only Russian Germans w i l l be treated. These people were almost a l l Volgans, generally Protestants, and most f r e ­ quently connected with the sugar beet industry. In 1930 they numbered 3,885 i n Denver; certain other towns contained consi­ derable numbers. But even the urban settlements are l a r g e l y to be accounted f o r by beets. Denver, l i k e L i n c o l n , Nebraska, was the wintering quarter for large numbers of seasonal workers i n the beet f i e l d s . Other towns too wintered some of the Volgans. Many resembled those people from Herington, Kansas, who went out i n 1901 to work i n the f i e l d s and " a f t e r the harvest did not re­ turn to Herington, but went into winter quarters i n Denver and and strengthened the rGlobeville l ; settlement there" (Sa 39) • 57*92 Settlements of Volga Germans preceding the establishment of the sugar industry originated i n Denver and Pueblo; also some Black seamen became farmers i n the neighborhood of Burlington and at Brighton. Burlington i s eleven miles from the Kansas bor­ der on Interstate Highway 70 beyond Goodland, and i s f o r t y a i r miles from St. Francis, Kansas, seat of the Cheyenne County Black Seamen. The settlement i n i t s neighborhood was under way by 1887; that at Brighton (north of Denver, east of Boulder) by I896 (Sa 17). Catholic Volgans arrived i n Denver from Kansas i n I 8 8 5 . Protestants from Sutton and Lincoln, Nebraska, joined them i n I887 (Sa 48 & 3 9 ) . The Catholics at Pueblo moved out there from E l l i s County, Kansas, i n the l 8 9 0 , s . 57-93 A f t e r some fumbling the sugar beet industry got under way i n the plains east of the mountains i n 1900 and the fa c t o r i e s - 4 8 5 - had been b u i l t by 1903 (more d e t a i l s i n # 8 9 . 7 6 ) . The develop­ ment i n the Arkansas River v a l l e y , extending into Kansas at Garden C i t y (#47.22 deals frequently with Colorado), was of les s importance than that i n the northeastern part of the state along the South P l a t t e River. The l a t e i n i t i a t i o n of the sugar program meant a concentration of l a t e a r r i v a l s from Europe, f o r a f t e r the f i r s t comers, most immigrants were d i r e c t l y from the Volga; 1906 was a year of heavy entrance. In the northeast a higher proportion of the f i e l d workers were Volgans than along the Arkansas where Mexicans were more .easily a v a i l a b l e . In the tr i a n g l e bounded by the northern state l i n e , the mountains, and a l i n e from Denver to the northeast corner of the state, there were i n 1930 nearly s i x thousand residents born i n Russia, while i n the counties along the Arkansas River below Colorado Springs and Pueblo there were scarcely more than 7 0 0 . The habit of peo­ ple from a single v i l l a g e i n Russia to congregate together per* sist e d i n Colorado. Denver had i t s Dobrinka, Port C o l l i n s i t s Saratov, Loveland i t s Frank, Berthoud i t s Norka, Longmont i t s Jagodnaja and Pobotschnaja. Other Colorado towns with colonies f o r -which S a l l e t does not i d e n t i f y a v i l l a g e of o r i g i n were Eaton, Windsor, Greeley, S t e r l i n g , and Fort Morgan (Sa 40), a l l i n the south Platte section, and he adds that there were other towns, i n fact that three-fourths of the land from S t e r l i n g i n the northeast to Denver was i n Volgan hands (Sa 41). In both areas the Volgans evolved into growers as soon as possible, very often the tenants of the Great Western Sugar Company. The -486- charaeteristics of l i f e i n the sugar beet country i s discussed i n the Settlement History of Garden C i t y , Kansas, The primary difference between the people there and the Coloradans has been that at Garden C i t y the Volgans are Catholics and elsewhere Pro­ testantism p r e v a i l s . Their r e l i g i o u s fragmentation, usual to Protestant Volgans was accompanied i n Colorado by a general neglect of organized r e l i g i o n during the growing and harvesting season. The Coloradans, though not subject to the Engl-izing influence that the Catholic pastors at Garden Ci t y exerted, un­ derwent other influences i n that d i r e c t i o n . .94 * The Engl-izing of Volgans i n South Pl a t t e sugar beet coun­ tr y was f a r advanced but not completed i n 1967. In Loveland (population ca. 7*000 i n 1950) at the F i r s t German Congrega­ t i o n a l Church (500 members i n 1967) preaching i n English was introduced about 1955 and German sermons ceased i n 1964, but i n I967 there was s t i l l a German Sunday School class, needed be­ cause there were some old people whose English was poor. There were then four Lutheran Churches. The Missouri Synod organized i t s church i n 1931; i t was s t i l l using German i n 1948. There was also a Reformed Church. At home i n 1967 at Loveland people i n t h e i r seventies were using German together, and t h e i r c h i l ­ dren i n t h e i r l a t e f o r t i e s spoke German with them, but t h e i r grandchildren were unable to use i t , only understanding some things. Evidence from other towns i s s i m i l a r , though the de­ gree of conservation seems to have varied somewhat. The Mis­ souri Lutheran Churches at Fort C o l l i n s , Greeley, and Fort -487- Morgan had no German i n 1948, but the larger of the two at S t e r l i n g s t i l l d i d. A report by a Reich German at Fort C o l l i n s i n 1967 said that only the very old spoke German there. An i n ­ formant at Greeley, who as a r e t a i l salesman used German i n 1915 especially with women, considered Volgans completely as­ similated, l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and otherwise, i n 1967« Another i n Fort Morgan who had been used to hearing German on the street corners i n the early 1940*s said that such was no longer the practice ;in 1967; s h e spoke, she said, of Blackseamen rather than Volgans, f o r the Blackseamen furnished the Russian German population there. .95 German settlements i n Minnesota have been neglected i n the present work because the rela t i o n s with Kansas have been minor. The f i r s t s e t t l e r s i n St. Mark. (Andale Colwich Germans) had spent several years i n Minnesota whence they had come to avoid the cold. The f r i g i d i t y discouraged few Germans, however. The state i s one of major German settlement. Leaving aside census data, s u f f i c i e n t evidence i s shown by the fact that the three major German Protestant churches make, of Minnesota, d i s t r i c t s important both f o r the size and number of churches. In i 9 6 0 there were s i x Catholic dioceses i n Minnesota; a large propor­ t i o n of the membership has been German. In 1900 there were s i x German national parishes i n St. Paul, three i n Minneapolis. New Ulm, which became the see of a diocese, received i t s name for good reasons. But place names are not s u f f i c i e n t guide. At Rochester one of the three Missouri Lutheran churches, -488- T r i n i t y , with 1784 members i n 1948 provided German services. In 1951 i n the larger of the two churches at Faribault ( 163 members) there was preaching i n German every Sunday. Hofman i n his study of the counties most retentive of German i n the 1930 fs bases h i s conclusions on services i n Missouri Lutheran churches. The s i x most retentive counties are 3 within the great bend of the Min­ nesota River, three immediately to the south of i t . Not included are the two counties on the r i v e r separating these groups of three. New Ulm i s on the r i v e r here (FH 152) t Up the M i s s i s s i p p i * Hofman1s findings are presented i n more d e t a i l i n the pre­ liminary e d i t i o n of FH, produced i n 1964. the 700 members of Holy Cross at St. Cloud had German services i n 1948. St. Cloud i s a Catholic episcopal see. The German church there was as large i n membership i n 1900 as the cathedral. Germans are numerous too i n the Dakotas p a r t i c u l a r l y Russian Ger­ mans. On Mennonites i n Minnesota and the Dakotas see Section 54.41; on Blackseamen i n the Dakotas see a note to Section 5 4 . 8 / 96 German settlements i n Texas began before those i n Kansas. For instance, west of San Antonio, C a s t ^ i | v i l l e , which advertises i t s e l f as the " L i t t l e Alsace of Texas," was founded i n 1844. German persisted a long time there but^in 1961 those born a f t e r 1949 were inexpert. German was s t i l l more neglected by those of German stock at A l i c e west of Corpus C h r i s t i . More German Kan- sans have gone to Texas however than German Texans have come to Kansas. The Flusches a f t e r promoting Westphalia i n Iowa, and - 4 8 9 - Westphalia and Olpe i n Kansas went on to promote Muenster and El e c t r a i n the Red River Valley of Texas, An example of move­ ment i n the other d i r e c t i o n i s furnished by the Catholic Black­ seamen who came from P l a n t e r s v i l l e , Texas, northwest of Houston to Park, Kansas, The three major German Protestant churches make Texas a d i s t r i c t . In 1948 among the Missouri Lutherans the only church with more than 1,000 members outside of Houston (there were two there) was at Giddings (2532 inhabitants i n 1950) 54 miles east of Austin. There were German services i n i t . The Missouri Synod churches at Giddings originated i n 1882 and 1883. At La Grange to the south of that town and at Linco l n to the north four churches t o t a l i n g over 1200 members a l l had German services. The ALC churches at these towns were also large* Austin xfas well provided with German churches. The ALC St. Martin's had over a thousand members i n 1950, At Georgetown twenty miles north of Austin the ALC congregation was hearing German as well as English every Sunday i n 1943. A large Mis­ souri Synod church ten miles farther north (598 members vs. 232) s t i l l heard German i n 1948. I t was organized i n 1882, Ger­ man settlement i n Texas was thus frequently p a r a l l e l to s e t t l e ­ ment i n Kansas. 97 German settlement i n C a l i f o r n i a began l i k e that i n Texasj Sutter of gold s t r i k e fame was a Swiss. C a l i f o r n i a also re­ ceived many l a t e immigrants from Germany and a great many peo­ ple of German stock from Kansas and i t s area. The three major German Protestant churches each have a d i s t r i c t f o r C a l i f o r n i a , - 4 9 0 - though i n 1950 the E-R church had no congregation that reached 275 members, American Lutherans are f a i r l y numerous i n the south but are also well represented i n the San Francisco Bay area. There the Missouri Lutherans thrive the most. There are many German settlements within 100 miles of the c i t y . Ur­ ban churches both i n San Francisco and Oakland are numerous. One Missouri Synod church there (Paulus, 1608 members, founded 1867) and three more i n the area, Woodland, Lodi, Stockton (founded 1912, 1898, 1882) are four of the s i x churches of that denomination s t i l l providing German services i n 1948. The other two were at Fresno and farther south i n the v a l l e y at Terra B e l l a (founded I890 and 1909) . The E-R church at Petaluma 45 miles north of San Francisco abandoned services i n German about the time of the Second World War. In 1968 there were s t i l l i n the town immigrants speaking German, but t h e i r speech had often so badly deteriorated that t r u l y b i l i n g u a l persons found both t h e i r English and German objectionable. 57t98 The P a c i f i c Northwest received many of German stock from Kansas, though not nearly so many as C a l i f o r n i a . German Protes­ tant churches i n Portland, Seattle and Spokane are numerous. The only Missouri Synod congregation hearing German i n 1948 were at Bellingham i n northwest Washington, at Spokane, and at Portland (founded 1905f 1900, and I 8 8 9 ). Only three churches were as old as Zion of Portland, those at Sherwood, Oregon (I878) near Portland, at Tacoma, Washington (1884), and at Endicott (I889) i n eastern Washington 15 miles north of the Snake River's most -491- northern point. Clearly settlement i n quantity by people of German stock was l a t e as compared with settlement i n Kansas. 99 Germans i n the United States no consideration of those i n the Rocky Mountain states except i n Colorado nor of those i n the southeast of Texas, nor of those i n the east a f t e r t h e i r be­ ginnings has been undertaken i n t h i s work. The story of the Germans i n Louisiana i s i n t e r e s t i n g , but of s l i g h t r e l a t i o n to Kansas. The Germans i n the east affected Kansas, but not so much i n t h e i r r o l e as Germans as i n t h e i r capacity of Engl-ized Americans. Great masses of immigrants from Germany passed through New York C i t y , but few who.came west were there long enough to receive influences, few r e l a t i v e l y , though i n abso­ l u t e terms the number who had been a while i n New York and then became c i t i z e n s of Kansas towns was not imperceptible. - ^ 9 2 - 5 8 . 0 0 German r e l i g i o u s bodies are of such Importance In studying the h i s t o r y of l i n g u i s t i c development i n the United States that the Protestant denominations must be given p a r t i c u l a r attention. The l i n g u i s t i c influence of Catholicism among the numerous Cath­ o l i c Germans was as great, but i s covered by the general t r e a t ­ ment of Catholicism found elsewhere (# ^ 9 . 5 0 - ^ 9 - 6 8 ) . At t h i s point, the reader need only be reminded that Catholic Germans have furnished the majority of Kansas bishops. The hierarchy here has understood better the l i n g u i s t i c trends among Ger^-lings .than among other f o r - l i n g groups, and has been better equipped through the n a t i o n a l i t y of i t s clergy to deal with t h e i r prob­ lems than i t has f o r other groups. The Protestant bodies were subject to d i v i s i v e forces u n t i l the F i r s t World War, and then to forces that have been gradually drawing them together. They are treated hereafter i n the units e x i s t i n g from 193*1- to 195^» 5 8 . 0 1 Among German Protestants, Lutherans have been f a r the largest group numerically. .Their l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y through the 1 9 t h century was affected by the existence of several branches. In towns the existence of what were generally c a l l e d "English Lutheran" alongside German churches influenced the l i n g u i s t i c habits of, esp e c i a l l y , the second and t h i r d genera­ tions a f t e r immigration 9 :The "English Lutherans" were i n an organization, which during much of the 2 0 t h century, bore the name of the United LutherJ|i church but became i n 1962 by a l ­ liances with Scandinavian Lutheran groups the Lutheran Church i n America, with w e l l over three m i l l i o n members i n 1 9 6 4 . I t s - 4 9 3 - primary subdivisions are c a l l e d synods, and the synods have i n ­ cluded at l e a s t two which were at t h e i r o r i g i n a l l German, Among German Lutheran churches, synods independent of the "Eng­ l i s h " organization grew up i n various l o c a l i t i e s indicated by t h e i r names: Buffalo, Ohio, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, etc. Their t e r r i t o r i e s overlapped almost immediately and competition began. I t frequently took the form of adherence to p a r t i c u l a r points of viextf i n d o c t r i n a l disputes. The present work i s able to avoid almost e n t i r e l y discussion of d o c t r i n a l questions, but the bitterness aroused by them has not even yet been completely eliminated. The Wisconsin and Missouri Synods with ce r t a i n others were able to draw into a Synodical Conference. Nation­ a l l y the Missouri Synod early became the most numerous member of the Conference, and has so dominated the a l l i a n c e that by 1966 the greater organization had l o s t a l l but the Missourians and a few small groups of f o r - l i n g o r i g i n , but not German. In any case the Missouri Synod xfas the only one of t h i s group to establish churches i n Kansas; s t i l l the Wisconsin Synod receives i n t h i s work some inc i d e n t a l attention. The r e l i g i o u s views of the Buffalo, Iowa, and Ohio Synods were s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r to allow them i n 1930 to unite into one church, the American Luther­ an Church, which i n i 9 6 0 added Danish and Norwegian bodies. These mergers b u i l t up a body which i n 196^ had over two and a half m i l l i o n members. The Iowa and Ohio Synods had .churches i n Kansas; the Iowa Synod had f a r the greater number. Both appeared i n Kansas when the Missouri Synod was already well established. This work frequently refers to the congregations of both the Iowa and the Ohio Synods as simply American Lutheran. Along with the congregations d e f i n i t e l y a f f i l i a t e d with a synod there were a few independent Lutheran congregations. They were u l t i ­ mately drawn into synods as a means of procuring pastors. The Lutheran bodies of German o r i g i n , of interest to t h i s work, and existent between 193^ &nd 195^ are the United Lutheran Church, the American Lutheran Church, and the Missouri Synod, the l a t ­ ter as the only member of the Synodical Conference with congre­ gations i n Kansas. Within the United Lutheran Church, the Ger­ man Nebraska Synod, which i n 1939 became the Midwest Synod, re^ quires p a r t i c u l a r attention. For the period before 1930 the two . components of the American Lutheran Church with congregations i n Kansas, the Iowa Synod and the Ohio Synod occasionally demand separate treatment. Since the German word Evangelische was of such importance to Lutherans as a declaration that they founded t h e i r f a i t h d i ­ r e c t l y upon the B i b l e , nearly a l l included the word or i t s Eng­ l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n i n the t i t l e s of t h e i r church bodies. I t i s o r d i n a r i l y omitted i n t h i s work to prevent confusion with those bodies whose name included no other c l e a r l y Identifying word to di s t i n g u i s h them. . 0 2 German Protestants other than the Lutherans organized a number of independent national churches s t r i c t l y German at t h e i r o r i g i n . Among them we may di s t i n g u i s h the churches p r i ­ marily Penn-German from those appealing e s s e n t i a l l y to stocks - 4 9 5 - a r r i v i n g l a t e r . Of the l a t t e r , the bodies of importance to t h i s work i n 1950 bore these namesi the North American Baptist Church, the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church. In the l a t t e r church, union had not by 1950 proceeded so f a r as to prevent the congregations formerly of the Evangelical Association from having separate conferences from those formerly United Brethren. The term Evangelical United Brethren, or i t s abbreviation i n i n i t i a l s EUB, i s often used i n t h i s work to i d e n t i f y these churches as the readiest means of distinguishing them from Evangelical and Reformed churches. For over three decades the Evangelical Association was s p l i t into two parts and the s t a t i s t i c s quoted below are f o r years i n which t h i s condition obtained; hence, two sets of s t a t i s t i c s . The Evangelical and Reformed Church was u n t i l 193^ two churches, one i n i t s l a t e days c a l l e d the Evangelical Synod of North America and the other the Reformed Church i n the United States. The congregations belonging to i t i n t h i s work are usually designated by the name Evangelical and Reformed Church or i t s abbreviation i n i n i t i a l s E-R, because t e r r i t o r i a l l y the two churches fused t h e i r organization so that each synod within i t , contains Evangelical Synod and Reformed congregations, but also to d i s t i n g u i s h i t more c l e a r l y from the EUB. The data pre­ sented below are f o r years before the union. The North American Baptists might more handily be c a l l e d German Baptists i f i t were not that the Church of the Brethren (Dunkatrds) long c a l l e d them­ selves German Baptists. - 4 9 6 - . 0 3 German congregations among "American" denominations, Metho­ d i s t s , Presbyterians, and Congregationalists did not, l i k e those who became North American Baptists, organize into bodies nation­ a l l y separate from English-speaking bodies of the same f a i t h . Therefore federal census s t a t i s t i c s do not separate them from t h e i r c o - r e l i g i o n a r i e s , and shortly a f t e r the F i r s t World War separate subordinate organizations ceased to function so that s t a t i s t i c a l l y they disappear from the records of t h e i r own churches. The attitude of Germans belonging to German churches without "American" connections i s well expressed by Hense*Jensens "Nearly every American denomination of any significance at a l l has sought to i n f i l t r a t e among the Germans. So there were and s t i l l are today [1900] among German church bodies Congregation- a l i s t s , Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists and Adventists. But they are mostly exotic hot house plants without promise of en­ during status, t r a n s i t i o n a l steps to complete English speaking performance. Most nearly Methodism, especially i n the form of the Methodist Episcopal Church and i n that of the Evangelical Association seems to o f f e r some guarantee of continued existence. The r e l a t i v e l y small number of German Reformed members ... are cl o s e l y connected with English-speaking Presbyterians" (H, I I , 1 7 2 ). The congregations of the German Methodists are part i c u ­ l a r l y important, but i n t h i s work data on them are of fragmentary, incomplete nature. Even more fragmentary are references to the l o c a l organizations of the Presbyterians and Congregationalists. - 4 9 7 - 04 The Penn-German churches of most importance to t h i s work are the Mennonite, including Amish, the Brethren (Dunkard), and the Brethren i n Christ (River Brethren)• The Mennonite "bodies include a number, very important f o r Kansas, that are not Penn- German but Russian German and deserve special treatment. At the national l e v e l i t i s sometimes d i f f i c u l t to separate these bodies s t a t i s t i c a l l y from those of the Penn-Germans. 05 German Religious Bodies i n the United States, exclusive of Mennonites and small Penn-German churches, Membership 1890-1926, as recorded by the Federal Bureau of the Census Religious Bodies, Vol, I I , 1 9 2 6 . Numbers of Members to the Nearest Thousand -- Church T i t l e s 1 of U n o f f i c i a l Type 1926 1916 1906 1890 United Lutheran (includes Gen. Synod, Gen. Council Cexcept Augustana Synod], United Synod of South) 1214 764 601 390 Synodical Conference ( i n ­ cludes Slovak and Michigan as wel l as Missouri and Wisconsin)* 1293 778 670 369 Ohio Synod** 248 165 123 70 Iowa Synod** 218 131 110 not given Ev. Synod*** 315 340 293 187 Rfd. Church i n U.S.*** 361 344 293 204 Evang. Assn. (Church)**** 206 121 105 not given Evang. Cong. Church merger (United Ev.)**** i n process 20 90 70 not given - 4 9 8 - * Missouri Synod f o r 1926 - 1 , 0 ^ 0 , 2 7 5 Wisconsin Synod f o r 1926 - 2 2 9 , 2 ^ 2 Slovak Synod f o r 1926 - 1^,759 Later i n the American Lutheran Church, *** Later i n the Evangelical and Reformed Church. **** Later the Evangelical United Brethren Church, 5 8 , 0 6 German Religious Bodies i n the United States i n 1916 — Membership i n the United States and i n Kansas and Amount of Use of German i n t h e i r Services i n the United States, as Recorded by the Bureau of the Census, Religious Bodies, V o l , I I , 1 9 1 6 , -2+99- I 0 o 00 CM C A O N C A CM o • 00 \o NO C A N O CO V A 00 00 0 OO V A -3- V A N O O N O H a 0 O N O N ON V A £ M H CM CM CM H •H 05 H J>- H H H N O ft H • O N • \ Q H CM 00 O N H O N H bO CM O O N NO O C A 00 0 0$ M CM X A H * A 00 CM * A co .a o C A H •H O a • JN- C A CM V A ^ A O •H H 00 O N o !>- 00 O - C A a ON H CM H N O CM o CO o «* w i H H C3 CO -4" 00 NO O CM NO o X A -3- H V A CM 00 00 O N fl H • H H ON H 00 o C A O N H o CM C A O N -3- (N- ON C A C A C A CO CM CN C A o O - 00 •H 0 ^ C A H CM O CO CO •H »H o3 {> H • • H H i N 00 CM N O H 00 CO H bO bO O H H NO N O NO V A o 0 £ H & NO 00 C A CM H H O O N to w O H H H •H • • bQ co CM V A 00 N O O O N CM H H bO H « V A -3- H H C A ( A H 00 H O H O O H H -3- CM O O V A 5 ! • 00 00 -3* 00 C A H H \o o * A O N H H CM N O a co •» «* (D W NO 00 X A H CM H NO si 43 «H • • N O MO O NO O - H 00 V A o ~ bD CO -3- 00 CM CM O - C A V A C A X A M • 00 ( A N O 00 O N C A IN- N O O N •d O }=> H CM C A H H H 0 ho CO u x n CM H 00 C A C A N O 0 H O N O O N > A H P CO VO ( N O N 00 C A 0 a • m •»» ,0 o o ( N -3" o ON O O N IN. -3- JN- N O C A ( A CM 00 ' d e n * A H H H C A C A H O fl S>> H * CO •H •d O o GS o JH H o CO u fl j3 OS o • >> O O 2 >^ O & - P w o •H CO fl o CO *d CO !>> a • • O CO •H • bO fl o • 0 0 >> •H o • • C o o CO * CO * o O CO • • • 0 • • •p - p - p - p £ - p u C M • •H 3 o o 0 > H3 h3 ^ o o o • CO •H H bO fl W ^ • O •H •H 0 i> • U 05 H O & CO O U O H 0 c 0 O 0 O • u H 05 O 0 - P •H a 0 bD 0 CO 0 PQ »H a > 0 > 05 05 05 & H ft ft ft ^d •H 0 CO JH 0 0 0 •d a a a O a 05 05 05 H •H •H 0 0 0 O - P 0 0 0 03 PQ H N •H + <^ cS bD O - 5 0 0 - 07 Use of German i n church,services decreased between 1906 and 1916.* The report to the Bureau of the Census i n 1916 included the data quoted above, evidently because the government i n ask­ ing f o r them re f l e c t e d the public opinion of 1 9 1 6 , which was be­ ginning to view with sharp disapproval the use of any language but English i n the United States. The churches were asked also f o r a comparison with 1 9 0 6 ; at that time the concern had been s t i l l dormant. Their r e p l i e s may be considered as emphasizing as much as possible the decrease of the use of German, but as being e s s e n t i a l l y f a c t u a l . Here are t h e i r r e p l i e s as trans­ mitted by the Census Bureau editors. Each reply may be consi­ dered prefixed by the words; "In 1 9 1 6 , compared with 1 9 0 6 , there was :" Lutheran General Synod; Decrease of 33 i n the number of or­ ganizations reporting the use of foreign languages, but an i n ­ crease of 1588 i n the membership of such organizations. Lutheran Synodical Conference; Including the organizations of the Slovak Synod f o r 1906, ... a decrease of k i n the number of foreign languages used, a decrease of 152^ organizations with 278,080 members reporting use of foreign language only, and an increase of 1578 organizations with 3 6 6 , 2 8 3 members reporting foreign languages and English. Lutheran Ohio Synod: Decrease of 36 i n the number of organiza­ tions reporting foreign languages alone or with English and an increase of 91 i n the number reporting English only. Lutheran Iowa Synod; Nearly the same number of organizations - 5 0 1 - using German alone or with English, but a large increase i n the number using English alone, German Evangelical Synod of N,A.s Using the foreign language 9 5 . ^ organizations and 97*1% of t o t a l members i n 1916, against 9 8 , 6 $ of the organizations and 98 .5^ of the members i n 1906, Reformed Church i n the U.S.* Increase of 2 (unspecified) i n the number of foreign languages reported, but a decrease of 79 i n the number of organizations reporting the use. Evangelical Associations Decrease of 332 organizations reporting the use of foreign languages, and of 12,158 members. United Evangelical Church; Decrease of 109 i n the number of or­ ganizations reporting a foreign language, with a membership of 6 , 6 9 0 . .08 Lutheranism among Germans i n America became established with the a r r i v a l of the early 18th century immigrants from Germany, In 17^8, four German and two Swedish ministers organized into what came to have the name of the Pennsylvania Synod. The Swedes were s t i l l p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n 1 7 6 2 , but German prevailed. About 1785, "the f i e l d was f u l l of promise, Unfortunately, however, the contest which arose i n reference to the introduc­ t i o n of the English language i n the services of public worship, blighted our prospects and was the occasion of great discord and serious e v i l , , . , I t was natural that the Germans should be reluctant to give up the language to which they had been ac­ customed from t h e i r infancy, and which they sincerely thought could be perpetuated i n t h i s land of t h e i r adoption. But t h i s - 5 0 2 - tenacious adherence to the exclusive use of t h e i r vernacular language was the great obstacle to our progress and success. Thousands abandoned t h e i r parental communion and sought a home i n other churches because t h e i r children did not understand Ger­ man, whilst many who remained, because of t h e i r l i m i t e d ac­ quaintance with the language, l o s t a l l interest i n the exercises and became careless i n t h e i r attendance upon the ministrations of the p u l p i t . . . . In 1785 the New York Ministerium was or­ ganized with 1^ ministers and 18 congregations. The chief ob­ ject contemplated i n i t s formation was the introduction of the English language into the exercises of the sanctuary, a maasure to which the Synod of Pennsylvania had always been v i o l e n t l y opposed. In the year 1809 the f i r s t English Lutheran church i n Philadelphia, and probably i n the state of Pennsylvania, was es­ tablished* 1 (LA 7)• This passage quoted from the Lutheran Alma­ nac of 1855 represents a point of view rejected by good Germans fo r at l e a s t another half century. Georg von Bosse i n 1908 speaks with some bitterness. 11 (About l8lf>) the language ques­ t i o n came up which shook many German congregations to t h e i r foundations. But the Germans defended themselves and were i n many places v i c t o r i o u s . Those who desired English preaching usually withdrew and formed English Lutheran congregations.... Insofar as i t ^ the Lutheran church] i s English, i t s t i l l owes i t s existence to the Germans, and i t has l o s t along with the German language many worthy things which belong to the German- speaking sections. Luther 1s language i s , so to speak, the - 5 0 3 - mother tongue of the Lutheran church, and as a stay upholding the r i c h treasures of Lutheranism which are set dovrn i n the writings of our forefather, i t w i l l never lose i t s value" (B k$Z & ^ 5 7 ) • . 0 9 In 1803 North Carolina formed a separate synod because of distance, and a decade and a half l a t e r " d i s t r i c t synods" began to multiply. In 1820 there was organized the General Synod. Representatives of the Ohio Synod did not attend because " i n the General Synod English would soon p r e v a i l , whereas i n other places German must remain the dominant language. The German element of Pennsylvania also made earnest protest. In the Gen­ era l Synod (the adoption of English] as the language of worship proceeded with great r a p i d i t y " (RB 351). In 1855 the General Synod included 25 d i s t r i c t synods, coming as f a r west as I l l i n o i s and Texas. The Joint Synod of Ohio had remained separate and included 8 d i s t r i c t synods; some acceptance of English had i n ­ f i l t r a t e d , f o r the English D i s t r i c t Synod of Ohio was a member (to be distinguished from the English Synod of Ohio, which was a member of the General Synod). At that time the General Synod counted 1239 congregations and 583 ministers; the ::Joint 1 Synod of Ohio had 287 congregations and 153 ministers; the Missouri Synod, which had never joined the General Synod, 73 congregations and 108 ministers. Three independent southern Synods are not included above, nor the Wisconsin Synod which furnished no sta­ t i s t i c s though i t had been organized i n 18*1-6. In the years that followed 1855 there were di v i s i o n s i n national organization so - 5 0 4 - that from the end of the C i v i l War (more exactly 1866) t i l l the end of the F i r s t World War there existed three bodies with no essential d o c t r i n a l differences between them, and with a general approval of English as the language of worship, or at lea s t t o l ­ eration, more importance being attached to membership i n groups with what may be c a l l e d l i b e r a l doctrine than to choice of lang­ uage. The three bodies were the General Synod, the General Council, and the United Synod of the South. In the following states i n 1916 membership was as follows ( i t might amount to as much as 900 more than the number shown): General Synod Pennsylvania 1 6 5 , 0 0 0 Ohio 3 9t0 0 0 Maryland 33$000 New York 2 7 , 0 0 0 I l l i n o i s 2 3 , 0 0 0 Indiana 1 0 , 0 0 0 A l l other states had less than 8 , 5 0 0 ; Kansas 6 , 7 8 0 . General Council Pennsylvania 1 , 5 7 8 , 0 0 0 New York 9 9 8 , 0 0 0 I l l i n o i s 3 6 2 , 0 0 0 New Jersey 2 8 7 , 0 0 0 Minnesota 2 6 8 , 0 0 0 . 10 In 1918 the United Lutheran Church i n America came into existence by the fusion of the three groups just mentioned. This organization was not changed u n t i l 1962, when the Lutheran Church i n America was created by the merging of the United Lu­ therans, the Augustana Lutherans (Swedish) and Danish and F i n ­ nish bodies. In t h i s work Kansas churches belonging to t h i s branch of Lutheran!sm are referred to as part of the United - 5 0 5 - Lutheran Church or occasionally as belonging to the Kansas Sy­ nod. The Kansas Synod was made up exclusively of congregations that had been part of the General Synod. In 1962 there was sy- nodical reorganization; a l l Kansas congregations i n the LCA be­ came members of the Central States Synod. During the twentieth century two s p e c i f i c a l l y German synods existed within the United Lutheran Church, the German Nebraska Synod, which became the Midwest Synod i n 1937 and the Wartburg Synod, both dissolved by 1 9 6 2 . This work preserves the names "United Lutheran," "German Nebraska," and "Midwest Synod" i n r e f e r r i n g to these organiza­ tions as making f o r ease of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Inasmuch as several German Nebraska churches are i n Kansas i t i s the subject of a separate section below. .11 The German Nebraska Synod which became the Midwest Synod and the Wartburg Synod of the United Lutheran Church were, as said above, s p e c i f i c a l l y German groups. Their Engl-izing was, u n t i l well advanced, unaffected by the English character of the national organization or of the "English Lutheran" congre­ gations surrounding them. In 1936 according to the Censlis Bureau 1s Religious Bodies ( I I 953) the Wartburg Synod was made up of 45 congregations with 21 ,115 members and German Nebraska of 71 congregations with 1 5 , 7 1 5 members (one and a quarter m i l ­ l i o n i n the wholi* church then). The Wartburg Synod*s member congregations were la r g e l y i n I l l i n o i s but also i n adjacent t e r ­ r i t o r y extending east f o r a considerable distance. In t h i s Synod most, though not a l l congregations, transferred to the - 5 0 6 - t e r r i t o r i a l synods upon abandoning German e n t i r e l y . The pro­ cess of transfer began as a r e s u l t of the pressures of the F i r s t World War. By 1951 there had been 156 such transfers. The congregations most ardently German at that time were com­ posed of the Siebenburgers from Hungary usually employed as steelworkers. In 1962 when the Wartburg Synod was dissolved, i t s congregations joined other synods. . 12 Because of i t s Kansas churches the German Nebraska Synod i s of more di r e c t interest to t h i s work. The Synod was organ­ ized i n 1890 and separated from the "English" Nebraska Synod because that body refused to grant rights of self-government to-"a German Conference that had existed, within i t f o r some time. The dissidents were not the oldest congregations among the Germans, but others, founded as long before as i 8 6 0 , joined the Synod somewhat l a t e r . The oldest of the congregations i n Kan­ sas, that at Hanover, had i t s beginning i n I 8 7 4 , and Hanover was a charter member of the Synod. The organizing congregations were a l l Reich Germans and the majority continued to be, but Volgans were also attracted to the Synod i n both Nebraska and Kansas. The German Nebraska Synod grew rap i d l y ; i n 1906 there were "71 pastors, 86 congregations, 6951 communicant members, and a t o t a l of 1 2 , 1 0 1 baptized members; [in I 9 1 9 ] 87 pastors, 114 congregations, 5869 communicant members and 18 ,792 bap­ t i z e d members" (WM 6 6 ). Beginning about 1910 the language question presented i t s e l f . I t was "used as a pretext f o r pro­ sel y t i n g among our people by our non-German s i s t e r synods" - 5 0 7 - (WM 70) . The straggles within the Synod were the usual ba t t l e of the generations. But the proportion of foreign-born pastors i n i t was much higher i n 1919 than i n other branches of Luther- anism; without exception they had been born i n Germany, and few could preach i n English, Sentiment at the time of the F i r s t World War and afterward against sermons i n German made securing new members d i f f i c u l t , I t was not u n t i l 1922 that synodical re­ ports became b i l i n g u a l . "There were s t i l l numerous congrega­ tions preferring the German language, p a r t i c u l a r l y among the more recent a r r i v a l s . . . from the Ukraine and the Volga region" (WM 8 3 ). The f i r s t a pplication f o r admission to the synod of a congregation having no German services was hotly debated, though f i n a l l y accepted. Such an admission meant debate i n English at Synod meetings, i n which the German-speaking Old Guard might not hold i t s own. The trend continued. In 1935 600 copies of Synodical minutes i n German were mimeographed, i n 19^1 3 5 0 , thus German persisted, though i n 1937 the name change from German Nebraska to Midwest had been made. "After 19^1 the secretary abridged the German minutes. German minutes ceased to be pub­ l i s h e d i n 1945" (WM 1 1 6 ). Such action did not correspond to abandonment i n a l l churches. Nor did the f i n a l absorption of the Midwest Synod into the Central States Synod i n the 1 9 5 0 fs bring t o t a l disuse. Volgan churches continued German services, though synod organization was d i f f e r e n t — at least t i l l the l a t e 1 9 6 0 fs at Russell, Kansas, f o r instance. - 5 0 8 - 13 An Ohio Synod was f i r s t organized i n 1818. I t grew and absorbed other synods so that through much of i t s career i t s name was o f f i c i a l l y the Joint Synod of Ohio and Adjacent States. At the o r i g i n of the Synodical Conference i n 1872 i t was a con­ stituent member, but for d o c t r i n a l reasons withdrew i n 1881. I t was numerically i n f e r i o r to the Iowa Synod i n Kansas, with which i t joined i n 1930 to form the American Lutheran Church. The data fo r 1916 presented above show that at that time, the incidence of German services i n the Ohio Synod was much less frequent than i n the Iowa Synod. The census further states, "From i t s early h i s t o r y the Ohio Synod has been a German-English organization. While i n some d i s t r i c t s English has been the predominant language, and i n others German, both are more or les s used i n a l l , and at the conventions they are by statute placed on an equal footing" (RB 3 8 1 ). In the following s i x states i t s membership i n 1916 was superior to the number indicated by not more than 900? Ohio - 5 9 i 0 0 0; Wisconsin - 1 9 , 0 0 0 ; Minnesota - 14 , 0 0 0 ; Michigan - 1 3 1 0 0 0 5 Indiana - 9 i 0 0 0 ; i n Kansas there were 1 , 5 4 4 members. 14 The Iowa Synod was organized near Dubuque i n 1854 by pas­ tors Ttfho had moved from Michigan a f t e r incurring the wrath of the Missouri Synod f o r d o c t r i n a l reasons. I t s growth was: Pastors Congregations 1858 17 19 1864 50 1870 72 120 1873 100 143, 90 parishes - 5 0 9 - Th e parishes were i n I 8 7 3 d i s t r i b u t e d geographically as follows: Iowa 36 Michigan 10 Nebraska 3 I l l i n o i s 11 Wisconsin 9 South 3 Ohio 10 Missouri 8 (Ze 2 5 , 4 4 ) I t s continued championship during the 1 8 7 0 *s of theological views d i f f e r i n g from those of the Missouri Synod drew around i t congregations of l i k e views; repelled them whenever com­ promise was suggested (Ze 4 4 ). The d o c t r i n a l difference re­ mained a raging question among German Lutherans f o r well over a generation and s t i l l prevents serious progress toward union. In communities where congregations of the Missouri Synod and of the American Lutheran Church (of which the Iowa Synod be­ came a part i n 1930) both exist today, one of them, — i n Kan­ sas, usually the American Lutheran church, — originated be­ cause a portion of the church already established withdrew on account of the d o c t r i n a l dispute or at l e a s t with t h i s dispute as an excuse. Attitudes on the language question were also a facto r , those most f a i t h f u l to German usually but not always retaining control of the older organization. There were other factors too, sometimes the d i s t r i c t of o r i g i n of the Germans, sometimes things much more petty. In 1880 the synod became i n ­ terested i n Kansas and the Dakotas (Ze 5 2 ) . The progress was slow i n the next decade. The hard times of the I 8 9 0 f s forced deferment of e f f o r t s (Ze 5 3 ). They were given more attention as times bettered, and became quite vigorous i n 1907 (Ze 5 7 ) . The adherents to the Iowa Synod were usually not many years re- - 5 1 0 - moved from immigration and the great number of churches with German services i n 1916 as contrasted with those i n the Ohio Synod was one of the r e s u l t s . On the matter of language the 1916 Census of Religious Bodies states, "In i t s early history the synod used the German language i n i t s church work to a considerable degree, but of l a t e years the use of English has increased notably, , • • A church paper i n English i s published, and a f u l l set of graded Sunday School lessons has been prepared by the Synod" (RB 3 9 0 ). This statement smacks of an e f f o r t to c u l t i v a t e favorable o f f i c i a l opinion, but i t nonetheless stated tendencies r e a l l y at work. In 1948 only one seventh of American Lutheran services were conducted i n German, and we may be sure that the attendance at German service was at the very best not more than a fourth of that at English services, more generally, one tenth. T e r r i t o r i a l l y the German services were f a r from u n i ­ formly d i s t r i b u t e d . The table below brings out t h i s f a c t , Kan sas and the adjacent states form the Central D i s t r i c t , - 5 1 1 - Language of Services, 1 9 4 8 , i n the American Lutheran Church, D i s t r i c t s of Less than 6% German Services Omitted, also Canada. (They were: C a l i f o r n i a , Eastern, Northwestern, Ohio) Preaching Services Percent of D i s t r i c t English German German C entral 8,1*01 1 . 5 4 0 15 Dakota 5 , 8 6 1 3,41*1- 37 I l l i n o i s 8,563 699 7 Iowa 10 ,522 746 7 Michigan 9,^58 993 9* Minnesota 7 ,915 881 10 Texas 11,018 1,^35 8 Wisconsin 9,875 1,82^ 16 The states having the largest numbers of members of the Iowa Synod were i n 1916 (rounded by dropping a l l d i g i t s below 1000)s Iowa - 2 6 , 0 0 0 ; Texas (which had had an independent synod that l a t e r joined Iowa) - 19 , 0 0 0 ; Wisconsin - 17 , 0 0 0 ; I l l i n o i s - 14 , 0 0 0 ; Ohio, Nebraska, and Minnesota each - 8 , 0 0 0 ; Michigan and North & South Dakota each 6 , 0 0 0 ; Kansas was next with 2,945» . 15 The Missouri Synod instigated the formation of the Synod­ i c a l Conference i n 1871 and remained by f a r i t s most important member. The conference never achieved the unity of a single church and synods have repeatedly entered and withdrawn from i t . As a u n i t , i t needs our attention only when certain s t a t i s t i c s concerning i t cannot be broken down so as to show what was true -512 of the Missouri Synod alone. The story of the Saxon immigrants who came to St, Louis and then i n large part moved downstream to Perry County, Missouri, has been sketched elsewhere i n t h i s work (Sections 5 6 . 9 4 and 5 7 . 0 1 ) . The leader, Pastor C.P,¥. Walther, was the moving s p i r i t i n the creation of the Missouri Synod and was i t s most i n f l u e n t i a l member fo r many years. I t was a dy­ namic even a pugnacious body, f i r e d by a zeal that did i t s ut­ most to crush a l l contrary opinions, xfhether i n or outside of Lutherdom. I t could not subdue the Iowa Synod nor the Evan­ g e l i c a l organization that f i n a l l y became part of the Evangelical and Reformed church, but i t grew stronger among Germans as i t struggled with the other denominations, more frequently winning the battles than they. I t s most notable a c q u i s i t i o n among or­ ganizations was the I l l i n o i s Synod which merged with i t some time a f t e r 1 8 7 2 . This work makes no e f f o r t to d i s t i n g u i s h whether I l l i n o i s congregations were o r i g i n a l l y part of the Missouri Synod, or organized before union. English services were rare i n the synod before the F i r s t World War, though they were not unknown. Georg von Bosse i n 1908 said "The Missouri Synod has remained u n t i l today completely German, and has preserved Ger­ man c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " (B 4 5 5 ) • I t continued f o r a long time to do i t s best to remain German, but i t s devotion to the language gradually subsided. In 1923 i t s publication, Per Lutheraner, had 52^ of the t o t a l subscriptions made to that journal and i t s English counterpart. The proportion held steady t i l l 1931 and then sank rapidly to - 5 1 3 - Zjfo i n 1937, to 7% i n 1947 (PH 140) , Besides off e r i n g these data Hofman also analyzes the subsidence i n German services, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r North Dakota-Montana and Minnesota d i s t r i c t s (PH 143 f f ) . He includes the Kansas d i s t r i c t i n the "More re­ tentive Heartland" along with these d i s t r i c t s ; Minnesota, Wis­ consin, Michigan, Northern and Southern I l l i n o i s (not Central I l l i n o i s ) , North Dakota, Texas and Northern Nebraska, This category includes those d i s t r i c t s "at or near 30% A n g l i f i c a t i o n i n 1920 (base l i n e ) and reaching the v i c i n i t y of 70$ (1940 c e i l i n g . " .16;' The Missouri Synod b u i l t a f a r more extensive system of parochial schools than any other Protestant church. Other Ger­ man congregations sometimes maintained schools, but only the Missouri Synod and i t s synodical a l l y , the Wisconsin Synod, adopted a policy generally accepted by a l l congregations. Their school system was able to withstand the shock of the war years and the period of h o s t i l i t y to foreign language schools that followed. But outside pressures c e r t a i n l y hastened the elimin­ a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n i n German i n these schools. Before the F i r s t World War Missouri Lutheran communities through them were able to maintain German as a c u l t u r a l language, and Standard German as an e n t i t y was recognized alongside d i a l e c t . A f t e r that war b i l i n g u a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n the parochial schools revived i n some cases, but the number of pupils instructed decreased, from 35,000 i n 1927 to 17,800 i n 1936 (FK 241; see also FH 141). Communities so served were thus l i k e l y to be more conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y than any others, not merely because German was - 5 1 4 - taught, but also because German-speaking children were i s o ­ lated from other children to a much greater extent than elsewhere. 17 For many irears no e f f o r t toward making conversions outside of German stock was made i n American communities, but when the furor accompanying the F i r s t World War subsided, gradually a movement to spread the 'faith widely became important. As time passed and the mobility of American population increased, any town of four or f i v e thousand became the residence of a kernel of Missouri Lutheran members, and congregations promoted by the Synod were established that attracted i n part people of non- German stock. The p r o l i f e r a t i o n s were especially numerous i n c i t i e s and i n suburbs. Consequently congregations organized a f t e r 1925 are of very l i t t l e i n t e r e st to t h i s study. Such congregations are often unaware how fundamentally German they are. But i t i s not surprising i n view of t h i s policy that i n 1964 the Missouri Synod membership was 2 , 6 5 0 , 8 5 7 . 18 The German Evangelical Synod of North America which even­ t u a l l y became part of the Evangelical and Reformed Church ( l a t e r an element of the United Church of Christ) was frequently c a l l e d Lutheran by non-Lutherans, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n communities where there waB an Evangelical Association church (see H, I I , 1 7 2 ) . Indeed Ott i n 1906 i n his History of the Kansas Synod (General Conference) includes as much information about t h i s organization as he does about the Iowa and Ohio Synods and almost as much as about the Missouri Synod. His attitude was t y p i c a l of his branch of Lutheranism (Sch 375)• In other words, the Rev. Mr. - 5 1 5 - Ott found that his General Synod was as nearly compatible with the Evangelical Synod as with the "German" Lutherans, But German Lutherans and members of the Evangelical Synod had no such f r i e n d l y f e e l i n g f o r each other. The h o s t i l i t y of the Missouri Synod f o r these Unierter was outright (see p a r t i c ­ u l a r l y Sch 371 f f . and Mu 107 f f . ) . The Unierter were so c a l l e d because they were e s s e n t i a l l y the continuation of the Prussian state church created by a royal f i a t u n i t i n g Lutheran and Re­ formed Churches (further explanation i n section 5 1 « 1 0 ) . The Missouri Synod Lutherans originated from the Saxon stock that had fought t h i s merger. On the other hand the Reformed churches recognized, much sooner i n the east than i n the west (Sch 3 7 7 )i that many of the members of the Evangelical Synod had origins s i m i l a r to t h e i r own, thus making possible the voluntary merger of 1 9 3 4 . The gap between the Evangelical Synod and the e s s e n t i a l l y Meth­ odist Evangelical Association was great, p a r t i c u l a r l y as regards temperament. The most important antecedent of the Evangelical Synod of North America, at l e a s t as regards Kansas, was the Kirchenverein des Westens, a Missouri body which was organized i n 1840 and which by 1855 had spread into a l l the Upper M i s s i s s i p p i Valley. The Lutherans were h o s t i l e but sometimes i n v o l u n t a r i l y helped growth. When i n 1867 the Wisconsin Synod condemned unionism, two smaller adhering bodies came over to the Evangelical Synod. The synod's early days were troubled not only by the r i v a l Lutherans but also and even more by the " r a t i o n a l i s t s , " i n d i f ­ ferent, even h o s t i l e , to a l l r e l i g i o n , b e l l i g e r e n t l y h o s t i l e to pastoral control. In the 1840*s and I850 fs many of the immi­ grants, p a r t i c u l a r l y among the educated and i n f l u e n t i a l , were of t h i s type. The churches i n general and more especially the Unierter grew i n power only as these early enemies diminished i n numbers through old age and death. The Kirchenverein changed i t s name i n 1866 to the Deutsche Evangelische Synode des Westens, and without further change of name, absorbed simi­ l a r bodies throughout the area i n 1872; again i n 1877 when North America replaced West i n the name,it added congregations. The use of the English t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e i r name became more common, and before the union creating the E-R church the word German had been omitted. In 1916 when the t o t a l membership was 3^0,000 the seven states containing 80% of the members were: I l l i n o i s - 71,000; Ohio - 40,000; Missouri - 37,000; New York - 26,000; Indiana - 25,000; Michigan - 22,000; Iowa - 13,000; Kansas then had 5,456 members. The s t a t i s t i c s quoted i n section 58 .05 show membership as very nearly s t a t i c . The s i t u a t i o n i n 1948 was not greatly d i f f e r e n t . The attitude of the Synod toward language i n 1851 i s shown by the prospectus of a c o l l e g i a t e i n s t i t u t i o n at Marthasville. The l a y section of the seminary closed a f t e r two weeks, The pro­ spectus ( i n German) included: "Our language and habits are Ger­ man, and we are not of a mind ever to renounce them; but we do not set them up i n h o s t i l e opposition to American c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , - 5 1 7 - we regard the German and American elements ( i f the expression may be permitted us) as destined to mingle with each other and create something new by mutual penetration" (Sch 319)• The churches of the German Evangelical Synod were as a whole quite conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y . The dates of the f i r s t synodical publications i n English are testimony to t h i s fact* a catechism i n 1 8 9 2 , a hymnal i n I 8 9 8 , a p e r i o d i c a l f o r children i n 1899> a p e r i o d i c a l f o r adults i n 1902 (Mu 3 0 0 ) . The congregations did not i n most places, however, found l a s t i n g parochial schools and consequently the young seldom became p r o f i c i e n t i n Standard German, the r i t u a l language. This factor f o r displacement of German was, however, balanced by frequent greater insistence than elsewhere by the old on maintaining the language with which they were r e l i g i o u s l y f a m i l i a r . In 1919 the pressures from outside and the resistance from inside the Synod was such that i t s o f f i c e r s f e l t compelled to issue t h i s statement (quoted i n part): "We have the duty: "a. To assure, i n regard to t h e i r rearing, that we give the young people r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i n the language of the country. We owe that to the young people. The r i g h t to give r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n even i n the German language, we can and indeed want to take from no one, yet we hold i t our duty to counsel and to recommeni that a l l congregations offer to the young; people and popularize r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i n the language of the country. "b. Where no divine worship i n the language of the -51&- country i s yet held, there we recommend the introduction of the same i n an appropriate manner, perhaps one divine service per month and l a t e r more, i n any case, according to requirements. "c. We also recommend i n Sunday School, i n Confirmation i n s t r u c t i o n , i n the Young People 1s Association and with the entire congregation the practice and singing of the magnificent songs and hymns of the 'Christian Hymns' and the 'Evangelical Hymnal. 1. . . "d. We are decidedly of the view that the German language "e. ... I f we hold the service i n the language of the country, i t should not on that account, bear a le s s evangelical character. . . ." This statement was evidently made i n an e f f o r t to combat what was ac t u a l l y happening, decline of membership because of conservatism i n language. In les s frequent cases where English gained a hearing the Evangelical churches often flourished. The degree to which those preparing ministers understood l i n ­ g u i s t i c needs i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the proportion of courses i n which English was the language of i n s t r u c t i o n at the Eden Sem­ inary i n St. Louis, seven eighths i n 1914, no more than one eighth i n 1 9 2 9 . (PK 240). The f e e l i n g that loss of German meant loss of r e l i g i o n was s t i l l strong enough i n 1939 so that Schnei­ der i n his history of the Kircheh-verein f e l t i t necessary to speak defensively when treating of the triumph of English. For instance? "Notwithstanding the bona f i d e arguments which sup- should be used wherever - 5 1 9 - port the v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between language and r e l i g i o n , i t i s disconcerting to note how, with the p o l i t i c a l ascendancy of Germany a f t e r 1 8 7 0 , new zest was given to the argument that with the adoption of the American language the indigenous s p i ­ r i t u a l genius of the German people would be destroyed" (Sch 4 7 2 n . ) . And again: " I t may well be questioned whether any v i t a l r e l i g i o u s values are i n t r i n s i c a l l y involved either i n Germanization or i n Americanization, . . . A v i t a l l y r e l i g i o u s adjustment i n accomodation to the p r e v a i l i n g American mores i s testimony • », f t o j functional vigor, • , , Any preconceived committal, f o r example, to the perpetual use of the German lang­ uage . • . would condemn the Church of God as an earthly i n s t i ­ t u tion" (Sch 4 7 3 ) • 19 The Reformed Church i n the United States (that is', German Reformed) which joined with the Evangelical Synod to form the Evangelical and Reformed Church was organized i n 1846 as a synod a f t e r a chaotic s i x t y years of e a r l i e r existence. This early a c t i v i t y was almost exclusively i n Pennsylvania, and that state has continued to be the main seat of a c t i v i t y , but a spread into Ohio began with i t s settlement, and Ohio has re­ mained the next most important state f o r German Reformed churches, In I 8 3 3 the needs of Indiana began to be considered by the Penn­ sylvania Classis (Sch 7 0 ) , One obstacle to missionary work among immigrants was pastors* weak knowledge of German, In I 8 3 6 "of the 39 students i n the Reformed Seminary only 7 or 8 could speak German adequately" (Sch 7 9 )• In the east said the Rev. Mr. - 5 2 0 - Schmucker i n I 8 3 6 Hthe American-Germans are very generally i n t e r ­ mingled with foreigners" (quoted, Sch 6 3 ). The spread onward seems to have been undertaken with more vigor upon formation of a general synod i n 1 8 6 3 ; then "began the rapid extension of the work of home missions; the German work i n the west rapidly as­ sumed unexpected proportions" (RB 6 2 4 ). In 1916 when the t o t a l membership was 3 6 1 , 0 0 0 , there were 2 0 9 , 0 0 0 members i n Pennsyl­ vania and 2 2 , 0 0 0 i n Ohio, Maryland had 6 , 0 0 0 , no other state more than 4 , 0 0 0 , Kansas 1 1 3 0 . The Reformed Church was inot among the bodies to be considered as the most conservative l i n ­ g u i s t i c a l l y , but considering the whole course of t h e i r h i story many Eastern congregations persisted long with German, . 2 0 The Evangelical United Brethren Church was formed from the Evangelical Church (Association before 1922) and the United Brethren i n 1946 because both organizations are e s s e n t i a l l y Methodist and also have a very s i m i l a r background of his t o r y . The United Brethren, however, though ultimately German i n back­ ground, tended away from the use of the German language early enough and by home missionary e f f o r t s attained a membership suf­ f i c i e n t l y non-German so that i t has not seemed necessary to con­ sider that branch i n assembling material for the present work. Paust said i n 1 9 0 9 : "The church grew strong among the German element, and there s t i l l are German conferences, but gradually the German language was displaced by English" (Pa I I 4 2 3 )• The Evangelical Association was created f o r Germans i n 1800 because the main Methodist organization, believing "the German work" -521- would rapidly diminish and not develop, would not allow a Ger­ man conference. By the time the a u t h o r i t i e s changed t h e i r minds, the Evangelical Association was an i n s t i t u t i o n well enough rooted to enjoy i t s independence and to carry on i t s own missionary work. U n t i l 1891 the church prospered. The I l l i n o i s conference, founded i n 1844, was p a r t i c u l a r l y active. I t undertook missionary work i n Iowa and Wisconsin and by 1854 had met with noticeable success i n i t s e f f o r t s (Sch 426), which l a t e r extended to Kansas. In I891 a schism began that lasted u n t i l 1922. The United Evangelical Church though much weaker i n Kansas during t h i s period than the Evangelical Association, ( i n 1916, 615 members to 6,210) was much the stronger i n Penn­ sylvania (62,792 members to 14 , 6 7 4 ) , p r a c t i c a l l y equal i n num­ bers i n Nebraska and Iowa (respectively about 3,000 and 5,000 apiece) not overwhelmed i n I l l i n o i s (6830 to 10,876) nor i n Ohio (4,729 to 18 , 0 2 9 ) . Elsewhere the Evangelical Association was dominant. The ten appointments of the United Evangelical Church i n Kansas i n 1901 included one named Oklahoma. None of the others was i n a strongly German d i s t r i c t and s i x of the ministers had non-German names? at l e a s t two were Ohio-born and three appointments were unoccupied. As reported i n Section 58.06 only f i v e percent of the congregations of the UEC worshipped at a l l i n German. We may then safely put our attention almost exclusively upon the Evangelical Association. .21 The Evangelical Association was s t i l l young when the lang­ uage question became serious. "By 1843, the Evangelical Church - 5 2 2 - was convinced that i t no longer could afford to t h r o t t l e the natural growth of the denomination among English-speaking peo­ ple, and by action of the general conference of that year, decided to give more attention to t h i s increasing group, planned to publish an English paper as soon as practicable, established a rule permitting the orgsrization of English Conferences, and ordered the enlarging of the English hymnal. While there was no intention to s l i g h t the German work, there was i n these actions a strong determination to begin working earnestly among the English. The few English preachers were encouraged and ... the English work of the Church soon proved to be most promising" (AE 2 8 3 ). The language problem came to the forefront again i n 1875* "Once more the question of a b i - l i n g u a l church provoked much discussion when the formation of the German Conferences came before the general body. This problem was e n t i r e l y d i f ­ ferent from that of 1850 when the Central Pennsylvania area was the f i r s t to become predominantly English. Now the question of properly caring f o r the German work came before a general con­ ference which was reconciled to the fac t that the major portion of the Church was English and that the future of the church lay i n that f i e l d . The bishops recognized t h i s trend and, as l a t e as 1871 i n the episcopal address, urged the ministers and congre­ gations of the di f f e r e n t language groups to be tolerant with each other. Just four years before, they had s t i l l pleaded fo r young ministers who could preach i n both English and German" (AE 281)•••• In Kansas the f i r s t mission, s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as being English was created i n 1868 i n Nemaha County (PK 6 l ) . In 1905 - 5 2 3 - the Evangelical Association was already disclaiming German pub­ l i c l y insofar as i t could. The United States Census Religious Bodies of that year stated, "Although i n the beginning, the ac­ t i v i t i e s of the church were confined to the German language, the scope was soon widened by taking up work i n the English language also." To t h i s sentence the 1916 e d i t i o n added, "and of l a t e years English has become the dominant language p r a c t i c a l l y d i s ­ placing German" (RB 2 6 7 ) . As set fort h i n section 5 8 . 0 6 the Association nevertheless reported that one t h i r d of i t s congre­ gations s t i l l used some German i n worship. The statement as quoted f o r 1916 was not changed for 1 9 2 6 . . 2 2 The North American Baptist General Conference and i t s pre­ decessor, the German Baptists of North America received no recog­ n i t i o n as a separate r e l i g i o u s body i n the United States Census, Religious Bodies of 1 9 0 6 , 1 9 1 6 , 1 9 2 6 , 1936 nor any recognition i n the Yearbook of American Churches u n t i l a f t e r the Second World War. The f i r s t congregation was founded at Newark i n 1842. Paust wrote i n 1 9 0 9 : "There are noxf about 270 congregations with over 2 6 , 0 0 0 members" (Pa I I 422). The notice of the Yearbook of 1966 begins, "These churches emanate from German Baptist immigrants of more than a century ago. Many of them are s t i l l b i l i n g u a l . " Evidently the Yearbook received protests a f t e r 1952 when the second sentence had read, "Many of them were once b i - l i n g u a l . " The statement of 1966 seems more f i t t i n g i n an organization that then s t i l l continued to have a journal i n German, Per Sendbote, f i r s t published i n I 8 6 5 . In a very few cases the present ministry i n German dates back to mid-nineteenth century immigrants from Germany (as for instance, at the Sh e l l Creek - 5 2 4 - church near Columbus, Nebraska). In a larger number of cases, as i s found i n the churches of the Dakotas, the membership i s la r g e l y made up of Blackseamen who arrived between I 8 7 5 and 1914• In some cases as at Cleveland, Ohio, refugees from H i t ­ l e r and from the Russians were the occasion of renewed services i n German. The a c t i v i t y of German Baptist ministers among nineteenth century immigrants began i n 1839t tout i t was not u n t i l several years l a t e r that separate congregations began to spring up: St. Louis - 1 8 4 7 , Milwaukee and Watertown, Wisconsin - 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 5 2 , Chicago - 1 8 5 0 , Concordia, Missouri - 1 8 5 0 , Mt. S t e r l i n g , Mis­ souri - 1855 (R 1 6 - 2 0 ). Between 1851 and I 8 6 5 forty-three new congregations originated. A German conference was organized at Philadelphia i n 1 8 5 1 , a General conference i n I 8 6 5 with 57 con­ gregations and 3 , 6 3 7 members (R 3 5 )• In I 8 9 5 there were 231 congregations with 2 0 , 8 0 4 members, i n 1 9 5 3 1 274 with 4 5 , 1 2 1 members, i n 1 9 6 6 , 347 with 53,346 members. In the east i n 1953 the largest concentration of North American Baptists was at Newark, where there were very nearly 1 5 0 0 . Buffalo, Brooklyn and Pittsburgh had 500 each. Elsewhere congregations were small. Even Rochester, a sort of German Baptist c a p i t a l , had only 209t In the M i s s i s s i p p i Valley the d i s t r i b u t i o n by states was as follows: Ohio 883 Indiana 73 Michigan 4 , 4 0 8 I l l i n o i s (Chicago Missouri 2 , 0 4 5 1 , 2 0 0 ) 44 Minnesota 1 ,150 (Detroit Iowa 2,750) 2 , 3 0 8 2 Dakotas 6 , 6 7 9 Nebraska 281 Oklahoma 641 Kansas 1 , 5 7 6 - 5 2 5 - The importance of Blackseamen i n these s t a t i s t i c s i s great, as evidenced by the very large figure f o r the Dakotas; part of the membership i n Detroit and Chicago can also be ascribed to them. However, none of the churches i n Kansas had a membership from the Black Sea. . 2 3 German Methodists never formed a separate denomination bearing the name Methodist, but beginning i n 1845 there were German d i s t r i c t s within the conferences and a f t e r 1864 confer­ ences within the Methodist Episcopal General Conference u n t i l i n the two decades following 1924 they were merged with the English conferences. Methodism made great progress among Ger­ mans i n the l a t t e r part of the eighteenth century, but when they were allowed no separate organization within the church, those who could not tolerate the s i t u a t i o n formed the Evangelical Association. A certain amount of preaching by Methodists i n German began i n Ohio as early as 1808, but i t was not u n t i l W i l - helm Nast established himself i n Cincinnati i n I 8 3 5 that German Methodism became potent. The German paper that he founded i n I 8 3 8 , Per C h r i s t l i c h e Apologete, exerted a very great influence and i n 1924 s t i l l had over ten thousand subscribers. In 1845 there were eleven German c i r c u i t r i d e r s i n Missouri, I l l i n o i s , and Iowa. By 1864 eighteen German d i s t r i c t s had been organized with 306 preachers and 2 6 , 4 1 5 members. In I863 a committee of the General Conference was appointed to study the problem; the report read i n parts "Although i n most places the children of German Methodists rapidly become - 5 2 6 - f a m i l i a r with our language and i d e n t i f y themselves with us, the continued immigration from the mother country w i l l supply t h e i r places, and fresh f i e l d s be continually opening to our German ministers. To secure t h i s harvest we should release our German work from i t s leading s t r i n g s , admitting that Ger­ mans understand t h e i r countrymen better than we do" (DM 7 8 ) . The arguments convinced the General Conference, and i n 1864 four German conferences were formed; there were tan i n 1 9 2 4 . The four of 1864 were; Eastern, with 80 preachers; extended to the Alleghenies. Central, with 82 preachers; Indiana, Michigan and Ohio, or­ ganized at Ci n c i n n a t i . Northwestern, with 57 preachers; Minnesota, Iowa, upper I l l i n o i s , and Wisconsin, organized at Galena as the c a p i t a l of the oldest d i s t r i c t within i t . Southwestern, with 87 preachers; 5308 members; the rest of Iowa, I l l i n o i s , Missouri and on to the Rockies, organized at St. Louis. These conferences soon divided; Chicago f o r instance became independent. In 18,79 the Western Conference was created with 37 preachers and 2811 members, headquarters at St. Joseph ~ western Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa were included. Further s t a t i s t i c s on the Western Conference display German Methodism as a stable and growing organization u n t i l stricken by the F i r s t World War. - 5 2 7 - Year Churches Members 1888 90 5 , 4 8 5 1898 112 6 , 5 6 9 1908 114 6 , 8 8 9 1918 107 . 7 ,710 1926 61 6 , 3 3 2 (DM 223) In 1888, I 8 9 8 and 1908 the average membership per church was about 60 persons, 70 i n 1 9 1 8 , 100 i n 1 9 2 6 . Understandably the weaker churches,collapsed f i r s t . No church gained i n membership a f t e r 1917 , many ceased to e x i s t . For a l l years the impression of s t a b i l i t y i s perhaps exaggerated by the s t a t i s t i c s . Rural churches once f i r m l y established were stable. The same could be said f o r the churches i n towns only when greater numbers of members existed; there was always at hand an English congregation to which those Americanized and Engl-ized could transfer i f the conservatives were too strong within the German congregation. .24 German Methodist losses i n t h i s respect were to some extent counterbalanced by gains achieved because the Methodists were not h o s t i l e to secret s o c i e t i e s . The degree of enmity to such organizations i n other German denominations varied, but was generally existent, and i n a town during the l a t e 1 9 t h century, pressures to j o i n such societies were great. The l i n g u i s t i c effect of both the drain and the intake was on the whole not conservative of German. The fear of lo s i n g the young worked strongly against the innate conservatism of the members -528- ardent i n preserving German, The newcomers from secret societies had already shown themselves conformist to a pervading s o c i a l a t ­ mosphere and they continued to have the same tendency. S t i l l the p u l l on German Methodists toward general American society must not be exaggerated. Even to ministers of English churches with German churches i n the same town, the Germans seemed i n some sense another denomination (DM vi ) . ,fThe tragedy of the s i t u ­ a tion culminated i n the indefensible attitude taken by many toward the German Methodists during the World War" (DM 7 6 ) . The German Methodists were separate to the extent of maintaining t h e i r own system of higher education. In the Western Conference there were colleges at Warrenton, Missouri, and Charles C i t y , Iowa, and from I 8 9 6 t i l l the F i r s t World War the German Metho­ d i s t s maintained at Enterprise, Kansas, the Enterprise Normal Academy and Commercial School, 25 As already suggested the war was a greater shock to German Methodism than to other German r e l i g i o u s systems. This was be­ cause the church structure instead of protecting t h i s element helped persecution to the point of forbidding sermons and prayers i n German. "The bishops might have i n s i s t e d upon the extreme need of Ch r i s t i a n brotherhood. Although a few general superintendents did stand by t h e i r German brethren, such Chr i s t ­ ian l o y a l t y was not the dominant attitude" (DM 1 9 0 ). The shock was such that many l o c a l mergers or sometimes dissolutions took place, but the General Conference retained a very sizable number of German and Swedish churches. In fact i n 1 9 2 2 , when there - 5 2 9 - were 467 German charges, there were f i f t y more to be supplied than i n 1900 (MP l 6 6 l ) • One serious problem was the pastoral desertions of the sinking ship; between 1910 and 1922 s i x t y - four preachers transferred from German to English conferences. The German body could not supply i t s own pastoral needs. And yet there were : many ministers much more at home i n German. Of 347 more than half (178) had been born i n Germany. . 2 6 The Methodist General Conference set up a Foreign Language Commission to study the problem; i t reported i n 1 9 2 4 . By t h i s time, at l e a s t outside of the American Legion and i t s a l l i e s , the hysteria was subsiding, and the Commission made a temperate report, implying rather than recommending that the German con­ ferences and German churches should themselves determine when the time had come for merging (MF 1 6 9 0 ). The General Conference then passed measures permitting but not requiring l i q u i d a t i o n , which might or might not be preceded by conferences as units merging with English conferences. The l i q u i d a t i o n began at once, and i n 1933 was completed i n a l l except the Eastern Con­ ference, where there were s t i l l German churches i n 1939» In the Western German Conference the l i q u i d a t i o n took place i n 1926 and 1927 (DM 2 0 9 ) . The Commission i n i t s report noted that i n the German Conferences the churches with a great deal of Eng­ l i s h employed i n the services were the strong v i r i l e organizations (MF 1 6 8 6 ). The report which i t made on the number of churches using various proportions of German did not take the size of the - 5 3 0 - church into consideration. In C a l i f o r n i a and on the P a c i f i c 71$ and 84$ of the German churches had services predominantly i n German, In the St. Louis conference and those near the Great Lakes from 21$ to 29% had the same predominance. For the Western Conference and a l l German Conferences the s t a t i s t i c s were, more completely, as follows: Western Conference A l l Conferences Number of churches 56 530 No. using only German 10 23 No. using much German at every service 10 135 No. using mostly German 1 28 No. using 2/3 English for morning services 18 130 No. using mostly English 2 51 No. using a l l English 15 163 Percentage using predominantly German 48$ 43$ (MF 1688) •27 German Congregationalists f i r s t achieved organization i n Iowa. At Dubuque a church was established i n 1847 a f t e r e f f o r t s beginning the year before (EC xv). In 1900 there were twelve congregations and two missions i n that state. Except at Musca­ t i n e , the members were almost a l l people from Germany, at Mus­ catine too i n early days, for organization there took place i n 1855« The Iowa congregations did not immediately become large, that at Des Moines counted 25 families i n 1 9 0 0 ; i n Muscatine there were then 113 members (Ei 1 9 6 ). The r e a l fortunes of the denomination began i n I 8 7 6 just a f t e r the a r r i v a l of the f i r s t - 5 3 1 - of the Russian Germans, Congregations grew up wherever these newcomers s e t t l e d , as at Chicago and Michigan C i t y . But the r e a l strength of German Congregationalism was i n the north- south t i e r of states i n which Kansas i s found, also on the plains beyond; i t became most vigorous i n Nebraska. The Pa­ c i f i c Coast states ultimately had many congregations. A Ne­ braska German Conference was organized i n 1879t not exclusively Russian German, since t h e i r seminary, founded the year before was at Crete where the "Rooshuns" were not numerous. The con­ gregations were mostly developed from the Bruederschaft, and since those were at t h e i r beginning l a r g e l y small prayer groups, the congregations were often small. But the s p i r i t of indepen­ dence was great i n them and hence they were attracted to Con­ gregationalism (Eis 142'ff.) A General German Conference was formed i n I 8 8 3 . The F i r s t World War was a blow, but i n many congregations the immigrants had arrived so recently that Ger­ man persisted as the language of worship. Indeed when a South­ ern Conference, which included Kansas, was organized i n 1926 the f i r s t minutes were i n German (EC 3 0 9 ). The membership of the German conferences was 1 5 , 8 7 7 i n 1 9 1 6 , 24 ,290 i n 1 9 3 0 , 2 2 , 1 6 6 i n 1937 (EC 1 3 4 , 1 5 2 , 1 6 1 ) . Up to 1 9 3 7 , 37 congregations had ex­ i s t e d i n Colorado (largely i n the beet sugar regioi^, 15 i n Kan­ sas, 57 i n Nebraska. In South Dakota the movement had begun i n 1882 (Eis 145). The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the membership i n 1940 may be judged by - 5 3 2 - the number of d i s t r i c t conferences of the Bruederschaft, of which Kansas, where there were then four or f i v e German Congre­ gational Churches, contained one. North Dakota - 5 Nebraska and Michigan - 4 each South Dakota, Wisconsin, I l l i n o i s , C a l i f o r n i a , Colorado - 2 each Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, 1 "New York - 1 each (Eis 1 1 3 ) . .28 Popularly the terms German Presbyterian and German Reformed were often confused, with some reason, since the theology was the same. However Germans, working under the aegis of the Presby­ t e r i a n church were active i n Missouri by 1 8 4 5 , i n Wisconsin by 1 8 5 2 , i n Iowa by 1859 (Sch 1 3 5 , 4 3 4 , 4 3 5 ) , i n I l l i n o i s by 1 8 5 4 . In 1859 there was a convention of German Presbyterian preachers and elders i n the West; i n 1871 a s i m i l a r meeting i n the East. German Presbyterians, l i k e German Methodists, became such a f t e r a r r i v a l i n the United States. Unlike the Methodists, however, they had a theology and general background closely s i m i l a r to r e l i g i o u s bodies e x i s t i n g i n Germany, that i s the Reformed and the Prussian state churches. Consequently the number of German Presbyterian churches remained l i m i t e d , t h e i r independence not greatly developed, and t h e i r a s s i m i l a t i o n into the general Presbyterian structure with consequent transfer to worship i n English rapid. -533- 29 Volga Germans formed congregations i n various denominations which the present work w i l l consider only i n c i d e n t a l l y . The per­ sistence of German speech i n them has sometimes been great be­ cause the s o c i a l groups attracted to them have been those least l i k e l y to be thrown into the general stream of American l i f e . The Seventh Day Adventist church, the Holiness church, and the Church of God may be mentioned as three such organizations. For the German Church of God, see #57.50. In spite of the l i n g u i s ­ t i c conservatism of the members f i r s t attracted, ultimate Engl- i z i n g has been impossible to r e s i s t i n view of the l i m i t e d mem­ bership and the obvious inference that t h e i r fellow church mem­ bers of other n a t i o n a l i t i e s are worshipping as e f f e c i e n t l y as they 30 Mennonite r e l i g i o u s bodies are numerous; not a l l of them w i l l be considered here. For the present purposes they may be divided into two main groups, those made up la r g e l y of Penn- German s and those whose members are mostly the descendants from immigrants of the l a t t e r part of the nineteenth century, i n great part from Russia, but also from Poland, Germany, Switzer­ land, and G a l i c i a . The Penn-German Mennonite bodies of interest to the present work are the Mennonite Church and the Old Order Amish. The l a t e European group include the General Conference Mennonites, the Mennonite Brethren of North America, the Church of God i n Christ (Mennonite)(Holdeman Church), the Krimmer Breth­ ren, since i960 merged with the M.B., and the Kleine Gemeinde. Consideration of the European groups before t h e i r emigration to -534- the United States i s to be found i n Sections 53-53i 54.00-54.41 for Mennonites i n Russia and Poland, 52.21 f o r Mennonites from Switzerland, 52.71 f o r Mennonites from G a l i c i a , 51«11 f o r Men­ nonites from Germany. 58.31 Mennonite Religious Bodies i n the United States, Membership 1890-1926, as recorded by the Federal Bureau of the Census, Re­ l i g i o u s Bodies, Vol. I I . Number of members to the nearest thousand. 1926 1916 1906 1890 1955 by Menn. Enc. Those whose members are l a r g e l y l a t e immigrants from Europe General Conference 22 15 12 6 36 Mennonite Brethren of N. America 6 5 2 1 12 Krimmer Brethren 1 1 1 not given 2 Holdeman Mennonites 2 1 1/2 1/2 Kleine Gemeinde 1/5 1/6 no data no data smbers mainly Penn-German Mennonite Church 3^ 35 26 27 77 Old Order Amish 6 8 5 2 17 The s t a t i s t i c s above are only for the United States. The Canadian membership has been substantial (GC 14,000 i n 1955; MB 12,000; Hol­ deman 1 ,300). 58.32 Mennonite Bodies reported language usage to the Bureau of the Census i n 1916 as follows; -535- Services i n Services i n Serv.in Ger. Total No. of English only German only W.partcr'^idLe org, memb, org. memb. org. memb. org. memb. General Conference 114 Menn. Brethren 53 Krimmer Brethren 13 Kleine Gemeinde Holdeman Menn. 21 Mennonite Church 307 Old Order Amish 88 15407 33 3125 41 6211 73 12011 5127 10 93 V 41 4933 894 1 44 11 795 German only 1125 5 118 21 1125 34965 227 17962 6 275 79 16928 7665 3 223 84 85 7442 In 1906: General Conference had 8 organizations with 959 members using Eng. only. Mennonite Brethren had no organizations with English only. Holdeman & Krimmer had German only. Mennonite Church; English with German, 122 org. with 16604 members, only German, 32 organizations with 4529 members. Old Order Amish were a l l using German (with or without English). 58.33 The General Conference of Mennonites came into being i n i860 through the union of various groups who regarded them­ selves as progressive and had l e f t the Mennonite Church at various times a f t e r 1847. The impetus f o r u n i t i n g these groups came from the Mennonites from South Germany who settled i n the mid- nineteenth century i n southeastern Iowa and i n I l l i n o i s opposite St. Louis. These people x^ere part of the Mennonites who arrived i n Kansas shortly before or at the same time as those from Rus- -536- s i a and who gave them aid . Those Black Sea Mennonites who were part of the majority organization on the Molotschna were natur­ a l l y attracted by these early r e l a t i o n s into the General Confer­ ence and so were most of the new a r r i v a l s from Western Europe, The Mennonite Encyclopedia analyzes the congregations as made up of German stocks as follows: Swiss-South German stocks; Penn- German ( s t i l l i n Pennsylvania) - 28, South German - 12, Swiss from Switzerland - 11, Swiss from Volhynia - 12, Swiss from G a l i c i a - 5, Penn-Germans formerly Amish (not i n Pennsylvania but i n I l l i ­ nois and Indiana) - 27, former Hutterites (South Dakota) - 7; Dutch-North German stocks; those di r e c t from Danzig area - 6, from South Russia - 70, from Volhynia and near - 11, Canadians from South Russia - 40. Kansas, as we have seen, has congregations of a l l stocks except former Hutterite, former Amish, and the f i r s t and l a s t groups. . The variety of stocks has made f o r Engl-izing i n the General Conference as a whole. As soon as Standard German grew weak the m u l t i p l i c i t y of di a l e c t s required the use of an­ other lingua franca. Among the Black Sea Mennonites the General Conference has generally been regarded as containing the more l i b e r a l group, or the " f a s t e r l o t " depending upon point of view. To an outsider the compromises seem minor ; for instance there i s no giving away on the contention that members be p a c i f i s t s to the point of being conscientious objectors. The consequence i s that few from outside are attracted even into t h i s l i b e r a l branch of Mennonitism. -537- 58•34 Among General Conference Mennonites, l i n g u i s t i c s o l i d i t y has been maintained, Engl-izing reduced i n speed since invasion i s so l i m i t e d * An element i n the general Conference has, however, advanced Eng l - i z i n g . E x i t into the general population i s more frequent than from other Black Sea Mennonite groups, p a r t i c u l a r l y among those capable of entering the professions, and t i e s with the old stock have l e 3 3 frequently been severed a f t e r e x i t than i n other groups, even when the Mennonite f a i t h has been aban­ doned. On the other hand i n d i v i d u a l members of other branches of Black Sea groups, i f they become discontented within t h e i r own sub-denomination have tended more frequently to j o i n the General Conference than to go elsewhere. Such behavior has ex­ erted a somewhat conservative l i n g u i s t i c influence. 58*35 The Mennonite Brethren, reaching formal established status i n Russia i n i860, were represented i n the immigrations to the United States i n the middle of the l870 !s, and then established congregations i n Kansas and Nebraska. Their evangelistic work among other Mennonites continued, but they hardly numbered more than 2000 i n 1900. Their numbers grew mainly by population i n ­ crease. During the troubles necessitating removal from Russia aft e r the Soviet triumph, a great ^nany Mennonite Brethren es­ tablished themselves i n Canada. Their presence has had a very considerable influence i n preserving the use of German as an of­ f i c i a l language of the M.B. Church, and to a certain extent has been a force f o r maintaining Low German among the young i n the United States through students who came to Kansas to study. As -538- population grew by natural increase, the Brethren tended more frequently than General Conference Mennonites to take care of that increase by establishing a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements elsewhere and thus settlements i n the Dakotas and adjacent states and Ca­ nadian provinces grew up. 36 Mennonite Brethren minutes i n both English and German were published f o r the General Church Conference of 19i+8; whenever a committee report was included, the German section referred to the English minutes. The report of the Publication Committee then contained t h i s passage: "We s t i l l have kept the Zionsbote to a great extent German, but the leaning to the English i s d e f i n i t e l y f e l t since many of our churches i n the United States are being conducted i n the English language" (p. 85) . Action on t h i s mat­ ter was: "That we continue to publish the Zionsbote, as much as conditions permit, i n the German language. This should, however, not bar obituaries and missionary reports written i n the English language" (p # 88)« Discussion and action taken on Sunday School and hyiraial publications makes i t clear that the demand for German was from Canada; 5 cents per pupil was allowed for German ma­ t e r i a l i n Canada, the same f o r English material " i n the States." A German hymnal was being assembled i n Canada; one exclusively English was planned f o r the United States* "The majority of our churches (jin Canada] continue to give one or two Sunday nights each month to the "Jugend-verein." "Christian Fellowship £for young people^ has spread to the majority of the churches i n the States" (p # 93)• By 1966 a l l services i n German had ceased i n the Southern D i s t r i c t . -539- #37 The Kleine Gemeinde, born i n South Russia i n l 8 l 4 (section 54*22) and the Krimmer Brethren, who originated i n the Crimea i n 1869 (section 54*23) were d o c t r i n a l l y c l o s e l y related, and both were generally regarded as conservative, Jlfter emigration to America (they were among the early,-- the Kleine Gemeinde in Neb­ raska, the Krimmer people i n Kansas --) the Kleine Gemeinde be­ came more and more iso l a t e d and withdrawn; Engl-izing was for them retarded. The Krimmer people eventually joined the MB, and Engl-izing was s i m i l a r to that i n MB. .38 On Holdeman Mennonites. see Vol. I I , #41.27. .39 The strength of the Mennonites from Europe i n r e s i s t i n g English has l a i n i n the s o l i d i t y of the d i s t r i c t i n Kansas oc­ cupied by emigrants from the Molotschna area and the non-con­ formist t r a d i t i o n of the whole group. Among the Molotschna peo­ ple i n the heart of the concentrated Mennonite d i s t r i c t i n 1966, persons who had learned to t a l k by the beginning of the Second World War s t i l l were p r o f i c i e n t i n Low German. Engl-izing of the Black Sea Mennonites has gone on more ra p i d l y elsewhere, but with less speed i n the Dakotas and Minnesota than i n Oklahoma. The other groups, the Swiss, the Prussians, the South Germans were smaller units and resisted less f i r m l y than the Black Sea people, but more fir m l y than many Protestant Volgans. The Men­ nonites were hampered i n t h e i r resistance, however, by the fact that a f t e r the f i r s t great movement l a t e r emigration went to Can­ ada rather than Kansas and the states near i t . lj.0 The Mennonite Church was f i r m l y established as a Penn-German i n s t i t u t i o n i n the l 8 t h century and nearly a l l other Mennonite organizations i n North America may be regarded as separations from i t (MB, KMB and Kleine Gemeinde are exceptions, but not the General Conference Church nor the Holdeman Church). Therefore, i t s members are c a l l e d "Old Mennonites." I t spread with some strength through a l l the states west from Pennsylvania as f a r as Kansas and into Michigan and Ontario. I t i s stronger i n Kansas than i n any adjacent state, though Nebraska approaches Kansas. In 1916 there were 16,000 members i n Pennsylvania, 5*000 i n Ohio, 3*000 i n Indiana, and something l i k e 1,000 i n I l l i n o i s , Iowa, Ne­ braska, Kansas, and V i r g i n i a . Unless Amish i n preceding gene­ rations or l i v i n g i n the heart of the Penn-German d i s t r i c t , "Old" Mennonites gave up "Dutch" before the F i r s t World War. ij.1 The Amish separated from other Mennonites beginning i n Europe i n 1693* so that they were d i s t i n c t from Old Mennonites from the beginnin g of settlement i n America. They spread into the same states as the Old Mennonites and are usually to be found, i f well established, i n the same areas or at least close­ l y adjoining ones. In 1916 they numbered roughly 1,000 i n Penn­ sylvania, 2,000 each i n Ohio and Indiana, roughly 500 i n Iowa, I l l i n o i s , and Kansas. In a study of Engl-izing they are most in t e r e s t i n g . They have almost a l l become b i l i n g u a l , but German remains f i r m l y i n t h e i r culture, so that i n 1966 Old Order Amish children were p r o f i c i e n t and active i n i t s use. "The Old Order Amish have continued to grow because of t h e i r high b i r t h rate and high retention of children i n the group" (ME I I I , 43)* The nu­ merical count provided i n section 58*25 and above in th i s section i s f o r baptized members; with children the Mennonite Encyclopedia estimates 50,000. The b i r t h rate i s higher than the retention of children, f o r more than one community (for example, Kalona, Iowa) has Old Mennonite churches l a r g e l y made up of persons who have l e f t the Amish. Such families usually continue the use of Penn-German at l e a s t for another generation, longer on farms. The Old Order Amish are "distinguished by t h e i r non-conformist attitudes and resistance to s o c i a l change, and characterized by worship i n private homes, a s t r i c t l y r u r a l way of l i f e , a horse- and-buggy culture, the use of a d i a l e c t of the German language, and ! p l a i n ! dress" (ME I I I , 42)* This quotation savors of some impatience of other Mennonites with the Old Order Amish; non­ conformity seems to them carried too f a r , but t h i s non-confor­ mity, which sometimes leads to clashes with school a u t h o r i t i e s , i s undoubtedly what has preserved the use of German. 42 The Defenseless Mennonite Church of North America became > the Evangelical Mennonite Church. I t originated i n Indiana, Adams County, i n 1864. In 1954 i t had 19 congregations, Ohio ~ 4# Indiana - 5, I l l i n o i s - 3, Kansas - 1. The Kansas congrega­ t i o n i s i n Reno County (247-1 2) south of S t e r l i n g not f a r from other Mennonite groups. 43 Dunkard (or Dunker) i s a popular name for a member of the Church of the Brethren. They were also called and c a l l e d them­ selves German Baptists u n t i l long after t h e i r establishment i n ~542~ Kansas. The group originated among p i e t i s t s i n Germany very early i n the eighteenth century and they were represented among immi­ grants to Pennsylvania i n 1719. In 1729 Dunkards from Schwarzenau near Berleburg where the denomination was born formed a congrega­ tio n near Germantown, Pennsylvania (M 10). They resembled the Old Mennonites i n many respects, but were enough di f f e r e n t so that close personal alli a n c e s were rare. They spread into ap­ proximately the same areas as the Old Mennonites but became some­ what more numerous than that branch of Mennonitism: i n 1916 Men­ nonite Church - 77.000, Church of the Brethren - 105,000. They did not remain without schism, but the Church of the Brethren i s the main section, both i n the United States as a whole and i n Kansas. They were i n 1916 numerous i n these states: Pennsylvania 27.000, V i r g i n i a - 12,000, Ohio - 11,000, Indiana - 12,000, I l l i ­ nois - 5,000, Kansas - 4,940. The Dunkards became Engl-ized i n church services faster than the Old Mennonites. In 1916 only 5|^ of the members of the Church of the Brethren were i n churches with some services i n German, while German had not been eliminated i n 48J$ of the Old Mennonite churches. The Dunkards had no branches as saturated with German as the Amish and as the immi­ grants from Russia. 44 River Brethren are o f f i c i a l l y known as Brethren i n C h r i s t ; they originated i n Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and spread westward especially to Ohio. The Kansas contingent, however, came mostly direct from Lancaster County. In 1906 of 3.397 mem­ bers, 1,872 dwelt i n Pennsylvania, 517 i n Ohio, 450 i n Kansas. In 1916, h^fo of t h e i r members dwelt i n congregations using German and English; i n 1906 i t had been \\S>%. The usage of German among them i s quite s i m i l a r to the case among Old Mennonites. 45 Among German stocks the members of the Perm-German churches exhibit more v a r i a t i o n , considering the dates of t h e i r a r r i v a l i n the United States, than any other stock, but conservation of German after the F i r s t World War existed only among the Amish or fami l i e s that had previously been Amish. In general the "plainer" the members of a church were, the more conservative of German were they. 46 The Apostolic Christian f?fri3T » r » .K . hag been an e s s e n t i a l l y Swiss church. Though no inconsiderable number of i t s members come from German states neighboring Switzerland, i t d i s t i n c t l y has a region­ a l character as w e l l as having the t r a i t s that the name would sug­ gest. In Switzerland i n 1832 Samuel Frtfhlich organized a congre­ gation. "His f i r s t followers were equally from the Reformed church and from d i s s a t i s f i e d Mennonites." The relationship to Mennonites has been close enough so that outsiders frequently refer to the denomination by that name. Indeed, the f i r s t con­ gregation i n the U.S. was organized among Amish i n New York i n 1852 . However, Swiss emigration soon displaced the center of a c t i v i t y to I l l i n o i s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to the section east of Peoria. In 1916 the church had 4*766 members. Of these 2,165 were i n I l l i n o i s , 437 i n Kansas, 428 i n Ohio, 290 i n Iowa and the rest scattered. I4.7 F r e e - t h i n k i n g Germans i n the middle h a l f of the nineteenth century were a common phenomenon among immigrants to the c i t i e s of the United S t a t e s . They f u r n i s h e d the i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e f o r some time, and, as t h e i r t h i r s t f o r p r o s e l y t e s was as great as that of ardent church members, t h e i r ideas found wide expression. They were p a s s i o n a t e l y c e r t a i n of the s u p e r i o r i t y of German c i v i ­ l i z a t i o n and worked v i g o r o u s l y f o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n of German speech, but they a l s o became b i l i n g u a l as soon as p o s s i b l e i n or­ der to i n f l u e n c e Americans and thus they set a model f o r t h e i r f e l l o w countrymen. Their scorn of r e l i g i o n o r d i n a r i l y prevented cooperation w i t h the churches, and thus t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p was ex­ erte d l a r g e l y over the tumultuous young, who were l a t e r q u i t e w i l l i n g to desert t h e i r l i b e r a l i s m as p a r t of the process of set ­ t l i n g down. The Wisconsin German company that during the C i v i l War s t a b l e d i t s horses i n the German C a t h o l i c church at Leaven­ worth expressed the f r e e - t h i n k i n g s p i r i t , but those s o l d i e r s , on r e t u r n i n g home a f t e r the war, doubtless abandoned such behavior along w i t h the l o o t i n g h a b i t s that accompanied t h e i r i n v a s i o n of the South. The leaders themselves i n many cases became much more sober i n l a t e r years. Hense-Jensen describes t h i s process thusj ?fThe somewhat arrogant scorn w i t h which the l i b e r a l p o r t i o n of the Germans here used to be accustomed to look down upon German Prot e s t a n t i s m has w i t h time given way to b e t t e r understanding. The naive b e l i e f , which reigned f o r long years i n these c i r c l e s , that a l l the i n t e l l e c t u a l t a l e n t , education and knowledge Germans possessed was t o be found i n t h e i r ranks natural l y had to weaken, as i t g r a d u a l l y became c l e a r that many men of great i n t e l l e c t u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e were t a k i n g part i n P r o t e s t a n t e f f o r t s " (H, I I , l 8 l ) . The Free-thinkers sowed the seeds of Americanism i n v o l u n t a r i l y but were of minor importance i n E n g l - i z i n g the generation that a r r i v e d i n the l 8 7 0 fs and l 8 8 0 ?s. 5>0 Fondness f o r s o c i e t i e s outside the churches among the German immigrants to the United States was widespread i f they dwelt here i n towns or c i t i e s . The r u r a l groups u s u a l l y contented themselves w i t h r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s , or i f they d i d not, soon l o s t t h e i r German ch a r a c t e r , immixed i n the general p o p u l a t i o n . This urban tendency manifested i t s e l f by membership sometimes i n s o c i e t i e s meant f o r Germans of a l l stocks, sometimes i n s o c i e t i e s to which only immigrants from one German state belonged, sometimes i n chapters of "American" lodges set aside f o r Germans. Not i n f r e ­ quently Germans, besides belonging to o r g a n i z a t i o n s created by themselves, were members of groups where they were i n d i s c r i m i n ­ a t e l y mingled w i t h the general p o p u l a t i o n . Such membership of course promoted E n g l - i z i n g . The o s t e n s i b l e aim of the s o c i e t i e s was u s u a l l y s p e c i f i c ; s i n g i n g , gymnastics, m i l i t a r y d r i l l , mutual a i d were among the most u s u a l l y declared a c t i v i t i e s . But what­ ever the most p u b l i c i z e d a c t i v i t y might be, f e l l o w s h i p was ardent, 'and the f l o w of conversation was promoted. The Germans were a l ­ ways declared enemies of p r o h i b i t i o n a h o s t i l i t y that h e l d t o - gether men of the most v a r i e d background. In the mid-twentieth century no contemner of P u r i t a n i c a l behavior has been more e l o ­ quent than the spokesmen f o r the German immigrants were. The manner of observing Sundays was a matter of mutual contempt be­ tween the average Protes t a n t American community and any German community whether C a t h o l i c or P r o t e s t a n t . The German l a x i t y i n Sunday observance seems to have been considered by "Americans 1 1 a greater f l a w i n them than i n o ther s t o c k s , a t l e a s t i n part because organized n o n - r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s on Sunday were more obvious among them than elsewhere. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y there was here an i s o l a t i n g f a c t o r . c5>1 German S o c i e t i e s f o r people born i n s p e c i f i c s t a tes or r e ­ gions were more f l o u r i s h i n g during the e a r l i e r p e r i o d of the nineteenth century immigration than l a t e r . The formation o f the German Empire drew together Germans abroad as w e l l as at home so that p r o g r e s s i v e l y a f t e r l 8 ? l there was l e s s a t t e n t i o n p a i d to t h e i r l o c a l o r i g i n s than i n Europe, where geography s t i l l made a Bavarian a c u t e l y aware that he was a Bavarian. The r e l a t i v e smallness of great numbers of mid-western towns a l s o made the p r e s e r v a t i o n of p r o v i n c i a l i s m among Germans more d i f f i c u l t . The one l i n e that was sure to be f i n a l l y drawn t i l l w e l l a f t e r the F i r s t World War was that d i v i d i n g the immigrants from the Vater- land from those who came from Russia or indeed from any other land not immediately adjacent to Germany. Except among the Mennonites the p r e j u d i c e against die Russen was very n e a r l y on a par w i t h that f e l t by "Americans" f o r "Roosh fns." Among the Men­ nonites a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e was reserved by a l l f o r " d i e Polen." I f r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s were to be maintained among Germans, and c l a s s d i s t i n c t i o n s , f o r the prosperous immigrants soon formed an e l i t e separate from the newly a r r i v e d and the economic laggards, there was ha r d l y room f o r organized d i v i s i o n s based on pr o v i n c e s . The importance f o r Kansas of the existence of these p r o v i n c i a l s o c i e t i e s i n centers l i k e Chicago, Milwaukee, S t . Louis and C i n ­ c i n n a t i was that men who came out of the s o c i e t i e s i n the c i t i e s to Kansas communities f e l t l e s s drawn to Germans from other r e ­ gions, and t h e r e f o r e were more ready t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h the gene­ r a l p o p u l a t i o n when they found that there were few other Wurtem- burgers or Hanoverians at hand. Consequently they were more ex­ posed to E n g l - i z i n g than those who came from places where s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s were almost always f o r Germans i n g e n e r a l . German chapters of lodges such as the AOUW and the Odd P e l - lows were widespread a t the end of the nineteenth century. For ins t a n c e , at Leavenworth, Kansas, there were i n 1882 three Ger­ man chapters of IOOF and one of AOUW (Andreas F 2j36). The Ger­ mans who wrote about t h e i r f e l l o w s i n the t h i r t y years before the F i r s t World War seldom mention these lodges, but the b i o g r a ­ phies i n the s u b s c r i p t i o n h i s t o r i e s make c l e a r t h e i r prevalence. E v i d e n t l y , membership i n a lodge composed p a r t l y of non-Germans req u i r e d the use of E n g l i s h . I n the all-German chapters the r e ­ l a t i o n s to the n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n d i d not a l l o w E n g l - i z i n g to be much delayed. .52 Though the German m i l i t a r y company had l i t t l e development i n Kansas, i n the two or three decades before the C i v i l War marching together was a f a v o r i t e pastime of young immigrants from Germany. And these companies, where d i s c i p l i n e d response to an order was already w e l l i n s t i l l e d before the f i r s t shot at -5^8- Port Sumpter was f i r e d , were of very great help when they j o i n e d the Northern army. Their importance at S t . Louis has been f r e e l y acknowledged. The m i l i t a r y company at Hermann, M i s s o u r i , marched to Mexico a decade and a h a l f before. These m a r t i a l experiences made f o r E n g l - i z i n g e s p e c i a l l y i n the C i v i l War when f r i e n d and foe o r d i n a r i l y spoke nothing but E n g l i s h . The l i n g u i s t i c i n f l u ­ ence of the German m i l i t a r y company, which had imposed i s o l a t i o n before the war, was reversed i n a c t u a l campaigning. The veterans were p r o f i c i e n t i n E n g l i s h . 53 German s i n g i n g s o c i e t i e s — they were u s u a l l y f o r German men — sprang up even more wid e l y than companies e x e r c i s i n g as s o l d i e r s . Whether they were c a l l e d Sangverein, M&nnerchor, or L i e d e r k r a n Z j t h e y drew Germans together i n response t o the same need f o r i n t e g r a t e d behavior that gave r i s e t o the m i l i t a r y com­ panies, and s i n g i n g a c t i v i t i e s could more e a s i l y be attended by generous l i b a t i o n s than could m i l i t a r y d r i l l . By the 1830*s they were i n existence (Pa I I , 272). Here of course was a s o c i a l man­ i f e s t a t i o n that could e a s i l y be joined to r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r ; sep­ arate clubs might keep C a t h o l i c Germans separated from Protes­ t a n t s , and both out of the dangerous i n f l u e n c e of Free Thinkers. Here was an a c t i v i t y d i s t i n c t l y p r e s e r v a t i v e of German speech. Songs always p e r i s h l a s t as an immigrant s tock abandons the l a n ­ guage i t brought w i t h i t , and c h o r a l s i n g i n g impresses words f o r l i f e even upon d u l l memories. The German c h o r a l s o c i e t i e s were perhaps l e s s e f f e c t i v e as r a l l y i n g points than the corresponding phenomenon among the Welsh, but i t was only because the Germans -5^9- ' could r a l l y about s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t standards. S>1| Mutual a i d s o c i e t i e s , as predecessors f o r f i r s t , business, , and then government c o n t r o l l e d s o c i a l insurance, were widespread among a l l immigrant groups. They could be joined to campinalis- mo, as among the I t a l i a n s , and sometimes too among other s t o c k s , i n c l u d i n g the Germans. Such s o c i e t i e s were often i n d i s t i n g u i s h ­ able from lodges. They might al s o be replaced when churches or o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u b s i d i a r y to the churches assumed t h e i r f u n c t i o n . But they were always a means by which i s o l a t e d men i n a strange environment could j o i n together so as not u t t e r l y to be crushed by misfortune. E a r l y German immigrants who f r e q u e n t l y a r r i v e d without f a m i l y connections and i n many cases without membership i n any group, sought the mutual a i d s o c i e t y as a means of se­ c u r i t y as soon as they had the money f o r the dues. Settlement- forming s o c i e t i e s such as those that founded i n Kansas the towns of Eudora, Humboldt, and Windhorst grew up i n American c i t i e s among Germans more f r e q u e n t l y than among other stocks except p o s s i b l y Swedes. Since they concentrated Germans together at s p e c i f i c p o i n t s , they were a very a c t i v e force I n propagating the use of German. Mutual a i d s o c i e t i e s of the more o r d i n a r y type f u r n i s h i n g support In time of i l l n e s s or f o r b u r i a l were al s o numerous among Germans. These groups were a v i d of member­ sh i p , and consequently drew together Germans who otherwise might soon have been dispersed i n the general p o p u l a t i o n . Their l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t , though i t might be t r a n s i t o r y , was s t i l l a force p r e s e r v a t i v e of German. -550- Page 550 is Missing i n the Turnverein, r a t h e r i t increased i t as a means of f l o u t i n g the P u r i t a n s , but i t separated Germans from most "Americans" of that day, who, whether they drank or not, could not approve such a p u b l i c s t i m u l a t i o n to r i o t o u s conduct. And the separation pro­ moted the p r e s e r v a t i o n of German almost as much as d i d the oppor­ t u n i t y f o r i t s use without l o s s of p r e s t i g e at Turner meetings. The f e e l i n g f o r group support of the use of German -- i n c i d e n ­ t a l l y of Standard German, f o r the Turnverein had no p r o v i n c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s — was Increased by the r e g i o n a l contests between s o c i e t i e s which i n the palmy years were w e l l attended by con­ s i d e r a b l e delegations from a l l member u n i t s . Two things, however, worked a g a i n s t the power of the Turn­ v e r e i n f o r p r e s e r v i n g German u n i t y and the German language. One was the h o s t i l i t y of the churches, at l e a s t o f f i c i a l l y , not so much of t h e i r members as i n d i v i d u a l s . The h o s t i l i t y was great­ est i n the e a r l y days, because the Turnverein was dominated by the f r e e t h i n k i n g F o r t y - e i g h t e r s , who d i d not h e s i t a t e t o use the s o c i e t y as a forum. Hense-Jensen s a i d squarely i n 1902, "The Turnvereine are of course, on account o f t h e i r out-spoken a n t i - e c c l e s i a s t i c a l tendencies, t o t a l l y impossible f o r C a t h o l i c s and Lutherans" (H, I I 208). The other reason c e r t a i n powerful Germans d i d not belong to i t , and more were kept from j o i n i n g by t h e i r wives was t h a t , e s p e c i a l l y as time went on, the Turn­ v e r e i n had low s o c i a l s t a t u s among Germans. V u l g a r i t y was thought to be u n i v e r s a l there and v i r t u a l l y u n r e s t r a i n e d . The f o l l o w i n g j i n g l e says something on t h i s score as w e l l as on the -552- p e r s i s t e n c e of p r o v i n c i a l p a t r i o t i s m . Hans Breitmann shoined de Turners: — Mein G o t t l how dey drinked and shwore! Der was Swabians and T y r o l e r s Und Bavarian's by de score; Some v e l l e r s coomed from de Rheinland Und Frankfort-an-der-Main Boot dere vas only one Sharman dere Und he vas a H o l s t e i n Dane. The Turners, of course thought that they could make out very w e l l without the snobs, but the l o s s of t h i s element, which i s always l i k e l y to be a guardian of the p u r i t y of as w e l l as of the modesty of language, promoted l i n g u i s t i c slackness among the Turners, and i f at a s o c i a l hour t h e i r c h i l d r e n ran among them shouting to each other i n the language of the school p l a y ­ ground, t h e i r ears were seldom offended. The f i r s t Turnverein i n the United States was founded i n l8i|8 and by l8£o the chapters had become so numerous t h a t a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n came i n t o being. N a t i v i s m was becoming very strong and rowdy o p p o s i t i o n to the s o c i e t i e s became such that i n s e v e r a l places the Turners "were f o r c e d to defend them­ selves w i t h mighty f i s t s " (Or 35D# Undismayed, the Turners added p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n to t h e i r other a c t i v i t i e s . In a l l i t s h i s t o r y the s o c i e t y d i d not eschew p o l i t i c a l involvement, but i t cannot be s a i d that the members as a body became v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d ; r a t h e r the V e r e i n f u r n i s h e d a forum to ambitious can- d i d a t e s . The enlistments during the C i v i l War c a r r i e d away so many members t h a t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n afterward became necessary. As immigration i n c r e a s e d , the s o c i e t y throve. A t r a i n i n g i n ­ s t i t u t e f o r gymnastics teachers was founded i n Milwaukee i n i860 where i t l a s t e d u n t i l 1907 and then was t r a n s f e r r e d to Indian­ a p o l i s (Cr 3^3)• About 1900 there seems to have been a weakening among Germans of the t a s t e f o r team gymnastics; at the same time the general American p u b l i c became e n t h u s i a s t i c f o r gymnastic education, and p u b l i c schools and c o l l e g e s Introduced i t Into t h e i r c u r r i c u l u m . Thus the other a c t i v i t i e s of the Turnverein became r e l a t i v e l y more important. The c u l t u r a l promotion had begun before the C i v i l War and had been t h e r e a f t e r an a b i d i n g f e a t u r e . The fortunes of the s o c i e t y as a whole became l e s s f i r m w i t h the passing of the era of great immigration and the coming of the hard times of the n i n e t i e s . The b a s i s of the s o c i e t y i n p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e made i t a young man's o r g a n i z a t i o n by d e f i n i t i o n . When the young men were almost a l l of the second generation, they had no great ambition to take over from t h e i r elders an o r g a n i z a t i o n that made them d i f f e r e n t from Americans; thus the l e a d e r s h i p grew o l d , and the h a b i t s of the members tended more toward the easy c h a i r and gossip over t h e i r beer. In 1908 In the Union of Turners there were 236 Vereine and about 1|0,000 members. The armchair tendency i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the s t a t i s t i c s from Iowa i n 1900. There were then 16 Vereine w i t h 1,!|22 mem­ bers which was an increase of lij .7 over the preceding year (the economy was becoming s t r o n g e r ) . Of the 1,1|22 members 127 were " a c t i v e , " t h a t i s , presumably p a r t i c i p a n t s i n gymnastics, and t h i s was a decrease of 3^4- or 21% from the preceding year. As po s s i b l e replacements f o r these " a c t i v e s " there were I4.82 boy p u p i l s of gymnastics 282 g i r l p u p i l s * Only 6 Vereine main­ t a i n e d teachers ( E i 292). The Turnverein was even worse h i t by the F i r s t World War than the churches. The s o c i e t i e s had openly p a r t i c i p a t e d i n p o l i t i c s and were f a i r game f o r p o l i ­ t i c i a n s . T heir beer-dispensing gave t h e i r enemies an easy ground f o r l e g a l a c t i o n — w i t h i n Kansas and numerous other s t a t e s before 1919, n a t i o n a l l y afterward. P r a c t i c a l l y every­ where the i n f l u e n c e of the Turnverein f o r the perpetuation of the German language c o l l a p s e d w i t h the F i r s t World War. 56 The Hermannss8hne was another n a t i o n a l German s o c i e t y , founded i n New York i n l8if0, a c h i e v i n g n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n l85>7* and w i t h some 30,000 members i n 1900. I t s growth was slow, and only a f t e r 1870 w i t h the r i s e of German n a t i o n a l i s m d i d i t begin t o f l o u r i s h . Even so i t reached Iowa o n l y i n 1886 ( E i 271) and never r e c e i v e d great extension i n Kansas. U n l i k e the Turnverein i t d i d not have an unde r l y i n g a c t i v i t y p a r a l l e l to gymnastics, ^-t was f r a n k l y a lodge, and an instrument of propaganda f o r German and Germans. The meetings were to be conducted i n German f o r e v e r , and i t was to be "a powerful f a c ­ t o r i n the maintenance and the advance of German language, man­ ners and customs" ( E i 285)• I t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s doomed i t at the time of the F i r s t World War. -555- 57 The German-American N a t i o n a l Union was founded i n 1901 and met i n n a t i o n a l convention b i e n n i a l l y i n the years before the F i r s t World War. In 1909 i t had a membership between one and a h a l f and two m i l l i o n (Cr 609)• I t made no commitments to p o l i t ­ i c a l p a r t i e s and i t outlawed a l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of r e l i g i o u s ques t i o n s . I t s aims were f r a n k l y p r o p a g a n d i s t i e , and i t s i n t e n t i o n s were to exert p o l i t i c a l pressures. I t was against r e s t r i c t i o n of immigration; i t advocated MThe r e p e a l of obsolete laws no longer i n harmony w i t h the s p i r i t of the times, which hamper fre e trade and d i m i n i s h the personal freedom of the c i t i z e n " (Cr 608), that i s , p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s against German products and laws implementing p r o h i b i t i o n . I t i s not d i f f i c u l t to see where the sources of f i n a n c i a l backing l a y . For the present pur pose what i s most i n t e r e s t i n g I s the advocacy of "the in t r o d u c ­ t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n i n German i n t o the p u b l i c school * . . [and of~] the foundation of adul t educational groups as n u r s e r i e s f o r the German language and l i t e r a t u r e " (Cr 608). These proposals seem to t r e a t German as a f o r e i g n language whose study i s to be recommended r a t h e r than the language of a great group demanding p a r i t y f o r i t . By i m p l i c a t i o n E n g l i s h i s accepted as "the l a n ­ guage of the land."-* But a group w i t h such aims was i n no p o s i - # For German consumption alone, propagandists were l e s s reserved. E. Mannhardt wrote as f o l l o w s : "The N a t i o n a l Union concerns I t s e l f w i t h a l l German common i n t e r e s t s ; i n the f i r s t rank, the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the German language and German mores and maintenance of the s p i r i t u a l t i e w i t h the o l d Fatherland. As a means i t strenuously endeavors t o advance i n s t r u c t i o n i n the German language and i n gymnastics, the German t h e a t e r , and the German press £also personal freedom^ 11 (Ma II I : i | . : 6 0 ) . t i o n to r e s i s t the f o r c e s at work during the F i r s t World War. 58 Ad hoc o r g a n i z a t i o n s of Germans were a common phenomenon from q u i t e e a r l y . The German conventions at P i t t s b u r g i n 1837* 1838, 1839, and l 8 i f l were an e a r l y example. The defeat of Van Buren whom the conventions were supporting ended the s e s s i o n s . But German p o l i t i c a l meetings were common. In Kansas the German conventions of 1867 to work against p r o h i b i t i o n are examples (see s e c t i o n 9*21+). N a t i o n a l or r e g i o n a l s i n g i n g f e s t i v a l s supported by no permanent o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o began i n the l830's. 59 The German prop e n s i t y f o r s o c i e t i e s on the whole g r e a t l y favored the p r e s e r v a t i o n of German. The s o c i e t i e s i n t h i s r e ­ spect had, however, at l e a s t two weak spots. Their tendency to enter i n t o p o l i t i c s made the use of E n g l i s h i n t h a t domain im­ p e r a t i v e a t l e a s t i n t r e a t i n g w i t h a l l i e s and i n arguing w i t h t h e i r opponents. The very f a c t of t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n , o f t e n w i t h v i s i b l e r e a l e s t a t e , made them obvious t a r g e t s f o r t h e i r enemies In the F i r s t World War, e s p e c i a l l y as most of them made no s e c r e t of t h e i r pro-Germanism i n the years preceding America's entry i n t o the war. The wrecking of the s o c i e t i e s allowed pub­ l i c o p i n i o n to work d i r e c t l y upon i n d i v i d u a l s to f o r b i d them the use of German. -557- • 6 Education i n German was not uncommon i n the elementary p u b l i c schools through much of the nineteenth century, but i n the 1880 Ts, I t gave way before attacks (FK 233-236). In e a r l y years German schools unsponsored by a church were founded, f o r instance at St. Louis i n 1837 (K 326), at Milwaukee In l8£l (K 288). They were l i k e l y to have t h e i r c h i e f support from the f r e e t h i n k i n g element. Such schools became weak as the f r e e ­ t h i n k e r s became l e s s numerous, p a r t i c u l a r l y because of the ec­ onomic advantages of p u b l i c school education which f o r a while sometimes i n c l u d e d the teaching of German. An example of t h i s weakening was the Zions-Schule i n Baltimore. Founded before I836, i n 1870 i t s enrollment exceeded 800, ftThe school d e c l i n e d i n num­ bers when the German-American p u b l i c schools s t a r t e d i n B a l t i ­ more.... The f r e e - t u i t i o n of the p u b l i c schools a t t r a c t e d " (Fa I I 2I4.3) • About 1890 " a f t e r a long s t r u g g l e " the school cl o s e d . German C a t h o l i c p a r o c h i a l schools were numerous i n d i s t r i c t s where a l l C a t h o l i c s were Germans (Ba 272, Sch 31), more numerous than p a r o c h i a l schools f o r other stocks I n c l u d i n g I r i s h , and they were e f f i c i e n t , but there were as soon as pos­ s i b l e l i k e l y to be pressures from the h i e r a r c h y , or from e l s e ­ where w i t h the backing of h i e r a r c h i a l benevolence, promoting extensive use of E n g l i s h . The process i s w e l l I l l u s t r a t e d i n Kansas among, the Volgan C a t h o l i c s of E l l i s County (#14.7• 03 ft.)* The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the school systems of the M i s s o u r i and Wisconsin Synod Lutherans has been discussed I n S e c t i o n 58.16. The v i g o r w i t h which both C a t h o l i c s and Lutherans r e s i s t e d -558- laws a t t a c k i n g t h e i r school was t r e a t e d i n Sections 56.1j.l to 56 #ij.5» Summer schools and Sunday schools i n other denominations taught p u p i l s how to read German, p a r t i c u l a r l y the German needed f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n , very commonly i n t o the e a r l y years of the t w e n t i e t h century* In 1962 Kloss estimated that i n the l a t e 1 9 3 0 's 9 0 , 0 0 0 c h i l d r e n were r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n German (FK 2i(.2). Schooling i n German, provided by the churches, natu­ r a l l y tended to impress the vocabulary of r e l i g i o n upon the p u p i l s , and boys and g i r l s thus taught continued to be l i n g u i s ­ t i c a l l y German i n t h i s domain long a f t e r they had been E n g l - i z e d i n other r e s p e c t s . o7 The German press was s t r o n g , and the newspapers were num­ erous, a l s o j o u r n a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l i g i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s (see i n t e r a l i a FH 55)• Since German was the language that they em­ ployed, t h e i r bread-winning language, the e d i t o r s were p r a c t i ­ c a l l y always ardent propagandists f o r i t s use and i n general f o r the maintenance and e x a l t a t i o n of German c u l t u r e . The papers themselves were documentary proofs of the e d i t o r ' s c o n v i c t i o n s , and so were most vulnerable to a t t a c k . Therefore, during the f u r o r of the F i r s t World War the German press c o l l a p s e d except f o r some r e l i g i o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s . Though, i n a few cases, there were s u r v i v a l s and r e v i v a l s i t was no longer a major force a f t e r 1 9 1 8 . S t i l l the d a i l y Chicago Abendpost had a c i r c u l a t i o n of 2 6 , 0 0 0 i n 1962 (FK 21+5). Leaving aside a l l eighteenth century p u b l i c a t i o n s , the e a r l i e s t German newspaper was the Lancaster, Ohio, H A d l e r des Westens" which appeared i n 1800. Beginning -559- In the I83O fs newspapers that became w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and wide­ l y c i r c u l a t e d sprang up i n the c i t i e s , the "New Yorker S t a a t s - z e i t u n g " (183^), the C i n c i n n a t i "Volksblatt" ( I 8 3 6 ), the S t . Louis "Anzeiger des Westens" (1836), the Chicago " I l l i n o i s S t a a t s z e i t u n g " (l8ij.7), the Milwaukee "Wisconsin Banner" (1844), are s u f f i c i e n t examples. The best known r e l i g i o u s j o u r n a l s were the C a t h o l i c "Wahrheitsfreund" e s t a b l i s h e d i n C i n c i n n a t i i n l837> the Methodist " C h r i s t l i c h e Apologete," 1838 i n the same c i t y and the M i s s o u r i Synod's "Lutheraner," f i r s t p u blished i n S t . Louis i n 1814!^ . The German papers, i n c l u d i n g the church p u b l i c a t i o n s , were i n the f o r e f r o n t of p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , and argued f u r i o u s l y w i t h each other as w e l l as w i t h "American" p u b l i c a t i o n s . F o r t y - e i g h t e r s w i t h " r a t i o n a l i s t i c ideas were f r e q u e n t l y e d i t o r s of the non- denominational papers and there was oft e n debate between them and the church papers." In 1908 there were p r i n t e d i n the United States over 700 newspapers and magazines i n German, of which some 100 were d a i l i e s ; s e v e r a l of them put out e d i t i o n s of from 25,000 to 100,000 copies (Cr ). .8 The f a m i l i e s of German emigrants were p e c u l i a r l y s u c e p t i - b l e to E n g l - i z i n g f o r c e s when they were exposed t o them, and only i n s o l i d German r u r a l d i s t r i c t s were they r e l a t i v e l y im­ mune. The s u s c e p t i b i l i t y was perhaps no greater than t h a t of the Scandinavians, but the l a t t e r were more s o l i d l y Lutheran and t h e r e f o r e could not be attacked from so many d i f f e r e n t angles. The ease w i t h which these Germanic peoples have been accepted by the general p o p u l a t i o n i s the probable e x p l a n a t i o n of t h i s phenomenon. C h i l d r e n tending to r e v o l t against t h e i r e l d e r s , as i s the wont of adolescents, by r e j e c t i n g the marks th a t made them German -- t h e i r language was the most evident — were welcomed by "Americans 1 1 as one of the e l e c t without f u r ­ t h e r ado, at l e a s t among people a t the same economic l e v e l , p a r t ­ l y because of t h e i r complexions, p a r t l y because the changes i n mores that were necessary were small compared w i t h those needed by "new immigrants." For immigrant f a t h e r s the shock of t h i s independence of the young was much greater than f o r mothers, who themselves b e n e f i t e d from the l e s s marked ascendancy of husbands i n the United S t a t e s . The women as always i n Immigrant groups preserved the language of t h e i r mothers b e t t e r than the men, but they were not the agents who sought to r e q u i r e the c h i l d r e n to speak German. Persons of the second generation who t e l l of household use of German maintained by a u t h o r i t y i n v a r i a b l y r e ­ f e r to the p a t e r n a l r u l e . Fathers were sometimes stubborn, but they had t h e i r p o i n t of v u l n e r a b i l i t y . They had themselves be­ come b i l i n g u a l and they knew t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n needed E n g l i s h . They e a s i l y surrendered to "the language of the l a n d " f o r use outside of home and church. Von Bosse records i n 1908 that John B. Beaslee was sur­ p r i s e d at how many Germans d e l i b e r a t e l y gave up that language (B 391). Von Bosse hi m s e l f voiced an appeal f o r b i l i n g u a l i s m : "What i n the f i r s t place separates to some extent the Ger­ man from the native-born American i s the d i f f e r e n c e i n language. This ob s t a c l e to mutual understanding should be e l i m i n a t e d i n / <*561* so far as possible. • # « Every German who wishes to make America his home... should learn Bngllsku. l a owes i t to his own interests and to the country. But i f i am asked whether to accomplish this he must throw aside and forget the German languagef I aay#,.*Mol". Ha should above a l l not become a p l t i * able creature who becomes despicable because of his thoroughly barbarous tnglish and his affectation of having forgotten and renounced dersian11 (B 3 2 0 ) » •90 S n a i l s lag among Germans went on at different rates during the two centuries of important German immigration* fhe descen­ dants of the 18th century immigrants outside of the rtuNil dla* t r i c t s where both geographic and religious isolation protected &eriaan were nearly Ingl*ised during the period beginning with the Revolutionary War when Immigration was nearly at a stand* s t i l l . Beginning in the 1830*s until after 1890 the Ingl*iaing forces seemed overwhelmed by^e%er growing mass of the German** bom present in the United States* Bbt the acquisition of &tgllsb went on rapidly and as soon as a group could not profit by exploiting later coiners again always excepting Isolated rural communities — that group abandoned bilingualism for Eng- l i s h * S t i l l blllnguallam was highly regarded by the Germans of mark* A l l their writings demonstrate a sense of superiority i n being able to deal with a l l comers. During the 1890*s the unfaithfulness to German of the younger generation became more and more evident* By the lf 0 0 f s in a great many heavily German communities the most benevolent attitude toward their language that one could find among people Tinder t h i r t y was that I t expressed more In r e l i g i o u s contexts and was a source of camaraderie. More frequent was the a t t i t u d e that i t was o l d - f a s h i o n e d , an a t t r i b u t e of the o l d and the backward. *91 The F i r s t World War a s s a u l t e d German more f i e r c e l y than other f o r e i g n languages, and the a s s a i l a n t s were sometimes of German descent themselves. Even among communities of almost s o l i d German stock, Germans were cowed by a m i n o r i t y that l i v e d among them and by marauders from communities near-by. The smaller the community the g r e a t e r the h y s t e r i c a l pressure from o u t s i d e . The A t c h i s o n Lutherans, who were numerous, could com­ promise by f e a t u r i n g the amount of E n g l i s h being introduced i n t o t h e i r s e r v i c e s , but near Worden, south of Lawrence, the E-R m i n i s t e r was t a r r e d and feathered. There were no general school-housing burnings, only i s o l a t e d cases, but yellow p a i n t was w i d e l y used, p u t t i n g a stigma on businesses w i t h German p r o p r i e t o r s , sometimes even on businesses w i t h e n t i r e l y non- German ownership known t o have many German customers* P u b l i c use of German was the object of h o s t i l e demonstrations even when only c a s u a l phrases s l i p p e d out. President Wilson i n addressing both the General P u b l i c and the Germans themselves a f f i r m e d t h a t language usage had nothing to do w i t h p a t r i o t i s m , but o f t e n the h o s t i l i t i e s of p o l i t i c i a n s were as g r e a t , though more prudent, as those of t h e i r e l e c t o r a t e . For instance i n the Topeka C a p i t a l , Senator Capper of Kansas, who i n 1916 had found the d i s a p p r o v a l of c e r t a i n e a r l y 100^ Americans l e s s im­ portant than the good w i l l of the pro-German voters of Wash- ington County, c a l l e d s h o r t l y a f t e r the d e c l a r a t i o n of war f o r the suppression, at l e a s t the c e s s a t i o n , of a l l j o u r n a l i s m i n German. F o r t u n a t e l y most Germans were prosperous and could buy a s o r t of t o l e r a n c e by l i b e r a l investment i n L i b e r t y Bonds. Except among l a t e a r r i v i n g Volgans most German settlements had l i t t l e t r o u b l e i n s a t i s f y i n g l i n g u i s t i c a l l y the demands of t h e i r neighbors. There were people who had remained monolin­ gual who s u f f e r e d , but to the younger generations t h i s was a very easy way of proving p a t r i o t i s m and p u t t i n g pressure on t h e i r e l d e r s to show l e s s f tbackwardness. n In other words the c r i s i s of 1917~l8 hastened n a t u r a l tendencies i n many cases, and i n many others merely made o f f i c i a l what was already t r u e . .92 The German l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n i n the United States a£» t e r the F i r s t World War d i d not ease f o r h a l f a decade, f o r the r e t u r n i n g s o l d i e r s , organized i n t o the American Legion, assumed the duty of suppressing everything un-American and more e s p e c i a l l y everything German. The p r o h i b i t i o n by law of the teaching of f o r e i g n languages, that i s , German, i n elemen­ t a r y schools was broken by the Supreme Court d e c i s i o n of 1923$ but by then church members and m i n i s t e r s , formerly s k e p t i c a l , had become r a t h e r w e l l convinced t h a t r e l i g i o u s terms i n Eng­ l i s h could be as meaningful as the corresponding forms i n Ger­ man and f e l t l e s s need f o r schooling i n German. Except i n the strongest settlements Germans of the second or t h i r d generation came to f e e l i n t h i s p e r i o d that the use of German was r e a l l y a s i g n of i n f e r i o r i t y and t h i s a t t i t u d e was prevalent u n t i l a f t e r the Second World War. The manner i n which at the beginning of the pe r i o d between the wars temperate Germans regarded the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n i s w e l l expressed i n t h i s excerpt t r a n s l a t e d from Report of the Synod O f f i c i a l s and A d m i n i s t r a t o r s to the D i s t r i c t s of the Ger­ man E v a n g e l i c a l Synod of North America, 1919* pp. 13-14) on the 1anguage que s t i on: f t l . The l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n i n the n a t i o n ( f o r example, l a r g e German, I t a l i a n and French p a r o c h i a l schools, etc.) as they have p r e v a i l e d before the war, w i l l probably not r e t u r n . 2« The youth approaching adulthood f e e l uncomfortable i n the use of the German language. One can h a r d l y say l e s s . 3 # The school c h i l d r e n w i l l r e a ct against everything t h a t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the country w i t h which our country was at war, not excluding the language, w i t h a h e a r t f e l t a n t i p a t h y . i}.. The language of the country w i l l become and be more than ever before, the c o l l o q u i a l language. 5>. No one w i l l r e a d i l y give himself up t o the d i s d a i n and chicanery of h i s neighbor on account of h i s language. Mature people perhaps t r e a t t h i s w i t h i n d i f f e r e n c e , the young do not. The use of the language of the country d a i l y takes hold i n the f a m i l y and becomes the f a m i l y language. However, that i s no d i s g r a c e . We need not be ashamed of the language of our country. 6 # Never has the t r a n s i t i o n from the German to the l a n ­ guage of the c o u n t r y ^ imb 'xruly thaim iiu L U J J ai j i n frhn~ignag£^ made such progress as i n the l a s t couple of years, 7. Where a change i n the M i n i s t e r occurs i n any d i s t r i c t , there the congregation demands, and w i t h j u s t i c e , because they do not want to l o s e t h e i r young people, a pastor who can f l u e n t l y make use of the language of the country, not only t h a t necessary i n the e x e r c i s e of h i s m i n i s t r y , but a l s o i n s o c i e t y . " Remembering t h e i r t r o u b l e s i n 1917-18, most churches and f a m i l i e s who were c o n t i n u i n g to use German switched to the use of E n g l i s h without any pressure i n December, 19^1* None d e v e l ­ oped, but even the most p e r s i s t e n t communities g e n e r a l l y aban­ doned German speech except f o r the o l d a f t e r 19^2. Many of the o l d were s t i l l a l i v e i n 1966 but many had become so accustomed to speaking E n g l i s h w i t h the young th a t they used i t w i t h each other. .. 93s The r ^ l e of German d i a l e c t i n the l i n g u i s t i c developments i n the United States has been important. There i s not the same a t t i t u d e toward d i a l e c t as among I t a l i a n Americans. The pres­ t i g e of German d i a l e c t s i s much g r e a t e r . But only by education could the standard language be maintained i n a l l r u r a l communi­ t i e s , f o r i t was seldom used i n the home except by the pastor and h i s f a m i l y . As soon as education ceased, t h e r e f o r e , E n g l i s h became the only c u l t u r a l language a v a i l a b l e , a s i t u a t i o n l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from that i n immigrant stocks where i l l i t e r a c y was common upon a r r i v a l i n the United STates. The e f f e c t s were the same. For instance intermarriage between people of d i f f e r e n t d i a l e c t a l stocks meant the employment of E n g l i s h as a l i n g u a f r a n c a . Even before the standard language was l o s t , such i n t e r ­ marriages very f r e q u e n t l y set up E n g l i s h i n the household r a t h e r than standard German, f o r E n g l i s h was more p r o f i t a b l e elsewhere, and standard German seemed too dressy f o r f a m i l i a r purposes. - 5 6 6 - 59.00 Bibliography for Dutch B - Brugmans, I#J#, De Arbeidende Klasse i n Nederland i n da 19@ Eeuw, The Hague, 1929• La *» Landheer, Bartholomew, The Netherlands, Berkeley, X9i+3* LD - Lucas, Henry S #, Dutch Immigrant Memoirs and Related Writings, Seattle, 1955^ LI - Lucas, Henry S., n Beginnings of Dutch Immigration to Iowa,11 Iowa Journal of History and P o l i t i c s , XXII ( 1 9 2 ^ , - w m LM • Lucas, Henry S #, l fBeginnings of Dutch Immigration to Western Michigan," Michigan History Magazine, VI (1922), 61f2-67l|-. LN - Lucas, Henry S«, Netherlander America: Dutch Immi­ gration to the United States and Canada, University of Michigan* * ' ~ P - Pieters, Aleida J # , A Dutch Settlement i n Michigan, Grand Rapids, 1923. Z - Van der Zee, J. Hollanders of Iowa, 1912• 59»01 S t a t i s t i c s concerning immigrants from the Netherlands to America did not, i n the nineteenth century, become s i g n i f i c a n t u n t i l the l a t t e r l81jDfs« United States records of passengers a r r i v i n g from the Netherlands show an annual average of a l i t ­ t l e over 200 persons for the period I8if0-l81t.5# In the next s i x years the average was 1200 with a high point of 2,631 i n l8lj.7j for the period 1851-5 the average was nearly llj.00 with a high point i n 1855 of 2 , 5 8 8 . Beginning In 1869 American s t a t i s t i c s , with which Dutch data c o n f l i c t only to a minor degree, show the country of o r i g i n for immigrants* For the f i r s t decade the annual average of immigration was not superior to that of the 1 8 5 0 fs, though there was a highpoint of 3#811 i n l873« For the -567- Dutch as f o r the other stocks of the "Old Immigration" 1882 was a high point with a swift r i s e to i t and a slow f a l l . The Sta­ t i s t i c s are: U.S. Records: Immi- Netherlands Records: U.S. Records grants o r i g i n a t i n g emigrants bound (Dutch race) i n the Netherlands f o r North America 1880 3340 1899 1003 1881 8597 1900 715 1882 9517 7230 1901 2335 1883 5249 4798 1902 2270 1884 4198 3654 1903 3975 1885 2689 2121 1904 4822 1886 2314 2002 1905 4622 1887 4506 5018 1906 4767 1888 58^5 4298 1907 6456 1889 6460 5050 1908 5704 1890 4326 3282 1909 4574 1891 5206 3923 1912 6420 1892 6 l 4 l 6211 1913 6681 1914 6002 The hard times of the 1890*3 brought a sudden f a l l ; i n I898 there were 767 Dutch immigrants. The United States records of the country of l a s t residence beginning i n I899 show progressive annual increase of immigrants u n t i l i n 1913 there were 6,902 a r r i v a l s , 6,321 i n the following year, but the Dutch records shoxtf a great difference. In 1910 U.S. records show 7,53^ from Holland, the Dutch records 2,98** to North America, s i m i l a r l y f o r the decade surrounding 1910; temporary residents were leaving the Netherlands, but the Dutch were not catching a l l departures, f o r United States records on Dutch and Flemish "race" show f o r 1910, i f Belgians are deducted, a minimum 7f600 speakers from Holland, more i f Walloons were among the Belgians. As with other immigrating stocks there was a wave i n 1920 and 1921. In other words many r u r a l Dutch settlements i n the United States received r e c r u i t s i n the twentieth century, though prob­ ably the most of l a t e a r r i v a l s became urban. 02g The l o c a t i o n of Dutch settlements i n the United States i s to some extent indicated by these figures on persons born i n the Netherlands i n the censuses of 1900, and those f o r foreign- born of Dutch mother tongue presented i n 1930. Born i n the Netherlands Of Dutch Mother Tongue 1900 1910 1910 1920 1920 United States 105 ,098 120,063 126,045 136,5^0 133,1^2 Michigan 30 ,406 33,^71 34,705 3^,195 32 ,411 I l l i n o i s 21,916 14,402 14,707 14,664 14 ,568 New Jersey- 10,261 12,968 12,688 13 ,289 14 ,662 New York 9 ,414 12,650 13,505 14,484 14,821 Iowa 9,388 11,337 11,436 12,5^2 10,069 Wisconsin 6,496 7,379 8,3^9 7 ,482 6 ,184 In 1900 Ohio, Indiana and South Dakota had between 1500 & 1700 Dutch; none others more than 1015, Kansas 875, Nebraska.885. Locations within Michigan, Iowa, and Wisconsin w i l l occupy us l a t e r . In I l l i n o i s 11 ,414 were i n 1910 i n Chicago's Cook - 5 6 9 - County 2 ,118 i n three counties on the lower Rock River (Rock Island, Whiteside and Henry 6 l - 1 3 0 , 120, 131) . 59.10 Conditions i n the Netherlands sent emigrants to America before the Mayflower brought i t s f r e i g h t to New England, but t h i s study considers only the movement that took place i n the 19th century. The Dutch immigrants into Kansas were part of the movement that brought t h e i r fellow countrymen from the Nether­ lands to the United States beginning i n 18^6 and 18^7. Follow­ ing the Napoleonic wars the Netherlands were l e f t with a com­ merce badly maimed by the English blockade, a heavy national debt incurred to meet Bonapartist demands, and manufacturing conditiions that had not yet been affected by the i n d u s t r i a l revolution. Economically the country was nearly stagnant f o r many years; even agriculture was not prosperous, f o r population was continuing to increase and land reclamation could accompany only general prosperity; not u n t i l then was c a p i t a l a vailable. About 18^6 conditions were p a r t i c u l a r l y bad because of succes­ sive f a i l u r e s of the potato crop (LM 6^8, LN 5 5 ) . This state of a f f a i r s improved very slowly, though f i n a l l y with gathering impetus, so that by I89O there was l i t t l e need to send away excess population. 59*11 In the years following Napoleon*s f a l l the r e l i g i o u s s i t u a t i o n was also calculated to promote emigration. Indeed the two important colonies established i n 18^7 with centers at Holland, Michigan, and P e l l a , Iowa, were i n t h e i r f i r s t days very nearly theocracies. The leaders i n them were Albertus C. -570- Van Raalte and Henry Peter Scholte, two of a small group of young pastors who seceded from the state directed Reformed Church i n 183^. Their r e v o l t , which became open i n 183^, was the product of a movement for return to C a l v i n i s t i c p u r i t y , c a l l e d the Awakening, which had manifested i t s e l f among promi­ nent ministers of an older generation as soon as Napoleon f e l l . The humbler followers of the Seceders o? Separatists (Afgeschie- dene) were brought to them by the f i n a l wave of Pietism that created r e l i g i o u s unrest i n northern Europe i n the mid-nine­ teenth century. The sentiment f o r emigration did not originate with the theocrats. I t seems rather to have been communicated among the humble by reports of the formation of emigrant socie­ t i e s across the German border. But the separatist ministers, who had suffered persecution from the royal government u n t i l 1839t and a continuation of l o c a l h o s t i l i t y when the central a u t h o r i t i e s became more l i b e r a l , i n seeking f o r some way both to r e l i e v e the pressure of poverty i n t h e i r congregations and to achieve r e l i g i o u s freedom, accepted emigration as the solu­ t i o n , and chose the United States because the Dutch royal colo­ nies XArere i n the tropics and state p o l i c i e s discouraged s e t t l e ­ ment there. Scholte 1s congregation was at Utrecht not f a r south of Amsterdam and the Zuyder Zee. Among the company who joined him were men of some property, but i n general the emi­ grants, both then i n the l840*s and i n the l a t e r period that provided population to Kansas, were la r g e l y poor people. Van Raalte was at Arnhem somewhat to the east. The emigrants i n -571- these congregations were nearly a l l townspeople. Another con­ gregation emigrated from Zeeland, the islands just above the Belgian border. 59»12g Both i n Kansas and at other points i n the United States the immigrants were from a l l the provinces of Holland, but many of them i n a l l our states and f a r the greater part of those who came to Kansas were of the farming or small to\m class i n the region ea,st and southeast of the Zuyder Zee t l a r g e l y a g r i c u l t u r a l country, where returning prosperity arrived l a t e s t . Conditions i n t h i s area were such .that i n the 1850*s an investigation of a g r i c u l t u r a l labor was i n s t i t u t e d i n Groningen (the northeastern province), and S l o e t f s Tydschrift published a r t i c l e s on the l i f e of f i e l d workers i n the area along the eastern shore of the Zuider Zee (Friesland, Salland, Utrecht and the Veluwe). I . J . Brugmans remarked i n De Arbeidende Klasse i n Nederland that t h i s was especially noteworthy because "only the a g r i c u l t u r a l c r i s i s of about 1880 brought up f o r general discussion t h i s feature of the s o c i a l problem11 (B 26l). The mid-century c r i s i s i n eastern Holland stimulated emigration from that area and explains the origins of the f i r s t Dutch a r r i v a l s i n Kansas. The s i t u a t i o n following 1880 brought more immigrants to Kansas, sometimes d i ­ r e c t l y . Marshes and heaths were common i n much of the area furnishing emigrants; sand and water were the great obstacles to c u l t i v a t i o n . 59»20 Van Raalte chose Michigan as the s i t e f or his colony be­ cause wood f o r f u e l and construction was ready for s e t t l e r s -572- with no c a p i t a l , Scholte chose Iowa because most land was ready f o r the plow, and money fo r i n i t i a l establishment was s u f f i c i e n t . The Michigan group grew i n population faster than that i n Iowa because many Just a r r i v i n g agreed with Van Raalte; doubtless also because Michigan's climate seemed less of a con­ t r a s t to that of Holland than central Iowa's. Van Raalte*s colony i n Michigan began at Holland near the shore of Lake Michi gan some 60 miles from the Indiana border. I t grew to furnish large population elements i n the neighboring counties, quite large i n the c i t i e s of Grand Rapids and Kalamazoo. Scholte 1s Iowa colony did not spread greatly in. the immediate neighbor­ hood; P e l l a i s f i f t y miles downstream from Des Moines (61-52) . In the twentieth century between three and four times as many immigrants from the Netherlands went to Michigan as went to Iowa. For the two states the proportion of these l a t e a r r i v a l s to those already established was nearly the same. .21 A f t e r a l l the land was taken up near both groups, con­ tinued immigration and population increase through reproduc­ t i o n l e d to the establishment of other settlements, sometimes very early. Indeed there were Dutch i n Milwaukee i n 18^5 (LD, I I 131); the ninth ward of Milwaukee was Dutch by 1857 (LI, 175) "In 1848 three shiploads of Catholic H o l l a n d e r s . started the tide of Catholic immigrants Ttfho s e t t l e d i n the Fox River Country i n Wisconsin" (LDI, 3) [At and near L i t t l e Chute i n Outagamie Co. (61-210) .—In i 9 6 0 there were 19^6 present born i n Holland i n Brown and Outagamie Counties."] T he f i r s t Dutch s e t t l e r at A l t o arrived i n the same year and was joined by others the next year. The large towns of western Michigan attracted l a ­ borers early. "There was a considerable group i n Chicago and near Thornton and Hope south of the c i t y , a few at Galena and Ainsworth, I l l i n o i s [on I l l i n o i s see 59«02g abovej, C i n c i n n a t i , Ohio, Lafayette, Indiana, St. Louis, Missouri, Paterson, New Jersey and i n New York at Rochester, P u l t n e y v i l l e , Clymer and New York Cit y " (LI, 176) . The push out from P e l l a , l a r g e l y into Northwestern Iowa, began shortly a f t e r the C i v i l War. There have been settlements too i n other states. In Faribault County on the south border of Minnesota f o r instance there i s a concentration of Dutch, at Lyndon i n most northwestern Wash­ ington another. 22g In the more immediate neighborhood of Kansas, settlements were established i n Nebraska above our Pre-West at Holland, F i r t h and Adams southeast of Lincoln i n northeastern Gage Coun­ ty (next above Marshall County, P3) and just beyond. The foun­ dation of the Nebraska settlement occurred i n 1868. I t was nearly contemporary with that of Dispatch i n Kansas. This Ne­ braska colony provided a way s t a t i o n for s e t t l e r s who went to P r a i r i e View, Kansas. I t s f i r s t years were hard, and i t was just reaching prosperity when i t sent people on to Kansas i n 1877 (LN 3 5 7 )t The overflow occurred so early because no ur­ ban center f o r the Dutch developed i n Nebraska, and part of the people moved on toward free land. I t was, however, able to and -574- did support a much larger population than that of 1877 (over 300 families i n the church at F i r t h i n 1948) . 3 Though the Kansas settlements did not draw much popula­ t i o n from F e l l a , that town Is regarded by the Kansas Dutch as a sort of western c a p i t a l . I t was there i n I867 and 1868, ac­ cording to Van der Zee's Hollanders of Iowa, that J e l l e Pelmul- der began w r i t i n g land agents, and emigration associations were formed, one f o r Texas, one for Kansas. "A few families suc­ cumbed to the Kansas enthusiasm, invested t h e i r money i n that drouth-ridden land, and many returned to t h e i r P e l l a homes thoroughly disappointed" (Z 123)• Van der Zee c i t e s De Volks- vriend of July 2 3 i 1874 as evidence (1874 was the grasshopper year). Dispatch and P r a i r i e View were not founded i n t e r r i ­ tory recommended by land agents. The Dutch chose areas outside of the r a i l r o a d holdings where claims could be 160 acres instead of 8 0 , even 320 when timber claims could be added to homesteads and where they could s e t t l e beside each other on homestead land and form s o l i d settlements without being obliged to purchase from railways to f i l l i n the gaps between them and t h e i r neigh­ bors. The settlements i n Kansas and Nebraska did not grow large because the climate was too greatly d i f f e r e n t from what the Dutch were used to. During the free land period, the states to the x*jest were "drouth-ridden" at c r u c i a l moments, and P e l l a disseminated reports of the worst years (1873 and 1874, as Dispatch was becoming established, and 1800 and 1881, when P r a i r i e View was beginning to grow, were bad years). Most of -575- the population i n the Kansas settlements a f t e r the very f i r s t then did not come d i r e c t l y from P e l l a , Even the immigration from P e l l a was made up of families gathered from elsewhere. The censuses shoxf that more people at Dispatch came from Michigan than from elsewhere i n the United States, The Nebraska s e t t l e ­ ment provided the f i r s t people at P r a i r i e View, Later there was some contribution from Iowa, but more from Michigan, Wiscon­ s i n , and even Minnesota, But P e l l a , nevertheless, l a r g e l y be­ cause of the organization of the churches, has been the i n t e l ­ l e c t u a l c a p i t a l , ,4 Van Raalte almost immediately a f t e r a r r i v a l , that i s by 1850, caused his congregation and consequently the neighboring congregations to unite with the Dutch Reformed Church which had developed i n New York, I t l a t e r became the Reformed Church i n America, Scholte*s congregation remained independent but even­ t u a l l y i t too was absorbed into the same denomination. The practices were, however, not s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r i c t to s a t i s f y a l l the Dutch immigrants, and i n I856 a new denomination came into being soon to be ca l l e d the Ch r i s t i a n Reformed Church. I t devel­ oped f i r s t i n Michigan, but established a church i n P e l l a i n 1866. Both denominations were then f l o u r i s h i n g when the Kansas settlements were made. Both founded churches i n Kansas, the Dutch Reformed f i r s t , but was e a r l i e r only by a year at P r a i r i e View. There the Reformed has become the more numerous; at Dis­ patch the C h r i s t i a n Reformed has outlived i t s competitor. The Reformed Church i n America i s however na t i o n a l l y the la r g e r . -576- In 1954 i t had 200,000 communicants, and the Ch r i s t i a n Reformed 1 0 6 , 0 0 0 . In the west, however, the two churches have been com­ parable i n s i z e . The P a r t i c u l a r Synod of I cwa i n the Reformed Church, which included a l l churches west of the M i s s i s s i p p i num­ bered 29,000 communicants; the classes of the Ch r i s t i a n Reformed church covering the same area had a few hundred more communicants A l l through i t s h i s t o r y as well as at i t s beginning the C h r i s t i a n Reformed has been the more conservative of the two churches, and t h i s i s also true as regards l i n g u i s t i c use. At P e l l a , Iowa, i n 19511 out of four Reformed Churches, only one had Dutch services at a l l — an occasional communion service, regular preaching i n Dutch had been abandoned i n 1948, while both of the two Ch r i s t i a n Reformed Churches were s t i l l having a service i n Hollands every Sunday afternoon i n 195^• In 1966 there was s t i l l some psalm singing i n Dutch, and sometimes, but very seldom, a union service i n that language. 50 Neither Van Raalte nor Scholte was conservative l i n g u i s ­ t i c a l l y , In 1849 Van Raalte " l o s t an infant and conducted the funeral service himself i n English" (LD, I , 396) . Of those present only three were Americans. Scholte knew English* early, perhaps from the beginning and because of t h i s f a c t , of his general tastes, and of the needs of a wife worldly enough to draw disapproval from the congregation he participated i n many business enterprises and was often using English. Van Raalte stood f o r Americanization, including Engl-izing, as a matter policy rather than personal expediency. By his influence the -577- schools i n Holland, Michigan, though sustained d i r e c t l y by the Dutch, used English as the basis of i n s t r u c t i o n . Not a l l the active Dutch were as r e a l i s t i c as these two leaders. Later the General Dutch League organized e f f o r t s to preserve t h e i r language (LN 5 9 2 ) . 51 Engl-izing i n Iowa. What Van der Zee i n Hollanders of Iowa refers to as the " t e r r i b l e language question" (Z 296) began to aff e c t churches i n Dutch daughter colonies very early, but he reported, 1910; "English i s the language preached i n only four out of f i f t y congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church i n Iowa, while the Dutch language has been preserved i n a l l other congre­ gations and especially i n the C h r i s t i a n Reformed Church....[the people f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t ] to understand how the omnipotent God can be trusted to reveal the truth i n any language but the Dutch" (Z 31^)• In the Ch r i s t i a n Reformed Church as l a t e as 1900 there were only two English-speaking congregations" (LN 597)$ both i n Grand Rapids, none i n Iowa. Van der Zee reports that i n Iowa there were many di a l e c t s of Dutch, and that the Prieslanders had a language of t h e i r own. "Children of Dutch parentage, therefore, l e a r n the mother d i a l e c t at home ahd English from t h e i r playmates — they soon speak English almost exclusively among themselves, and only converse with t h e i r parents i n Dutch. At a very early age children of one family are forced to use English when they cannot make themselves understood i n d i a l e c t to children of another family..., and so the prevalence of d i a - -578- l e c t s i n the Dutch communities of Iowa has come to be responsible f o r the use of a common language, English." (Z 364 see also LN 595)• Henry S. Lucas i n Netherlanders i n America emphasizes p a r t i c u l a r l y the corrupt state of the Dutch that came to be used i n American settlements (LN 582-589). The Dutch were no more lax than other immigrant groups, but neither were they more s t r i c t i n t h i s regard. Though one informant affirmed that d i a l e c t a l differences did not impede communication, at le a s t the Fri s j ^ i s , suffered from t h i s b a r r i e r i n speaking Dutch to others. By 1951 the use of Dutch i n public was very l i m i t e d , though peo­ ple born before 1900 might use i t together on the street. Such of these people as were a l i v e i n 1966 were using Dutch s t i l l , but any one younger able to speak Dutch used i t only i n addres­ sing the very old, of whom there were a very few unable to speak English. The use of Dutch i n cemetery i n s c r i p t i o n s at P e l l a was never great, but isolated examples occurred t i l l 1914. In P e l l a i n 1966 no services i n Dutch took place regularly i n either the Reformed or C h r i s t i a n Reformed churches, but there was a union service i n Dutch sometimes at f e s t a l periods; there was also some singing of psalms i n Dutch. In northwestern Iowa at Boyden schooling i n Dutch with textbooks "from abroad was carried on u n t i l about the time of the F i r s t World War, but phildren born about the beginning of the Second World War learned only a few words of Dutch. 52g Michigan had i n some places been more conservative than Iowa. In 1897 numerous accounts of pioneers were collected -579- f o r the semi-centennial; Most of them though not a l l were w r i t ­ ten i n Dutch, The proportion of Dutch accounts was s t i l l high i n a series printed i n the Volksvriende i n 1911 and 1912. In 1923 more than a decade l a t e r than Van der Zee*s account Aleida J. Pieters i n A Dutch Settlement i n Michigan, a f t e r reporting on the advance of Engl-izing i n c i t i e s , continues, "Outside of the towns i n the country communities, the t r a n s i t i o n from Dutch to English has been much slower... The r u r a l schools attempt to aid the movement toward Americanization by using only English, but the s i x hours at school cannot successfully compete, with the hours at home" (P I 8 3 ). She att r i b u t e s the condition to the t e r r i t o r i a l s o l i d i t y of the r u r a l population. The re s u l t was that people spoke a l l Dutch or broken English. Habits i n Michigan x^ rere reported to be much the same as i n Iowa i n the 1950*s and I 9 6 0 *s, but speakers of Dutch i n absolute numbers were more numerous because the settlements were lar g e r . In the Waupun settlements i n Wisconsin l a t e usage was about the same as i n Iowa and Michigan. The conservative churches at Friesland and Randolph dropped Dutch about 19^8. 59»60 Bibliography f o r Flemings E - Engelbeen, Karel, Flamische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Jena, 19^3• G - Goris, Jean - Albert (ed.) Belgium, Berkeley, 19^5, H - Van Houtte, J,A, Esquisse d'une H i s t o i r e Bconomique de l a Belgique, Louvain, 1943. P - Pirenne, Henri, H i s t o i r e de Belgique, VII, Brussels, 1932- -580- R - Seebohm Rountree, B. Land and Labort Lessons from Belgium, London, 1911. V - Verhaegen, Benolt, Contribution a 1 * H i s t o i r e Econo- mique des Flandres, Vol. I , Louvain-Paris, 1961» .61 Flemish immigrants to the United States as distinguished from the generality of Belgians or from the t o t a l i t y of the speakers of Dutch are rather d i f f i c u l t to measure s t a t i s t i c a l l y . Those a r r i v i n g from Belgium did not number more than one hun­ dred t i l l a f t e r 1840 and suddenly grew into 1,473 i n 1847, averaged annually over nine hundred for three years then prac­ t i c a l l y ceased u n t i l 1,506 came i n 1855. A f t e r the United States began to report the country of o r i g i n of i t s immigrants i n I869 for a decade the s t a t i s t i c s were very similar to those of the period 1847-1855. From 1880 through 1886 the annual average was nearly 1500, f o r the next f i v e years 2800 and reached a maximum of 4,026 i n I 8 9 2 . The annual average I 8 9 3 - I896 was 1300 and f o r I897 and I898 about 700. The American data on a r r i v a l s of immigrants of Flemish and Walloon race between I899 and 1914 were d i s t r i b u t e d thuss Flemings Walloons 1899 846 206 1900 968 218 1901 946 612 1902 1835 712 1903 2452 949 1904 2588 1284 - 5 8 1 - Flemings Walloons Flemings Walloons 1905 3382 1378 1910 ca .4600 ca. 400 1906 3958 851 1911 ca. 4300 ca. 700 1907 5216 860 1912 3386 434 1908 2929 964 1913 6340 636 1909 2740 701 1914 4731 574 When immigration resumed i n the period 1920-1924 the s t a t i s t i c s are s t i l l more d i f f i c u l t to interpret but i t seems that the Flemings reaching the United States to­ taled over 25t000 i n the f i v e years. 62g The United States Census,is more he l p f u l i n iden­ t i f y i n g Flemings than immigration s t a t i s t i c s . In 1930 i t distinguished Flemish from Dutch as a mother tongue and gave data f or 1910 and 1920. The states holding i n 1930 more than 1,000 speakers of Flemish were C a l i f o r n i a , I l l i ­ nois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. Additional s t a t i s t i c s f o r those states where more than 2100 resided follow (also f o r Kansas)t 1910 1920 1930 United States 25,780 45,696 42,26:3 I l l i n o i s 6,68^ 9 ,411 8,635 Indiana 1,438 2,106 2,614 Michigan 4,713 9,784 12,092 New York 1 ,411 2,777 3,353 Kansas 517 991 ^83 In 1930 i n I l l i n o i s (11 ,564 bo£n i n Belgium) besides Cook County (4506) the greatest number of Belgians were i n Rock Island County (61-130)(3594) and adjoining Henry County (61-131)(969). No other counties held more than 400. In Michigan the Belgians were not highly concentrated; i n In­ diana they were most numerous i n St. Joseph County ( 2,513) where South Bend . i s located. 7 Belgium's p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y i n the nineteenth century did not a f f e c t population i n the United States before the establishment of the kingdom i n 1830, f o r e a r l i e r emigra­ t i o n was n e g l i g i b l e . A f t e r I830 i t s greatest importance fo r our purposes l i e s i n the contention that, as Flemish authors maintain (e.g. E 64) with some j u s t i c e , Flemish interests were regularly s a c r i f i c e d to those of the weal­ t h i e r south where industry was developing. The struggle carried on by the Flemings to bring Flemish to an equality with French as a national language doubtless had i t s basis p a r t i a l l y i n t h i s neglect of the interests of the north. The language question, though i t became of great p o l i t i c a l importance, had not, before the F i r s t World War when emi­ gration to the United States nearly ceased, become a pas­ sion with the emigrating classes. Indeed one may say that Flemish p o l i t i c a l t r a i n i n g l e d toward Engl-izing among emi­ grants to the United States, f o r the concept that language and geographic loc a t i o n were closely related grew stronger i n Belgium. - 5 8 3 - 80 The Flemings along with the Walloons have throughout the period in t e r e s t i n g us been almost u n i v e r s a l l y Catholic without any disturbing movements anywhere i n Belgium. In the early years of the Kingdom the Jesuits were strong there and to Jesuit missionaries i n Kansas can be traced the o r i g i n of the small Flemish settlement at St. Marys, but settlement at Kansas C i t y developed before r e l i g i o u s sponsors appeared. Emigration from Flanders then i s a l ­ most wholly to be explained by economic conditions. 81 Belgium Economically t i l l 1880. Belgium on the whole prospered a f t e r becoming a nation i n 1830, but t h i s pros- ' p e r i t y meant only bare subsistence f o r the great majority of the population. Wages were so low that Belgian products could compete successfully i n almost any market. I n d u s t r i ­ a l i z a t i o n was important, but was confined l a r g e l y to French speaking areas. There was a depression i n the making of cotton c l o t h because of the American C i v i l War (V313)• For the Flemish t h i s industry furnished employment i n not very distant areas, and i n Flanders i t s e l f i t led to the disap­ pearance of home manufacture so that the farms became smaller and farm hands more numerous. Because of the i n ­ ternal migration (which did not mean the spread of Flemish speech because migrants soon adopted the language of t h e i r new region), emigration from Belgium was comparatively small except for seasonal a g r i c u l t u r a l work i n France, but some Flemish farmers preferred to seek conditions i n foreign - 5 8 4 - lands more advantageous than those e x i s t i n g i n Flanders. A g r i c u l t u r a l l y a l l Belgium i s a land of very small holdings. In part of the area that furnished population to Kansas the holdings were so small that i n 1846 i n West Flanders f i f t y f i v e percent of the holdings were of from Z\ to 12§ acres i n size; i n East Flanders the percentage was 70$ ("V 126) . In 1895 i n every 100 c u l t i v a t e d square miles there were at le a s t 5200 holdings of from 2 | to 12J acres (R 152) . Many holdings were as small as an acre or even smaller. FN In 1846 i n West Flanders there were 15 9 000 holdings of from Z\ to 12^ acres, 57*000 that were smaller. (V 157) I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n had led p a r t i c u l a r l y to a r i s e i n tenant farming, but less i n Flanders than i n the indus­ t r i a l areas (V 254). However most families combined other work with farming. The proportion of Flemings engaged i n agriculture i s shown below\ Percentages of A g r i c u l t u r a l Workers i n Belgium (E 330) Year 1846 1866 I890 1910 Kingdom 32# 32% 2k% 17% West Flanders 23% 33$ 29% 2k% East Flanders 38% kQfo 32% 22% The increase i n West Flanders between 1846 and 1866 x\ras caused by the transfer from home industry(V 3 3 2 , P128, - 5 8 5 - G177i H173)• The transfer was possible because of the r i s e of the prices of farm products between 1822 and 1880 (V 333) . Rye and potatoes gradually doubled i n price between I830 and 1846 (V 151). The t o t a l r e s u l t was r u r a l congestion. The whole family was obliged to work to wrest a l i v i n g from the small holdings; the y i e l d per worker was small. "More than 80% of the workers belong to the farmer's family. Their work requires no money outlay, and i n most cases i t does not even mean a loss i n earning power, i n view of the lack of adequate p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r work elsewhere" (V 335)• The effect of t h i s established custom of family labor when applied i n America was l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative. In spite of the crowding and low income the Belgian lower classes were tra n q u i l during most of the 19th century (P 282). 82g Beginning i n 1 8 8 0 , however, Belgians suffered extremely from the general European a g r i c u l t u r a l depression. "Then the c r i s i s broke out, by which agriculture i n a l l Western Europe was sorely beset. I t was caused by the competition of new, extensively c u l t i v a t e d lands i n North America, Argentina, and Russia, which through the improvement i n transportation gained the opportunity to flood the European market with cheap grain" (E 71-2). This a g r i c u l t u r a l depression explains the coming of most of the St. Marys contingent of Flemings and of the people of the Kinney Heights settlement who were present by I 8 9 5 . Most of the Flemish emigration of that period went to northern France (V313), but the United States received a small number of -586- emigrants. The competition with foreign grain caused Flemish farmers to turn very generally to market gardening, FN E, pp I 8 9 - I 9 8 , depicts market gardening i n Belgium at t h i s time, Belgians transferred to Kansas the work habits R. describes; "A market-gardener generally makes a l i v i n g , too often, i t i s true, by dint of excessively hard t o i l , i n which his wife and children j o i n . In busy seasons i t i s by no means unusual f o r work to begin at three or four i n the morning, and to continue, with br i e f interruptions, u n t i l 8 or 9 at night" (R 194). to some extent to dairy farming. This fact i n part explains the increased immigration into the Kinney Heights settlement. Experienced truck gardeners could prosper near a growing Amer­ ican c i t y where no other population was r e a l l y prepared to com­ pete with them. The demographic s i t u a t i o n i n Flanders i s also an explanation of emigration. Population continued to increase r a p i d l y i n Flanders and i n Belgium i n general u n t i l the F i r s t World War (V^9). In Flanders i n d u s t r i a l opportunities to take care of the increase were small, and a g r i c u l t u r a l needs were saturated. The b i r t h rate per thousand i n West Flanders stood at 32 per thousand from 1 8 7 5 to I 8 9 O and rose to 35 i n the next decade ( V 6 0 ) while the death rate descended from 25 to 23 (V66) . Those reaching maturity i n the f i r s t decade of the twentieth century often chose to seek new opportunities. Net emigration from West Flanders i n thousands was as follows ( V 7 7 ) J 1 8 4 6 - 5 6 2 0 1880-90 19 1 8 5 6 - 6 6 26 I 8 9 0 - 1 9 0 0 2 0 1 8 6 6 - 7 6 15 1 9 0 0 - 1 0 35 1 8 7 6 - 8 0 1 2 -587- I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n southern and eastern Belgium found more d i f f i c u l t y absorbing t h i s excess as time went on. The fore­ bodings of war decreased the outflow to Prance somewhat i n the early 20th century. Thus some Flemings came to Kansas. .9 In the United States, says H.S. Lucas i n Netherlander i n America, "there were sizable colonies of Flemings i n Moline fRock Island CountyJ, Chicago, Kansas C i t y , St. Louis, South Bend, Detroit, Paterson and Rochester" (p. 595) t that i s , i n Missouri, along the south edge of the Great Lakes, i n New York state and New Jersey (compare #59*62g) . Missouri, hoxfever, was the only other state i n which many Kansas Flemings resided be­ fore reaching Kansas, and there, i t was i n the settlement i n the East Bottoms of Kansas Cit y only a few miles from Kinney Heights that they resided sometimes, before moving into Kansas. A few Flemings mingled with the Germans at Taos, east of Jefferson C i t y (see #57.15); they were apparently connected with the few near S c i p i o , Kansas. On the M i s s i s s i p p i 60 a i r miles below St. Louis i s Belgique, which, despite i t s French name, i s re­ puted to be Flemish i n background. In general the immigrants to Kansas may be regarded as d i r e c t l y from Belgium and t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c evolution as a l l Kansan. - 5 8 8 - 6 0 . 0 g B i b l i o g r a p h y f o r Scandinavians A - Anderson, Ingvar. A H i s t o r y of Sweden, New York, 1956 A l - A l e x i s , Joseph, "Swedes i n Nebraska," P u b l i c a t i o n s of the Nebraska State H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , XIX ( 1 9 1 9 ) i 7 8 - 8 5 B - Babcock, K.C. The Scandinavian Element i n the United S t a t e s , U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s S t u d i e s , V o l . I l l , No. 3 B l - Blegen, T.C. Norwegian M i g r a t i o n to America, 2 v o l s , North- f i e l d , Minnesota, 1 9 3 1 - 1 W C - Christenson, Thomas P., "The Danish Settlements i n Kansas," KHC, XVII ( 1 9 2 6 - 8 ) 3 0 0 - 3 0 5 . PS- Flom, George T. "The E a r l y Swedish Immigration to Iowa," Iowa J o u r n a l of H i s t o r y and P o l i t i c s , I I I ( 1 9 0 5 ) , 5 8 3 - 6 1 5 . FD- Flom, George T. "The Danish Contingent i n the Population of E a r l y Iowa," same j o u r n a l , IV (1906) 220-24^. He- Heckscher, E.F. Svenkst Arbete och Lev, Stockholm, 19*1-1 Hn- Haugen, E i n a r . The Norwegian Language i n America, 2 vols,, PMladelpHJa, 1X953 2* volumes, but continuous p a g i n a t i o n . Ho- Hovde, B.J. The Scandinavian C o u n t r i e s , 172,0-18651 2 v o l s , I t h a c a , 1 9 ^ 8 . 2 v o l s . , but continuous p a g i n a t i o n . J - Johnsen, O.A. Norwegische W i r t s c h a f t g e s c h i c h t e t Jena, 1939 Ke- K e i l h a u , Wilhelm. Pet Norske F o l k s L i v og H i s t o r i e , V o l . X . Oslo, 1 9 3 5 . Kn- Khudsen, J . , "The Danish Lutheran Church i n America," The Danish-American Immigrant (Knudsen and Mortenseri, Des Moines, 1950 L - Larsen, Karen. A H i s t o r y of Norway. New York, 19^8 L i - L i n d q u i s t , Emory. "The Swedes of L i n n County, M i s s o u r i , " M i s s o u r i H i s t o r i c a l Review. XLV ( 1 9 5 0 - 1 ) , 1 3 8 - 1 ^ 9 . Lo- L^kken, Thos. 0 , Danmark i Amerika, Copenhagen. 1 9 5 0 . - 5 3 9 - L s - L o u i s , John J . "Shelby County, a S o c i o l o g i c a l Study" Iowa Jou r n a l of H i s t o r y and P o l i t i c s , 11(190^) , 8 3 - 1 0 1 ; 21*^255 Lu~ Lund, C.A., et a l A f t e r 75 Years 1860-19351 Rock I s l a n d , 1935 M - Mead, W.R. Economic Geography of the Scandinavian S t a t e s and F i n l a n d , London, 1958 N - Nelson, Helge. The Swedes and Swedish Settlements i n North America, I , Text, Lund, 19^3 No- N o r l i e , O.M. H i s t o r y of the Norwegian People i n America, Minneapolis, 1925 0 - Olson, Oscar N., f o r the Lutheran Augustana Synod. A Century of L i f e and Growth, Rock I s l a n d , 19^8 Q - Qualey, C a r l t o n C , Norwegian Settlement i n the United S t a t e s , N o r t h f i e l d , 1938 R - Ryggi A.N., "A Norwegian Settlement i n M i s s o u r i , " Norwegian- American Studies and Records, X I I I (19^3)t 1 0 8 - 1 1 3 Sc- S c h u l t z , J.H. ed.# Danmarkshistorie, V o l . V, Copenhagen, 19^2 Sd- Strftdda Drag Kansas svenska evangeliska Missionskonferens, Topeka, 1 9 1 7 . S t - Stomberg, A.A. A H i s t o r y of Sweden, New York, 1931 T - Thomas, Dorothy Swaine. S o c i a l and Economic Aspects of Swedish Population Movements 1750-1933* New York, 19*1-1 ¥ - Westin, Gunnar. Emigranterna och Kyrkan. Stockholm, 1932 WF- Westin, Gunnar. The Free Church through the Ages, t r a n s l a t e d by V.A. Olson. N a s h v i l l e , 1958 .0 For the whole United S t a t e s , Scandinavian immigrants from 1820 to I 8 3 0 numbered l e s s than 3 0 0 . By decades f o r the next 80 years United States immigration s t a t i s t i c s show f o r Scandi­ navians by thousands as f o l l o w s : - 5 9 0 - Denmark Norway Sweden T o t a l 1831-40 1 1 2 1841-50 5 14 19 1851-60 4 21 25 1861-7.0 17 109 126 1871-80 32 95 116 243 1881-90 88 177 3922 657 1891-1900 53 95 231 379 1 9 0 0 - 1 0 65 191 250 506 The most cursory a n a l y s i s of these s t a t i s t i c s as compared wi t h those presented i n Volume I (10) shows that Kansas d i d not r e c e i v e n e a r l y as hi g h a p r o p o r t i o n of the Scandinavian immi­ grants a f t e r 1900 as i t had before, not even among the Swedes, Kansas a t t r a c t e d few Scandinavians a f t e r f r e e or very cheap la n d had disappeared. . 1 The s t a t i s t i c s on emigration kept by the Scandinavian coun­ t r i e s accord roughly w i t h American immigration records. As pre­ sented by Helge Nelson (N 36) and Dorothy Swaine Thomas (T 89 and 1 1 0 ), the Swedish s t a t i s t i c s show i n round f i g u r e s the f o l ­ lowing peaks and troughs Emigration from Sweden by Thousands Peak Trough 1852 and 4 4 , 0 0 0 each year i 8 6 0 zero 1868 3 2 , 0 0 0 1877 ? ; 0 0 0 1 8 8 2 : 4 5 , 0 0 0 1884 18 , 0 0 0 1887 46 , 0 0 0 1889 2 9 , 0 0 0 189242,, 000 1894 Ip ,000 1895 1 5 , 0 0 0 I 8 9 8 9 , 0 0 0 1903 3 5 , o o o 1908 9 , 0 0 0 I 9 I O 24 , 0 0 0 I 9 I 8 2 , 0 0 0 1923 2 5 , 0 0 0 19Z4 7 , 0 0 0 1926 1 0 , 0 0 0 1932* 1 , 0 0 0 and so t i l l 1940 -591- From these f i g u r e s should be subtracted during both peaks and troughs approximately 5 , 0 0 0 from I 8 9 0 t i l l 1932 to account f o r r e t u r n i n g Swedish-born. Through the 1 9 3 0 * s the returnees ex­ ceeded i n number the emigrants. The three peaks c i t e d i n Sec­ t i o n 4 2 . l 6 g f o r Swedish settlement i n Kansas correspond to the f i r s t three shown i n the above t a b l e . Less marked correspondence to these p u l s a t i o n s begins with the b u r s t i n g of the Kansas boom i n 1886 and c o i n c i d e n t a l exhaustion of p r o f i t a b l e homestead and r a i l r o a d l a n d , but some p a r a l l e l i s m continues. Nelson and Mrs. Thomas as w e l l as others p o i n t out that the v a r i a t i o n s i n emigration over short periods correspond more n e a r l y to the ups and downs of the American business c y c l e than they do to changing c o n d i t i o n s i n Sweden. Taken as a whole the curve of emigration from Scandinavia shows a steep r i s e t i l l the mid 1880•s and as steep a f a l l t i l l the F i r s t World War except f o r a comparatively f l a t place at the t u r n of the century. This general r i s e and f a l l over the p e r i o d 1850-1914 i s to be explained by c o n d i t i o n s i n Scandinavia, s i n c e o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n the United S t a t e s may be considered as averaging n e a r l y the same throughout i t . .2. The causes of emigration are complex. Sometimes the w i l l of the i n d i v i d u a l i s a f a c t o r neglected i n c o n s i d e r i n g them. B.J. Hovde brings out i t s importance thus: "For one [emigrant] the l e g i s l a t i o n governing debts may have been the d e c i d i n g f a c ­ t o r ; f o r another the i n t o l e r a b l e uppishness of the o f f i c i a l s . Some emigrated to a f f o r d t h e i r c h i l d r e n a happier l o t than t h a t of a c r o f t e r ; some to avoid burdensome taxes. . . - 5 9 2 - R e l l g i o u s controversy and p e r s e c u t i o n played no small part i n the beginnings 1 1 (Ho 615) . The economic motive was c e r t a i n l y the strongest f a c t o r causing emigration. Next a f t e r i t should be placed, not the c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l i s t e d by Hovde, but the i n f l u e n c e of a long t r a ­ d i t i o n that accepted departure from Sweden or Norway as no very serious matter. Emigration from Scandinavia had been going on f o r c e n t u r i e s ; the ¥ i k i n g expeditions were one f e a t u r e i n a long h i s t o r y . No treatment of the causes of Scandinavian emigration omits the mention of "America l e t t e r s " ( f o r example Ho 651 f f , N 1 3 3 , HN 24, K 3 6 l ) . T h e i r i n f l u e n c e was more potent and longer con­ t i n u e d i n these c o u n t r i e s than elsewhere. They were passed not only from f a m i l y to f a m i l y but from community to community. The r o s i n e s s of the p i c t u r e painted by the new American was doubt­ l e s s the g r e a t e r because he was j u s t i f y i n g h i s own behavior, but people p r e f e r r e d to b e l i e v e him r a t h e r than pastors or o f f i c i a l s who attempted d i s s u a s i o n based on reasoning i n s t e a d of experience. Agents from America and p r i n t e d propaganda from s t a t e s and r a i l ­ roads backed up the l e t t e r s . A most e f f e c t i v e reason f o r emigration i s revealed i n the report of Consul Gerh. Gade i n 1866 from C h r i s t i a n i a s "The annual emigration s t a t i s t i c s show that no l e s s than about 60% of the emigrants are provided with t i c k e t s sent them from Ameri­ ca" (EI 322) [For EI see German B i b l i o g r a p h y ] . - 5 9 3 - 6 1 . 3 Conditions i n nineteenth century Sweden r a t h e r than i n Norway or Denmark must occupy us p r i m a r i l y because of Swedish preponderance among immigrants to Kansas, but many of the f e a ­ tures discussed f o r Sweden have t h e i r analogues i n the other two c o u n t r i e s . This statement i s p a r t i c u l a r l y true as regards p o p u l a t i o n pressures. 6 1 . 4 Swedish pop u l a t i o n increased s t e a d i l y from the mid-eighteenth century on. In 1 8 1 7 i t passed 2 § m i l l i o n , a h a l f m i l l i o n g a i n i n f i f t y years; i n 1851 i t reached 3"§, i n 1 8 6 4 i t passed 4 m i l ­ l i o n , and i n 1 9 2 4 reached 6 m i l l i o n (T 3 2 ) . Only toward I 8 9 O d i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , which developed somewhat t a r d i l y , begin to take adequate care of the i n c r e a s e . From 1 7 5 0 t i l l 1 8 4 0 ag­ r i c u l t u r e occupied 80% of the people (T 5 0 ). By I 8 9 O the pro­ p o r t i o n had sunk to 62^ and i n 1 9 3 0 to 40$ (D 9 3 ). While these percentages were f a l l i n g during the l a s t h a l f of the nineteenth century, there was a gain f o r some time i n the absolute number of persons supported by farming. The number climbed from over 2 | m i l l i o n i n 1 8 4 0 to over 3 m i l l i o n i n 1 8 7 0 . I t stood a t 3 , 1 0 2 , 0 0 0 i n 1880 and a f t e r the decade of h e a v i e s t emigration i t had i n 1890 f a l l e n only to 2 , 9 7 3 , 0 0 0 (T 9 3 ) ; t h e r e a f t e r the people methods had improved so as to s u s t a i n the. ^ i n a b e t t e r l i f e . The population increase of the nineteenth century was caused by a b i r t h r a t e t h a t remained h i g h , though i t sank from an e a r l i e r summit of 33 per thousand to 30 per thousand i n 1 8 7 0 (H 339) as compared with a death r a t e f a l l i n g s t i l l f a s t e r , from 23 to 18 i n the same peri o d . The r e s u l t during the period - 5 9 4 - of heaviest emigration expressed i n terms of persons per year per thousand was as f o l l o w s (H 341)s 1881/85 1886/90 1891/95 1 Excess of b i r t h s over deaths 1 1 . 8 3 12.40 10.83 2 Population increase 5»09 4 . 3 1 5*56 The d i f f e r e n c e between l i n e one and l i n e two was caused by emigration. The increase i n farming population i n the f i r s t p art of the 1 9 t h century took p r i m a r i l y the form of the development of a l a r g e c l a s s of l a n d l e s s workers who were n a t u r a l l y . a r e s t l e s s , l o t moving r e a d i l y from place to p l a c e . The h a b i t of movement p e r s i s t e d a f t e r emigration and had i t s l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t i n . t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s . Feitf Swedish communities i n America developed the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i s o l a t e d communities. The r e s t l e s s n e s s a l s o helps to e x p l a i n the e x t r a o r d i n a r y c i r c u l a t i o n of America l e t t e r s and o r a l and p r i n t e d accounts. People c a r r i e d them from place to place. 50 Three major economic f a c t o r s combined to b r i n g about the great m i g r a t i o n . Two of them are expressed i n a question that f o r a while approached the nature of a proverb. "Which i s b e t t e r , Swedish f l e s h and blood i n America or Swedish s k i n and bones i n Sweden?" (H 340 "Pragan &r vad som var b&ttre, svenskt k o t t och blod i Amerika e l l e r svenskt skinn och ben i Sverige") The p u l l of opportunity, the push of want are here. The im­ provement i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n was the t h i r d . The crowded steerages of the steamships i n the l 8 8 0 f s was a vast improvement over the - 5 9 5 - yet more croxtfded c o n d i t i o n s found e a r l i e r i n s a i l i n g v e s s e l s d u r i n g a voyage l a s t i n g three or f o u r months. In 1825 the sloop R e s t o r a t i o n which bore the f i r s t immigrants from Norway a f t e r more than three months on the sea was attached i n New York be­ cause w i t h 45 passengers i t v i o l a t e d the law r e q u i r i n g a tonnage of f i v e tons f o r each two passengers. I t was l i s t e d f o r 39 tons and should have had 1 1 2 | (B 40 & 5 1 ) . 6 1 . 5 1 The o r i g i n of the wave of emigration i n the mid-1850's may be explained by three f a c t o r s : (1) The United States x^ ras pros­ perous u n t i l the panic of 1857; (2) the e a r l y Swedish settlements e s t a b l i s h e d i n the preceding decade had passed through t h e i r p e r i o d of f i r s t adjustments and were ready to absorb newcomers; (3) a f t e r a s e r i e s of e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y bad harvests from 1842 to 1847 Swedish farmers were experiencing an a l t e r n a t i o n of bad and good years ( 1 8 5 0 , 1852,. and 1854 were bad, S 104) that provided some resources f o r movement, but c o n s t a n t l y kept i n s i g h t the prospect of want. 6 1 . 5 2 The o r i g i n of the much greater wave of the l a t e 1 8 6 0 *s i s by many a u t h o r i t i e s a t t r i b u t e d to a s e r i e s of bad harvests s t r e t c h i n g from 1866 through I 8 6 9 (N 351 A 3 8 1 , H 3*0. Dorothy Swayne Thomas i s i n c l i n e d to minimize the i n f l u e n c e of bad crop years on emigration, but admits i t f o r t h i s case both by her chart and by saying "harvest f a i l u r e s played a very s l i g h t r o l e a f t e r the seventies" (T 9 2 ) . She i s doubtless r i g h t i n a t t r i b ­ u t i n g an important r o l e to American p r o s p e r i t y a t the time, es­ p e c i a l l y as western s t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g Kansas, engaged i n a -596- burst of propaganda i n v i t i n g immigration. 53 The combination of f o r c e s , mainly economic, i n f l u e n c i n g those who came to Lindsborg, Kansas, i s w e l l brought out by Pastor 0 . Olsson i n h i s l e t t e r of 3 Feb. 1869 w r i t t e n i n Molkom and Noretorp, Sweden: "When I f i r s t wrote to New Stockholm, I thought that I could not journey with my f a m i l y down to the w i l ­ derness of Kansas without s t a y i n g i n Stockholm with my f a m i l y f o r some time to see where ( i n America} I might l a t e r f i n d f i r m f o o t i n g . Now, however, the Lord has brought i t about that many of my dearest f r i e n d s are s e t t l i n g i n Kansas. Many are there, and more are coming who have long been part of my f l o c k . We have been to many mission meetings where d i s c u s s i o n s were h e l d . We are a l l u n i t e d so that we can p u l l together beneath the yoke. This i s , I b e l i e v e , a great advantage i n America. I know that many V&rmlanders from my neighborhood are coming to Kansas. Emi­ g r a t i o n i s on the incr e a s e . I t i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r the people, so that they may earn t h e i r l i v i n g . I t i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r Sweden, which i s s u f f e r i n g from overpopulation i n many s e c t i o n s . In Swe­ den there i s a threatening economic s i t u a t i o n . The m a j o r i t y of our 'farming p o p u l a t i o n i s ruined by mortgages and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e f r e e trade. L e g i s l a t i o n here has gone so f a r a s t r a y t h a t , i f God does not cause a new l e a f to be turned, i t w i l l end with bankruptcy. I see God's grace i n t h i s , that He among your peo­ pl e s t i l l has room f o r many needy. We are overrun with beggars. In Smaland famine r e i g n s i n f r i g h t f u l p r o p o r t i o n s . Unemployment - 5 9 7 - throughout the country." The immigration to Lindsborg from V&rmland and SmSlland was indeed c o n s i d e r a b l e . 61 . 5 4 The great wave of the 1880*s i s commonly a s c r i b e d (A 3 8 I , H 3 4 2 ) , f o r Scandinavia as f o r the r e s t of western Europe, to the a g r i c u l t u r a l depression brought :on by the competition of American g r a i n . 6 1 . 5 5 Improvement i n the channel f o r emigration, i . e . f a s t e r and cheaper ocean t r a n s p o r t , and the p u l l of a prosperous United States are, i t seems, of more importance than the push of bad c o n d i t i o n s i n Sweden, f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l wages remained p r a c t i c ­ a l l y constant i n t h i s period and the cost of l i v i n g decreased (T 9 7 ) t presumably because of cheaper g r a i n , — which would of course discourage the entrepreneurs among farmers who i n Sweden d i d not r e a d i l y s h i f t to other crops or to l i v e s t o c k r a i s i n g (H 3 4 3 - 3 4 4 ) . ' 6 1 . 5 6 Dorothy Swaine Thomas summarizes thus? "Not u n t i l r e p o r t s of the expanding o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n the New World had achieved a c e r t a i n c r e d i b i l i t y , and access to t h i s goal had been f a c i l i ­ t a t e d by improvements i n transoceanic t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d i d the movement a t t a i n magnitude. Once under way, however, i t pro­ ceeded w i t h great r a p i d i t y , not the l e a s t important f a c t o r s i n i t s progress being r e p o r t s of success, and f i n a n c i a l c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n towards the cost of the journey, from e a r l i e r emigrants; s o l i c i t a t i o n by American agents; and growing d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h c e r t a i n non-economic c o n d i t i o n s of Swedish l i f e , among - 5 9 8 - them compulsory m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , l i m i t a t i o n s on p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n and l a c k of r e l i g i o u s freedom 1 1 (T 90) . " L i f e h i s t o r i e s of emigrants (published i n Emigrationsutredningen [a source not u t i l i z e d by t h i s study, which she and others f r e q u e n t l y mention!) are r e p l e t e w i t h complaints about these aspects of Swedish l i f e . I t i s , however impossible to deter­ mine the extent which they r e f l e c t American i d e o l o g i e s a s s i m i ­ l a t e d a f t e r emigration to the United States." 6 1 . 5 7 Compulsory m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , which was of n e g l i g i b l e im-, pact im Sweden u n t i l I 8 9 2 , s c a r c e l y a f f e c t e d Swedish immigra­ t i o n to Kansas. L i m i t a t i o n s on p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Sweden had no r e a l bearing e i t h e r , though Swedes became p o l i t ­ i c a l l y a c t i v e a t once i n t h e i r new country. 6 l . 5 8 g The resentment at a l a c k of r e l i g i o u s freedom was a more important matter, not so much as a motive f o r e x p a t r i a t i o n of masses as a f a c t o r i n determining the immigrant 1s conduct when he found h i m s e l f f r e e to choose h i s own church and pastor. The pastors whom he chose were sometimes potent f o r c e s i n d i r e c t i n g r e l i g i o u s , moral and even p o l i t i c a l and economic l i f e . (See p a r t i c u l a r l y the Lindsborg Settlement h i s t o r y . ) The f u n c t i o n s that they h e l d i n Sweden p e r s i s t e d . Laws g r a n t i n g r e l i g i o u s freedom i n Sweden were passed about I 8 6 5 . Free church a g i t a ­ t i o n , the most marked demonstration of p i e t i s m i n Scandinavia, had begun i n the preceding decades. I t was more important i n the e a r l y years than the l a t e r . Then "Sweden experienced a -599- spontaneous and heterogeneous p i e t i s t i c r e v i v a l , most of which remained w i t h i n the State Church" (Ho 651)* but created congre­ gations d i s s a t i s f i e d with smug pas t o r s . The B a p t i s t and M i s s i o n movements i n Sweden somewhat l a t e r were as much caused by Ameri­ can i n f l u e n c e as by any n a t i v e urge. Most Swedes wished to r e ­ main good Lutherans, but the e s t a b l i s h e d Lutheran church i n Swe­ den, e s p e c i a l l y before 1861, was not s e n s i t i v e to the demands of the p i e t i s t s w i t h i n i t , who charged the entrenched m i n i s t e r s w i t h formalism and self-complacency, i m p e n e t r a b i l i t y to deep r e ­ l i g i o u s f e e l i n g , g r e a t e r concern with p o l i t i c a l power than with matters s p i r i t u a l . 6g Helge Nelson analyzes the areas i n Sweden f u r n i s h i n g emi­ grants to America (N 35-40). The heavy emigration was a l l from regions south or west of Stockholm, but not from c l o s e to the c i t y . So i t was f o r Swedes coming to Kansas, but not a l l came from the regions of heavy emigration. Falun i n Kansas was s e t ­ t l e d l a r g e l y by people from Dalarna, northwest of Stockholm, and a number came from the borders of the main regions. V&rmland, on the border of Norway west of the c a p i t a l , f u r n i s h e d more emigrants e a r l y than l a t e , and people from there were important i n founding Kansas settlements. The d i a l e c t of V&rmland does not seem to have been as much of a hindrance i n communicating w i t h the people of Smaland and most of i t s surrounding provinces as was the d i a l e c t of Skane, s i t u a t e d opposite Copenhagen, and t h a t of the i s l a n d of Gotland. Some f u t u r e c i t i z e n s of Kansas -600- were born i n these two areas, but the m a j o r i t y f i r s t saw the day not more than 90 miles from the c i t y of Jbnk6ping. Areas of low p r o d u c t i v i t y f u r n i s h e d the most emigrants. 62.0 Denmark and Norway have had populations of n e a r l y the same s i z e ( i n the neighborhood of two m i l l i o n s a t the end of the emi­ g r a t i o n p e r i o d ) . Denmark c o n t r i b u t e d f a r l e s s than Norway to the p o p u l a t i o n of the United S t a t e s ( .240,000 Danes between 1870 and 1900, over 575,000 Norwegians), but i t f u r n i s h e d more people to Kansas, where there were 5 ,600 Danes, 3*000 Norwegians, 31,000 Swedes i n I 8 9 5 . 62.1 Denmark8 s popu l a t i o n increased as the Swedish d i d i n the nineteenth century; i t went from 1.7 m i l l i o n s i n 1864 to 2*8 m i l l i o n s i n 1914 (S 6 7 0 ) , but the push f o r emigration was l e s s than i n Sweden because the a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i n Denmark was 54 per cent of the t o t a l i n 1864 (S 672) i n s t e a d of 80 per cent as i n Sweden, because the Danes s h i f t e d from grain-farming to l i v e s t o c k - r a i s i n g r a t h e r promptly when competition with Amer­ i c a n g r a i n grew sharp (S 517) , and because i n d u s t r y took care of the excess a g r i c u l t u r i s t s to a great extent; between 1880 and 1890 the farming p o p u l a t i o n decreased from 51 per cent of the t o t a l to 46 per cent, and to 41 per cent i n 1901 (S 5^7)• 62.2 The waves of immigration of I 8 6 7 and 1882 d i d ..bring Danes to Kansas, however. The pushes were aided by a r a t h e r potent p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r . The German conquest of Schleswig i n 1864 l e d to a l a r g e emigration of Danes from that province. F i r s t the - 6 0 1 - young men f l e d to a v o i d s e r v i c e i n the P r u s s i a n army, and then t h e i r p a r e n t a l f a m i l i e s o f t e n f o l l o w e d . The movement began i n A l s , the i s l a n d nearest the Danish i s l e s and spread north and west (Sc 102 ). Between 1871 and I 8 9 5 the population of the Haderslev area f e l l from 5 2 to 47 thousand (S 1 5 5 )• S c h l e s - wigers reached Kansas; i n f a c t they were numerous enough so that i n 1914 -16 d i s s e n s i o n arose i n Kansas communities between a n t i - German Schlesitfigers and pro-German Northern Danes. The emigra­ t i o n was, however, i n the f i r s t place from Schleswig to Denmark proper and then under economic pressures some emigres moved on to America. 6 2 .3g Denmark witnessed i n mid-century a s t r u g g l e between the f o l l o w e r s of Bishop Grundtx^ig (1783-1872 ) and the m a j o r i t y of L u t h e r a n s , r e i n f o r c e d by the folloxArers of the Inner M i s s i o n , a "great r e v i v a l movement (which) c h a r a c t e r i z e d the l a t t e r h a l f of the century" (Kn 7). The s t r u g g l e had i t s echo among immi­ grants i n the United S t a t e s . Both p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s d i s s e n s i o n had t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t s : they advanced Engl- i z i n g . U n t i l 1849 r e l i g i o u s freedom was not l e g a l i n Denmark; f o r ten years a f t e r a beginning i n I 8 3 9 B a p t i s t s s u f f e r e d per­ s e c u t i o n and d i d not t h r i v e . In 1864 there were some l 6 0 0 mem­ bers (WP 2 9 1 ) . They prospered more beginning i n I 8 6 5 . Their i n f l u e n c e i n the United States was probably not so great as the i n f l u e n c e i n reverse. 0 Norway f e l t a t l e a s t as a c u t e l y as Sweden popu l a t i o n pressures of the nineteenth century. The increase was from 8 8 3 thousand i n 1801 to 1 . 7 m i l l i o n s i n 1 8 6 5 1 to 2 . 2 m i l l i o n s i n 1 9 0 0 and 2 . 8 m i l l i o n s i n 1 9 1 4 ( B 464 and J 4 9 6 ) . The push f o r emigration was s i m i l a r to t h a t i n Sweden "but more vigorous, more long-continued. The emigration per 1 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s was: from Sweden from Norway 1 8 5 1 - 5 5 O . 6 3 2.81 1 8 6 6 - 7 0 3 . 8 7 8 . 6 4 1881-85 6 . 4 1 1 . 0 5 (BI 2 2 ) 1 9 0 2 - 0 6 8 . 8 1 . The a r r i v a l s i n the United States from Norway i n the f i r s t decade of the twentieth century numbered more than 1 9 0 thousand as a g a i n s t l e s s than 177 thousand f o r the decade I 8 8 I - I 8 9 0 — peak years 1 9 0 3 * -25 thousand; 1882: 26 or 28 thousand (B 4 5 4 , K 3 5 9 t L 4 6 7 ) . The t r i c k l e to Kansas from the l a t e r p e r i o d was p e r c e p t i b l e . The reason f o r the long continuance of heavy emi­ g r a t i o n l a y : 1) i n the l a t e date i n the improvement of farming methods (the s h i f t from grain-growing to s t o c k - r a i s i n g and d a i ­ r y i n g took place i n Norway i n the l a s t decades of the nineteenth century, but stock r a i s i n g was not too p r o f i t a b l e ( J 5 0 0 - 5 0 2 3 5 u l t i m a t e l y methods r e c e i v e d a considerable impulse from r e t u r n i n g emigrants [B! 4 7 4 ] ) ; 2) i n the delay, comparatively speaking, i n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ; 3) i n great s o c i a l r e s t l e s s n e s s i n Norway ( E i n a r Haugen says of the immigrants of the l a s t two decades of - 6 0 3 - the nineteenth century that they 11 were c h i l d r e n of a new age i n Norway, an e x c i t i n g era of i n d u s t r i a l expansion, democratic a g i ­ t a t i o n , and broadening education." [Hn 27"]); probably, too, i n the r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r a b i l i t y of Norwegian settlements i n the U n i t e d States to a s s i m i l a t e a d d i t i o n a l increments of people be­ cause the Norwegians f u r n i s h e d a higher p r o p o r t i o n of American farmers who moved on i n t o Canada.* Norwegian settlements r e - * E i n a r Haugen, i n h i s a n a l y s i s of motives f o r Norwegian emigration (Hn 18-23)> emphasizes p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s more than other a n a l y s t s . " I t seems clear,. thfci,' that Norwegians d i d not emigrate p r i m a r i l y because they were oppressed, or persecuted, or p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n . I t i s true that many of them were under­ p r i v i l e g e d ; but so had t h e i r ancestors been and had humbly ac­ cepted i t as the w i l l of God. Economic and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n Norway were a c t u a l l y b e t t e r than i n most European c o u n t r i e s ; and i t was not the poor alone who emigrated. But the men of the nineteenth century were l i k e Adam and Eve a f t e r they had t a s t e d the apple of knowledge J they suddenly discovered that they were hungry. The apple they ate was the news of America which came to them through t h e i r newly-founded newspapers, t h e i r improved school systems, t h e i r p r e v i o u s l y migrated r e l a t i v e s , the l e t t e r s and books about America. They emigrated because they had learned to be d i s s a t i s f i e d , and because a changing world had pro­ vided them xtfith a hope of escape from t h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n " (Hn 2 2 ) . - 6 0 4 - hn ri ^ 1 on aflsAflsdsfc^^ i a f 1 ^ 1 3 c e i v i n g the twentieth century immigrants found use f o r the Norwegian language longer than other settlements. 2 Economic l i f e i n Norway apparently reacted to p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . While there are few claims t h a t the union with Sweden during the nineteenth century was an economic depressant, the sudden swing upward a f t e r the d i s s o l u t i o n of the union i n 1905 (L 498) suggests that energies p r e v i o u s l y had been expended i n p o l i t i c s or i n d i s s e n s i o n which might have been a p p l i e d to the s o l u t i o n of socio-economic problems. 3 D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the s t a t e church i n Norway was more acute than analogous emotions i n Sweden. Hans N i e l s e n Hauge labored a t a p i e t i s t i c r e v i v a l i n the e a r l y years of the n i n e ­ teenth century, and Haugeanism endured. Lay preachers x^ rere common. In America Norwegians, though almost a l l p e r s i s t i n g i n Lutheranism, became e s p e c i a l l y d i s p u t a t i o u s and d i v i s i v e . 4g Norwegian emigrants to the United States came mostly from southern Norway, but to make such a statement i s l i t t l e d i f f e r ­ ent from saying that they came from Norway. Three f o u r t h s of Norway 1s people l i v e south of the s i x t i e t h p a r a l l e l of l a t i t u d e , the p oint a t which, coming from the n o r t h , Norx^ay a t t a i n s i t s f u l l width; a good h a l f l i v e south of Bergen. The f i r s t Nor­ wegian emigrants, the Quakers who came i n the Sloop R e s t o r a t i o n i n I 8 2 5 , were from Stavanger on the southwest coast. Prom the same re g i o n came both e a r l y and l a t e s e t t l e r s to Brown County, Kansas; some from a l i t t l e f u r t h e r south yet, from Sogndal. In Greenwood County there was another immigrant from Sogndal, a l s o one from Toten somextfhat north of Oslo, . Og Scandinavian immigrants i n t o the United S t a t e s * very n e a r l y * For a complete d e s c r i p t i o n of -£5iErrtoes^3g^^ the l o c a t i o n and h i s t o r y of the var i o u s Swedish settlements the reader i s r e f e r r e d to Helge Nelson's work (N).Vol. I I i s an a t l a s . took over Minnesota and the Dakotas. I n 1890 North Dakota with 1/8 the po p u l a t i o n of Kansas, and South Dakota with J , each con­ t a i n e d h a l f again as many Scandinavian-born as Kansas, and the numbers i n these s t a t e s were to increase g r e a t l y . T h e i r presence there, however, h a r d l y i n f l u e n c e d developments i n Kansas. Nor d i d t h a t of the Scandinavians i n s i x other s t a t e s each c o n t a i n i n g i n 1850 more than two hundred persons born i n Scandinavia — C a l i f o r n i a , L o u i s i a n a , Texas, Massachusetts, New York and Penn­ s y l v a n i a , though i n most of these s t a t e s , as w e l l as i n some of t h e i r neighbors and i n Utah, the Scandinavian population increased n o t a b l y . In the eastern and f a r northern s t a t e s because of a l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n of l a t e a r r i v i n g immigrants, there could be c i t e d instances of conservation of Swedish or Danish i n t o the mid-twentieth century more impressive than most that w i l l be d i s ­ cussed below. Four other s t a t e s i n 1850 contained more than two hundred i n h a b i t a n t s born i n Scandinavia, I l l i n o i s , Iowa, M i s s o u r i , and Wisconsin. The Scandinavians i n these st a t e s and i n Nebraska - 6 0 6 - had c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h those i n Kansas (See 26-28 f o r popu­ l a t i o n f i g u r e s i n these s t a t e s . ) So d i d those a t one po i n t i n Indiana, Laporte. Kansas was too warm f o r most of them and the lands t h a t were newly opened a f t e r 1870 were u s u a l l y too dry f o r those who were w i l l i n g to endure the hot summers. . 0 0 For the Swedes I l l i n o i s was always a f a v o r i t e s t a t e . As l a t e as 1890 there were 7/8 as many Swedish-born i n I l l i n o i s as i n Minnesota. C l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s made the northern t h i r d of the s t a t e the p r e f e r r e d area. Chicago throughout the p e r i o d of Kansas settlement contained many Swedes. For a great number i t was merely a way s t a t i o n or a temporary residence w h i l e accumu­ l a t i n g &&pital.< But the permanent urban element was l a r g e , be­ came b i l i n g u a l r a p i d l y , and exerted E n g l - i z i n g i n f l u e n c e on a l l Swedes who t a r r i e d there even b r i e f l y . S t i l l i n the suburbs there were l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative spots. In A u s t i n near Oak Park about 1918 a boy of good background entered school able to speak only Swedish. In Chicago i t s e l f c onfirmations i n Swe­ d i s h were o c c u r r i n g about 1915* Other urban centers grew up at Rockford on the north edge of the s t a t e i n Winnebago Co. ( 6 l - 1 0 2 ) , at Galesburg ( 6 l - l 4 ) and at Rock I s l a n d (61-130) on or near the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r . The l a s t two towns, e s p e c i a l l y Galesburg, were of much importance to Kansas. One hundred miles south of Chicago there was a center founded i n I 8 6 3 at Paxton which spread to towns near by p r i m a r i l y i n Ford County (61-155) (some connection with Osage County, Kansas). In Kane County - 6 0 7 - (61-113) 35 m i l e s west of Chicago along the Pox R i v e r between E l g i n and Aurora Swedish settlements grew up about 1 8 5 0 , In DeKalb County, the next county west, Swedes began to appear around Sycamore at n e a r l y the same time. In the r e g i o n near the M i s s i s s i p p i Swedish settlement around Galesburg and i n the area between Galesburg and Rock I s l a n d i n Knox and Henry Counties ( 6 l - 142 , 131) has been important, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a d i s t r i c t measuring about 13 X 20 m i l e s c e n t e r i n g at Andover, where the f i r s t Swede appeared i n 1840 and mass settlement began i n 1 8 4 9 . At the south edge at V i c t o r i a there were Si^redes by I 8 3 8 (PS 100) . .01 Sx^edes who became Kansans had u s u a l l y l i v e d i n I l l i n o i s i f they had l i v e d f i r s t elsewhere i n the United S t a t e s . Over 60 percent of the Swedes whose biographies appear i n the C u t l e r - Andreas H i s t o r y of Kansas ( I 8 8 3 ) and who recorded other s t a t e s than Kansas as the place of t h e i r f i r s t residence i n the United S t a t e s had dwelt i n I l l i n o i s . Iowa, Indiana, and New York each f u r n i s h e d 6 or ? per cent of the remainder. The others were s c a t t e r e d from C a l i f o r n i a to Massachusetts, though none had l i v e d i n the South. The founders of the Kansas Swedish s e t t l e ­ ments begun i n T e r r i t o r i a l days ( A x t e l l , Mariadahl, E n t e r p r i s e , Scranton) were a l l from the Rock Island-Andover-Galesburg complex of settlements ( i n c l u d i n g Davenport across the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r ) . The s e t t l e r s of the l a t e l 8 6 0 f s and l 8 7 0 f s a l s o came mostly from t h i s area, or i f not, u s u a l l y from Chicago. The f i r s t organized group a t Lindsborg came from Chicago; the members of the second - 6 0 8 - composed the Galesburg Land Company. Other Swedish Americans who came to the Lindsborg area were 90 per cent from I l l i n o i s . The s e t t l e r s at Scandia organized t h e i r land company i n Chicago. P a r t of the Savonburg people were from near Galesburg. The s e t t l e r s of 1870 i n Osage County were mostly from P r i n c e t o n , I l l i n o i s , on the east edge of the M i s s i s s i p p i complex. In I 8 7 8 the s e t t l e r s a t New Andover named t h e i r settlement f o r t h e i r o l d home at An­ dover, I l l i n o i s . The data concerning those who founded Swedish settlements i n Kansas are s i m i l a r . L a t e r comers to Kansas had o f t e n spent a few years i n Swe­ d i s h s t a t e s contiguous to I l l i n o i s , but I l l i n o i s continued to be a p r i n c i p a l American source of Sitfedish p o p ulation i n Kansas. . 0 2 The f o l l o w i n g passage from Helge Nelson 1s work i l l u s t r a t e s l i n g u i s t i c development i n the c e n t r a l part of the Rock I s l a n d - Andover-Galesburg area. "Dr. P h i l i p Andreen, who was born i n the Andover-Swedona d i s t r i c t , made a v i s i t there i n 1916 . He w r i t e s : ' I t i s the t h i r d generation, the grandchildren of the f i r s t s e t t l e r s , who now begin to take the l e a d i n g places i n the community and i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the church. Many of the f a m i l i e s are r i c h and prosperous, they a l l seemed to be inde­ pendent. The m a j o r i t y of the American descendants, who, a generation ago, were the foremost farmers and greatest l a n d ­ owners, have had to y i e l d place to the Swedish-Americans xsrho have bought t h e i r farms. On the whole the Swedona re g i o n of to-day i s more Swedish than i t was when I was a c h i l d there. - 6 0 9 - A l s o the f o u r t h generation i s l e a r n i n g Swedish, because every­ where i n the homes Swedish i s s t i l l spoken, 1 This d e s c r i p t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g from the point of view that the Swedish stock has kept and i s developing i t s p o s i t i o n as farmers. But i t was some­ what too b r i g h t a p i c t u r e that Dr. Andreen gave of the d i s t r i c t regarding the p e r s i s t e n c e of the language. In any case the Swe­ d i s h language was r a p i d l y dying out, i n s p i t e of the f a c t that i n Swedona i n 1914 the morning church s e r v i c e was h e l d only once a month i n E n g l i s h . For evensong and Sunday School E n g l i s h alone was used. I n 1 9 2 5 i when I v i s i t e d these p a r t s , the young people used only E n g l i s h when t a l k i n g w i t h each other. According to Pastor G. E. Hemdahl most of the sermons and the schooling i n Andover had been h e l d i n Swedish u n t i l the middle of the l 8 9 0 , s , when however, E n g l i s h was introduced together with Swedish i n the Sunday schools, confirmations and evensong, and at the meetings of the youth a s s o c i a t i o n s E n g l i s h was the most f r e q u e n t l y used language. At the same time the C h r i s t i a n summer schools gave up u s i n g Swedish. About 1911 E n g l i s h commenced to be used a t the morning s e r v i c e s . In 1926 Swedish as a church language was heard i n Andover only at one morning s e r v i c e per month and, ac­ cording to L i e . A l b . Widen, i n 1935 a Swedish sermon was preached once every f o u r t h Sunday. And i n 1939 the Swedish evensong had been given up a l t o g e t h e r . . . . The Swedish stock now belongs to the t h i r d and f o u r t h generations a f t e r the f i r s t immigrants" (N 1 6 7 - 8 ). In 1910 f o r the s i x t i e t h anniversary of the An- - 6 1 0 - dover churchy Pastor Edblom wrote a h i s t o r y of i t . I n 1950 when the c e n t e n n i a l c e l e b r a t i o n again produced a h i s t o r y , Pas­ t o r B e x e l l p r a i s e d h i s predecessor's e f f o r t and added: "The only t r o u b l e now i s that i t was w r i t t e n i n Swedish and few of our constituency are conversant w i t h the language." S t i l l i n the three-day c e n t e n n i a l f e s t i v a l a place was found f o r a Swe­ d i s h s e r v i c e on Saturday. Pastor Laure, who served the congre­ g a t i o n from 1912 to 1923 was i n charge. Pastor B e x e l l , d e s p i t e the q u o t a t i o n made above, b e l i e v e d that the members of h i s con­ gr e g a t i o n born before 1918 knew Swedish. To r e c o n c i l e the two statements we may assume that very few could read, and f l u e n c y h a r d l y e x i s t e d . Bishop H i l l , near Andover and 25 m i l e s northeast of Gales­ burg, was the scene of a very e a r l y (1846) settlement of com­ munal! s t i c c h aracter. In 1951 the a c t i v e church there was the Methodist, l a b e l e d i n g l a s s , "Swedish M.E. Church 1 8 6 9 - 1 9 0 0 . " The b u l l e t i n board c a l l e d i t the "Community M.E. Church." In the F i r s t Swedish Lutheran church at Galesburg Swedish s e r v i c e s were abandoned i n 1 9 4 0 , but i n 1951 many o l d people took communion p r i v a t e l y i n Swedish. In 1951 a h a l f - h o u r r a d i o program i n Swedish, f o r which there were l i s t e n e r s , was broadcast a t Galesburg every Sunday. The F i r s t Lutheran Church i n Rock I s l a n d discarded Swedish f o r s e r v i c e s i n 19351 but here too i n 1951 Swedish was used i n p a s t o r a l v i s i t a t i o n s to the o l d , mostly sons and daughters of - 6 n - immigrants. Many young g i r l s knew Swedish ca. 1 9 3 0 . Preaching i n Swedish a t Moline near by had not been abandoned so soon. I t disappeared a t the Salem church there i n 1 9 5 0 , but was s t i l l c o n t i n u i n g a t the F i r s t Church i n 1951* 03 At Rockford, I l l i n o i s , Sx^edish had greater l o n g e v i t y than elsewhere. Immigration begun there by 1852 (N 155) continued to the mid-txfentieth century. At Zion Lutheran church i n 1951 there was preaching i n Swedish every Sunday attended by some 125 persons. Attendance a t E n g l i s h s e r v i c e s was 7 0 0 . One tenth of the Bro­ therhood and Dorcas s o c i e t y meetings were conducted i n Swedish. The ceremonies f o r weddings and baptisms x\rere sometimes i n Swe­ d i s h . There had been no i n s t r u c t i o n f o r c o n f i r m a t i o n i n Swedish, however, since about 1 9 2 5 . In years j u s t preceding, the cate­ c h e t i c a l school had served p r i n c i p a l l y i n teaching the language. Zion was f a r the l a r g e s t Augustana Lutheran church i n Rockford; there were seven others. Of these only F i r s t had s e r v i c e s i n Swedish — once a month, poorly attended. But there was Swedish elsewhere i n town. At the S a l v a t i o n Army there were o f t e n Swe­ d i s h speakers, and the o r g a n i z a t i o n sponsored a r e g u l a r r a d i o s e r v i c e i n Swedish. People of the second generation were f r e ­ quently able to speak Swedish, and these persons might be young — i n t h e i r twenties. 04g Swedes i n Indiana were most numerous i n the towns along the l a k e f r o n t near Chicago. Of these, La Porte and Gary have the l a r g e s t Swedish churches. La Porte was a way s t a t i o n f o r c e r t a i n - 6 l 2 - f u t u r e Kansans, s p e c i f i c a l l y a t B r a n t f o r d . L i k e the other c i t i e s i n the neighborhood, LaPorte holds other immigrant stocks of yet more importance, here Germans and Poles p r i m a r i l y . S t i l l , Beth­ any Church, organized i n 1851, d i d not begin i t s t r a n s i t i o n from Swedish to E n g l i s h s e r v i c e s u n t i l about 1916 and completed i t i n 1939• In 1933 there were Swedish s e r v i c e s i n a d d i t i o n to E n g l i s h twice a month. At that time the young there knew no Swedish. There were a l s o e a r l y Indiana Swedish settlements i n Warren and Tippecanoe Counties (62:-40,4l) which seemed to have f u r n i s h e d s e t t l e r s to Paxton, I l l i n o i s , x^ rhen the I l l i n o i s C e n t r a l l i n e was b u i l t . 65.IO A f t e r I l l i n o i s the s t a t e c o n t r i b u t i n g most to the Swedish element i n Kansas has been Iowa. But through Iowa there i s a l i n k w i t h I l l i n o i s . For i n s t a n c e , i n 1880 i n Scandia Township one Swede from Iowa had c h i l d r e n born i n Kansas and I l l i n o i s . He had two sons born i n Iowa (aged 10 and 1 3 ); t h e i r mother was born i n I l l i n o i s . In neighboring Courtland Township there were two Swedish f a m i l i e s w i t h c h i l d r e n born i n Iowa. In one of these f a m i l i e s (Elenburg) the o l d e r c h i l d r e n had been born i n I l l i n o i s ; i n the other there was a c h i l d born i n Ohio. S i m i l a r f a c t s , as examples, are revealed by the-1880 census f o r the Swe­ d i s h townships i n S a l i n e County, sampled f o r the Lindsborg s e t ­ tlement and i n Murray Township i n M a r s h a l l County. Iowa's con­ t r i b u t i o n was c l o s e to I l l i n o i s ' as a source of Kansas Swedes i n 1885 i n B r a n t f o r d Township. There a d u l t Sx^redish-born who came to Kansas but not d i r e c t l y from Sweden were d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s ; ~ 6 l 3 - I l l i n o i s 24 M i s s o u r i 4 Michigan 1 Iowa 20 Indiana 2 Wisconsin 1 Ohio 8 Nebraska 2 Minnesota 1 6 5 . 1 1 The Swedish settlements i n Iowa were concentrated i n f o u r areas; the south-east, B u r l i n g t o n ( 6 1 - 6 6 ), and the country to the west and south, f i r s t settlements 1845-1846 (PS 6 0 1 , 6 0 ? ) ; middle-most Iowa, Des Moines ( 6 l - 4 l ) and, s e t t l e d e a r l i e r , 1 8 4 6 - 9 (PS 6 0 9 , 6 l 2 ) the country to the north of i t , "the l a r g e s t and most i n f l u e n t i a l Sx^edish community i n Iowa" (PS 6 l 4 ) ; the south­ west, the Halland settlement, mostly i n Page and Montgomery Counties; and f i n a l l y i n and near S i o u x C i t y . Southeast Iowa areas seem to have f u r n i s h e d a temporary abode f o r more Swedes coming to Kansas than other areas; the immigrants sometimes earned money i n B u r l i n g t o n or Keokuk. Farmers who came from I l l i n o i s , i f they spent some time elsewhere before coming to Kansas, seem most f r e q u e n t l y to have l i v e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n of Iowa. Kansas summers seemed l e s s formidable to these people than to those f a r t h e r n o r t h . 6 5 . 1 2 L i n g u i s t i c development among Swedes i n Iowa f o l l o w e d much the p a t t e r n recorded above f o r the I l l i n o i s area between Rock I s l a n d and Galesburg. For example i n the southeast area at Swedesburg some t h i r t y - f i v e m i l e s northwest of B u r l i n g t o n , the Swedish i n s c r i p t i o n s i n the cemetery which p r e v a i l e d i n the 1880*s, become r a r e a f t e r 1 9 0 0 . The l a s t one appears on the stone of itfhom one spouse die d i n 1 9 1 7 i the other i n 1 9 3 5 i Swedish had disappeared from Lutheran s e r v i c e s here before 19511 "but those born before 1918 knew some Swedish. Swedish was abandoned i n - 6 l 4 - church s e r v i c e s except f o r the Christmas Ceremony, J u l o t a , by 1 9 2 3 . Neighboring missions at Mount Pleasant and Washington, retirement centers to the south and n o r t h , p e r s i s t e d long i n Swedish and perished i n 1936 and 1 9 2 6 . S t i l l , records a t Mount Washington which were kept i n Swedish i n 1906 were set down i n E n g l i s h i n 1912. At Boone i n the c e n t r a l d i s t r i c t some 40 m i l e s upstream from Des Moines i n 1951 most of those of Swe­ d i s h stock aged more than f i f t y were able to speak Swedish. H a l f were immigrants, h a l f of the next generation. Most of the 627 of the congregation l i v e d w i t h i n t h i s town of 1 2 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i ­ tants. I n Iowa's southwest s e c t i o n , the Lutheran church founded i n I 8 6 9 i n Fremont Township i n Montgomery County and on the edge of Page County was i n 1951 having Swedish s e r v i c e s once a month. The other Swedish churches of the area had discarded s e r v i c e s i n Swedish by 1951 $ p a r t l y because of m i n i s t e r s incapable of preaching i n i t . Immigration had continued u n t i l 1 9 1 0 . About h a l f of the members of the Mi s s i o n Covenant church a t Red Oak born about 1920 were i n 1951 able to speak Swedish. Confirma­ t i o n s had gone on i n Swedish t i l l 1 9 3 0 . The f i r s t m i n i s t e r i n ­ capable of u s i n g the language a r r i v e d i n 1 9 3 6 . Near Sioux C i t y , a boy l a t e r to become a m i n i s t e r studied h i s catechism i n Swedish but was confirmed i n E n g l i s h i n 1 9 2 8 . . 2 M i s s o u r i . though favored by few Swedes,, f u r n i s h e d a num­ ber of Swedish s e t t l e r s to Kansas i n the northern pre-West, most notably at Kackley i n the great Scandia settlement. These people came s t r a i g h t west from B u c k l i n , h a l f way between Han- - 6 1 5 - n i b a l and St. Joseph i n southeastern L i n n County; the settlement there was founded a t the end of the l 8 6 0*s and was described i n 1870 as a r a t h e r promising colony w i t h 60 to 80 Swedes: "The Swedes who f i r s t came to B u c k l i n i n I 8 6 9 belonged to the party of P astor 0 . Olsson (see Lindsborg) proceeding to Kansas, but they had separated i n Glasgow, Scotland, from the other emi­ grants. By a r a i l r o a d agent they were persuaded to come to B u c k l i n . The settlement a l s o extended i n t o Macon County east of L i n n County. In 1870 there were more than 200 Swedish-born i n these two counties" (N 2 6 4 ) , 311 i n I 8 9 0 . The Swedes, almost a l l V&rmlanders, came f i r s t as r a i l r o a d workers, d e c l a r i n g to Pastor Olsson t h e i r i n t e n t i o n of going on to Lindsborg a f t e r they had earned some money. They were persuaded to buy la n d i n two areas, one n o r t h , the other south of B u c k l i n . The people who e v e n t u a l l y went to Scandia were almost a l l from the south­ ern group, which thereby was n e a r l y eradicated. Pew came .from Sweden.after the f i r s t a r r i v a l s . The center and the churches of the northern group were some ten m i l e s north of town. E. L i n d - q u i s t wrote of the Lutheran Church ( i n existence 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 2 2 )i "The records are i n Swedish throughout the h i s t o r y of the con­ gregation. The l a s t entry i s f o r 1927" ( L i 143). Of 1955 he added, "Swedish i s seldom spoken by the few c h i l d r e n of the p i o ­ neers who remain. . . . The new generation knows only a few words of the language. . . . The o l d e r generation w i l l respond i n Swedish when addressed i n that language. . . . The language i s unique and quaint with accent and vocabulary belonging to the I 8 6 0 f s and l 8 7 0 f s and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a province" ( L i 148). In 1964 a few of the o l d able to speak Swedish were s t i l l to be fouhd, but a l l were past s i x t y . The cemeteries co n t a i n only one stone with an i n s c r i p t i o n i n Swedish. 30 The Swedish settlements i n Nebraska sent part of t h e i r pop­ u l a t i o n to settlements i n northwestern Kansas, p a r t i c u l a r l y Enne. In 1895 a d u l t Swedish-born who came to Kansas from other s t a t e s were d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s at Enne (Laing and Union Townships, Rawlins County): Nebraska 23 Minnesota 5 I l l i n o i s 3 Iowa 7 M i s s o u r i 4 Michigan 6 Colorado 3 In Nebraska, as at more eastern settlements i n Kansas the e a r l y s e t t l e r s very o f t e n came from the Galesburg-Rock I s l a n d area i n I l l i n o i s ( A l passim ). At l e a s t p a r t of the people from Nebras­ ka a t Enne came from S a r o n v i l l e , one of the minor Swedish s e t t l e ­ ments of the s t a t e . I t i s i n Clay County i n the second t i e r of counties n o r t h of Kansas, lon g i t u d e of western Republic County (P 1) . Another somei\rhat l a r g e r settlement begins some 10 m i l e s to the south, s t r e t c h i n g from Edgar to S c h i c k l e y . I t s beginning was a t f i r s t c a l l e d Stockholm founded i n I 8 7 2 ( A l 8 3 ) . Saron­ v i l l e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n I 8 7 1 by Go t t l a n d e r s , who had l i v e d i n I l l i n o i s ; many were Methodists ( A l 8 3 ; see a l s o N 2 7 9 ) . A f t e r the F i r s t World War t h i s community was not very conservative of Swedish. But u n t i l 1910 many of the i n s c r i p t i o n s i n the cemetery were i n Swedish. 31g L i k e S a r o n v i l l e , the other Nebraska settlements are a l l n e a r l y contemporary i n dates of o r i g i n w i t h those i n Kansas. The settlement a t Oakland i n Burt County (the second county north of Omaha) dates back to 1856' » though s i g n i f i c a n t s e t t l e ­ ment d i d not develop u n t i l 1864 ( A l 82/)./. In 1919 Oakland had s i x Swedish denominations represented: Lutheran, B a p t i s t , Evan­ g e l i c a l Lutheran M i s s i o n , Methodist, M i s s i o n F r i e n d s , Free Mis­ s i o n ; i n 1951 i t s Lutheran church had n e a r l y 1,000 members. The settlement a t Wahoo and Swedeburg was founded i n 1867; that a t Swedehome and H o r d v i l l e i n 1870 to 1872; that a t A x t e l l and Ber- trand i n 1875-1879• The l a s t three settlements are spaced along the P l a t t e R i v e r at 70 to 80 m i l e s from each other. Wahoo i s i n the county next west of Omaha. Oakland and Wahoo-Swedeburg are at the lo n g i t u d e of Mariadahl (founded 1855); Swedehome-Hordville at the lo n g i t u d e of Lindsborg and Scandia (founded I867-8) and A x t e l l - B e r t r a n d a t the lo n g i t u d e of 0 g a l l a h (founded 1879). L i n ­ g u i s t i c development of these settlements i n eastern and south­ ern Nebraska i s p a r a l l e l to that i n Kansas. In 1951 i n Wahoo and Swedeburg ( t h e i r area i n c l u d e s Malmo, Ceresco, Mead, and an e l e ­ ment i n Fremont), only the very o l d used Swedish h a b i t u a l l y . -618- Those born about 1900 were capable of speaking. Those born l a t e r up to the p e r i o d of the F i r s t World War had learned some Swedish but f o r g o t t e n i t . There were no s e r v i c e s i n e i t h e r Au­ gust ana Lutheran or M i s s i o n Covenant churches i n Swedish. At Wahoo there had been o c c a s i o n a l Swedish s e r v i c e s u n t i l about 1 9 4 8 . In the Swedehome-Hordville Area, which inc l u d e s Stroms- burg and Osceola ( CO 0 c£3 o5 M O o pq C M O 0 O 05 rH ft U •H PQ ON CM 0^ rH O VO GO -3- rH O -P CO O -H ^ S O O 0 •H • tS3 H W O rO ft o 2 £ as CO ft -P rO CO 0 £ rH O T3 CM rH -3- O O o5 co oo u co a5 £ o -p £ •H CO 03 M r-i CO 0 •H -P £ o CO ft .p r-S O CM .£ -P O O £ O •H M 03 ^1 CO .£ o 0 N O CO £ ft 0 CO -P r-! •H CM Pk CM O O Si CO 2 ft EH U 0 £ ; 03 04 pq & co .£ o 0 N O £ 0 a •H En C A CO o • 0 • ft N O £ O O EH C co ^ o ^ d *H O !H O O 2 Pd ^ KI CM GO CO rH o o CO £ •H iH 03 co o £ ^ s -p -p £ p1 CO o 0 N o o o -p C M •H £ O £ 0 CO CO 03 rH £ \ 0 S M CM CM rH CM rH CO o rH O CM en CM CM pq p JU o o ,£ -p JH O & CO rH rH W o 03 rH PH CO M 0 -P o ^3 CO ft 0 -P N O 00 rH CM CO rH rH rH rH -3- CM ON O CO rH 03 •P O EH - 8 9 9 - - 6 6 9 - Olg The e a r l i e s t Bohemians reached America during c o l o n i a l days; t h e i r f i r s t immigration i n the 1 9 t h century began i n 1845» but ha r d l y grew i n volume u n t i l 1847 . These e a r l y immigrants came f i r s t to New York or Baltimore or to New Orleans. From the east­ ern seaboard they worked their way westward along the lakes l e a v i n g c o l o n i e s i n the c i t i e s they passed through. Frequently, i n the case of Kansas e s p e c i a l l y f o r New York but to some extent a l s o f o r Cleveland, those who had stopped gathered t h e i r f o r c e s and came on west l a t e r . From New Orleans they went up the M i s s i s ­ s i p p i or westward to found from Galveston as a port the s e t t l e ­ ments of southern Texas. On the M i s s i s s i p p i they stopped i n S t . Louis or went on to the neighborhood of Dubuque which they a l s o reached from the l a k e s . . 1 Among Czechs "the f i r s t farming communities sprang up i n Wisconsin" (CC 3 6 ). This seems to have been at Caledonia near Racine i n the southeast corner of Wisconsin where Bohemian *48ers s e t t l e d (Ba ;210) . Other Czechs a r r i v e d there s t i l l e a r l i e r — i n 1844 (Ba 2 2 0 ) . In 1848 a l s o there were Czechs i n Milwaukee (CC 39) L i k e the Dutch i n Michigan the Czechs were a t t r a c t e d to a country where woodland could a i d i n subsistence t i l l f i e l d s x^ere producing. U l t i m a t e l y Czech settlements dotted a l l Wisconsin, fexAier only where popu l a t i o n remained l i g h t (see Capek's map, CC 6 0 ). In no area, however, d i d they s o l i d l y cover l a r g e s t r e t c h e s of t e r r i t o r y ; they were most n e a r l y concentrated near the lake north of Milwau­ kee, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Manitox^oc and Kewaunee Counties ( 61 -227 and - 6 7 0 - 2 1 2 ) . Kewaunee County was 3/7 Czech i n 1890 (Ba 2 2 0 ) . This d i s t r i c t c o n t r i b u t e d some population d i r e c t l y to Kansas, and Milwaukee f u r n i s h e d much. So d i d the o l d groups near Racine and the settlements In the southwest part of the s t a t e near the M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r . Up u n t i l about I 8 7 0 Milwaukee served as a way s t a t i o n f o r Czech s e t t l e r s going west as d i d s t i l l more f r e q u e n t l y Chicago. In the period d u r i n g which Wisconsin c o n t r i ­ buted Czechs to Kansas, i t s Influence was l i n g u i s t i c a l l y q u i t e c o n s e r v a t i v e , p a r t l y because most Czechs knew German, and could t a l k with the numerous Wisconsin Germans i f there were no f e l l o w countrymen near. In the Kewaunee d i s t r i c t commemorative i n s c r i p ­ t i o n s i n the cemetery at P i l s e n were u s u a l l y Czech u n t i l 1930 and examples continued u n t i l 1 9 4 7 . The f i r s t E n g l i s h appeared i n 1 8 8 8 . C h i l d r e n used E n g l i s h to each other In 19511 un­ t i l about 1947 the C a t h o l i c pastor was a Czech who preached and heard confessions i n Czech. Czech fishermen a t the northmost t i p of the Door County peninsula were s t i l l able to speak Czech i n 1951• E n g l - i z i n g f o r c e s showed there, however, at work on tombstone i n s c r i p t i o n s of members of the same f a m i l y . Matt Mikolasek l i v e d from 1848 to 1911; the s p e l l i n g of the surname was transformed l a t e r : J o s e p h McOlash ( 1 8 7 6 - 1 9 4 3 ). The Czechs at Rosiere, however, on the n o r t h edge of Kewaunee County, though regarded as c l a n n i s h , x^rere not using Czech h a b i t u a l l y i n 1951 • 7 4 . 2 ® R "Into Chicago, the f i r s t groups [of CzechsJ began f i l t e r i n g i n 1 8 5 2 - 53 " (CC 4 4 ) . Mrs. Balch (Ba 2 2 7 ?.says, "about 1851." The - 6 7 1 - settlement grew r a p i d l y . I t had reached 6 ,277 i n 1870 . The Czechs there, l i k e the Swedes, organized clubs and companies itfith the design of making a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements. Such a c l u b con­ t r i b u t e d members to the Kansas settlement at Wilson. The greatest o b s t a c l e to reaching t h e i r aim was the g e n e r a l l y impoverished s t a t e of the members. Only a small number of those who a s p i r e d to f i l i n g on a homestead could f i n d the wherewithal necessary. Even so, those who had spent a few years at low wages i n Chicago were a p e r c e p t i b l e element among the Czechs i n most of the Kansas s e t ­ tlements. The d e s i r e to become e s t a b l i s h e d was most a c t i v e when times were bad i n d u s t r i a l l y and commercially, and most d i f f i c u l t to s a t i s f y then. The hunger created by the c r i s i s of 1873 brought Czechs to Kansas r a t h e r soon, but the a p p e t i t e thus awakened could be more f r e q u e n t l y s a t i s f i e d i n more prosperous times toward the end of that decade. Chicago's west si d e became h e a v i l y Czech and so on out i n t o Berwyn and C i c e r o . The great drop i n the use of the Czech language i n Chicago occurred i n the 1930*s, but In 1951 every store along Cermak Avenue out to C i c e r o needed Czech- speaking c l e r k s . Although the C a t h o l i c churches attended by Czechs i n Berwyn and C i c e r o had no preaching i n Czech, St. Pro- copius's and S t s . John and Methodius 1s i n the c i t y i n 1951 had one h a l f t h e i r masses i n Czech. To be sure, the 11 o f c l o c k E n g l i s h mas? was the best attended. Most of those born before 1910 were able to speak Czech. 3 Czechs reached the neighborhood of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, by - 6 7 2 - 1850 (Capek 4 6 ). By the middle of that decade s e v e r a l settlements had been e s t a b l i s h e d , none n o t i c e a b l y f a r t h e r west and south than t h a t c i t y ' 1 i n - t h e center of eastern Iowa (Linn County, 61 35)• The C a l m a r - S p i l l v i l l e settlement was founded i n 1854 , I t was i n the northeastern corner of the s t a t e , a l i t t l e f a r t h e r west than Cedar Rapids (Winneshiek County, 61 -10) . F r a n c i s Swehla, l a t e r promoter of the Wilson settlement i n Kansas, l i v e d there f o r many years be­ f o r e going to Nebraska i n 1868 (SB 4 7 0 - 2 ) . The Cedar Rapids neighborhood a l s o provided Kansas w i t h i n h a b i t a n t s . John Picenka and Matthias Mozis l e d a party from there to the Blue R i v e r s e t t l e ­ ment i n I 8 6 9 (#48 .94 , E ) , and some -members went on a t once to the nucleus e s t a b l i s h e d near Cuba two or three years before by other men from the Cedar Rapids area. By t h i s date the Cedar Rapids Czechs had a daughter colony three counties f a r t h e r west i n Iowa i n -Marshall County ( 6 1 - 3 4 ), and i t too sent people on to Kansas. U l t i m a t e l y according to Capek's map (CC 60) the part of Ioxca h o l d i n g the most Czech settlements was from M a r s h a l l County east to Cedar Rapids and thence southeast i n a broad band along the Cedar R i v e r to the M i s s i s s i p p i . The C a l m a r - S p i l l v i l l e group a l s o spawned settlements three counties to the west. Czech settlements i n the southwest two-thirds of Iowa are unimportant. These Iowa settlements when founded were on the f r o n t i e r edge. A f t e r the immigration wave of 1857 subsided there was a pause i n the push forward and when the next wave of immigration came the advanced f r o n t i e r was beyond Iowa; Nebraska, Kansas, and South Dakota beckoned. - 6 7 3 - , 4 In Nebraska Joseph Franc 1 ( 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 7 5 ) i a Czech who some years l a t e r ( 1 8 6 9 -1874) became a r e s i d e n t at Crete crossed the t e r r i t o r y on the way to C a l i f o r n i a i n the year of i t s opening 1 8 5 4 . Charles Zulek (1822 -1896) came to Nebraska i n 1 8 5 6 and spent the r e s t of h i s l i f e In i t s southeast county, Richardson, a f t e r I 8 6 3 at a homestead s i x m i l e s from the Kansas l i n e on the banks of the South Nemaha j u s t a f t e r i t turns east from i t s northward course through Nemaha County, Kansas. His daughter Anna Zulek Bauer, born before 1 8 5 6 , wrote 1 "Our f i r s t school was s i t u a t e d about three m i l e s south of Bern, Kansas [see Bern Swiss Father loaded my brother Joseph and me i n a wagon and a l s o our bed, bed c l o t h e s , p r o v i s i o n s and clothing. The teacher and p u p i l lodged i n the same room. We stayed there f o r the term and then moved our bed and bedding back home again, repeating the opera­ t i o n during each term. I t was c a l l e d a ' s u b s c r i p t i o n school 1' 1 (R 6 5 ) . Zulek (Czech s p e l l i n g Culek) had been born i n Bohemia., dwelt i n Germany and Hungary, married a German w i f e , and emi­ grated to Freeport i n northern I l l i n o i s ( 6 1 - 1 0 1 ) i n 1854 , H i s daughter says; "We came to Nebraska from I l l i n o i s i n June, I 8 5 6 . The t r i p was made with oxen and took s i x weeks 1 time. We had intended to go to Topeka, but learned that there was warfare there, so decided to s e t t l e i n Nebraska" (R 64 ). The t r a d i n g p o i n t -was S t . Joseph, M i s s o u r i . While i t i s probable that the language of the Zulek household was that of the mother, Zulek* s farm south of Humboldt became the nucleus of a Czech settlement -674- ( 200 f a m i l i e s In Richardson County, ca. 1920), of which he was i n some s o r t the lea d e r . Those who j o i n e d him began a r r i v i n g i n I865. Richardson County was a l s o a s o r t of beach head f o r the much more Important settlements that were to develop i n S a l i n e County. The e a r l y s e t t l e r s f o r both counties came most of t e n by r a i l to S t . Joseph and then by boat up the r i v e r to Arago i n the second township above the Kansas border. John Herrman (1812- 1888) and Robert J . Shary (I832. ~, 1903) arrived, at Arago i n 1864. They were 148ers whom p o l i t i c a l p e rsecution drove from Bohemia about 1853 to Wisconsin. Well-to-do i n Europe, they were a l i t ­ t l e b e t t e r o f f than most emigrants when they reached Nebraska. They set up a tavern i n Arago and r e c e i v e d f e l l o w countrymen, but soon moved deeper i n t o the county a t A s p i n w a l l . The budding colony there soon (about 1868) moved on i n t o S a l i n e County to W i l ber, there to become s u b s t a n t i a l c i t i z e n s . In I865 they were preceded there by Prank (b. I835) and Joseph (b. I838) J e l i n e k who had been a t t r a c t e d to Arago v i a St. Joseph from Wisconsin by Vaclav Sestak ( l a t e r a l s o i n S a l i n e County), but t a l e s of r i c h country f a r t h e r west c a r r i e d them on to the Blue R i v e r where a number of other f a m i l i e s j o i n e d them the same year. 5 Omaha, Nebraska, r e c e i v e d Czech immigrants not many years a f t e r i t s foundation. In 1857 L i b o r A. S l e s i n g e r and Joseph Horsky a r r i v e d there almost d i r e c t l y from Bohemia v i a Cedar Rapids. They remained only three or four years. Edward Rose- water (1841-1906), the Bohemian Jew (Rosenwasser, R o z v a r i l ) who - 6 7 5 - founded the Omaha Bee i n 1871 , a r r i v e d i n 1863(R 28). He became d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The Omaha settlement grew to ,2,000 f a m i l i e s . A Czech settlement developed on South 1 3 t h S t . A f t e r Zulek and the f i r s t people In Omaha n e i t h e r Capek nor Mrs. Hrbkova i n her a r t i c l e on "Bohemians i n Nebraska" nor Rose Rosicky i n her H i s t o r y of Czechs i n Nebraska c i t e other Czech s e t t l e r s u n t i l I 8 6 3 . Then, when the homestead b i l l went i n t o e f f e c t , s e t t l e r s were a t t r a c t e d to the new o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n country f a r t h e r north than Kansas where war was not at one's door. .6 So, as c h r o n i c l e d above, s e t t l e r s from the Kewaunee-Manitowoc area no r t h of Milwaukee s e t t l e d i n S a l i n e County i n I 8 6 5 . Through S a l i n e County, the second county to the north of Washington County, Kansas (see j>2) , and some 50 miles from the L i t t l e Blue and Cuba settlements i n Kansas, there passes along the eastern edge the Blue R i v e r before i t reaches Kansas. Along the r i v e r v a l l e y from what i s now Crete to Wilber the Czech settlement grexf and spread, p a r t i c u l a r l y to the westward, f i n a l l y reaching i n t o F i l l m o r e County, where M i l l i g a n on i t s eastern edge became a minor center from foundation i n 1888. In these two counties Habenicht quoted by Miss Rosicky i n 1926 (R 23..) recorded 1675 f a m i l i e s out of 11 , 5 0 0 i n Nebraska. Many more s e t t l e r s came to i t from Wisconsin, but Iowa a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d . F r a n c i s Swehla l e d a wagon t r a i n there from northeast Iowa i n 1868. In 1864 and 1865 four Germans wi t h Czech wives came to near West Point i n Cuming County on the Elkhorn R i v e r some 60 miles northwest of Omaha. Czech men soon - 6 7 6 - began to j o i n them and the settlement grew to i n c l u d e 200 f a m i l i e s , .7 S h o r t l y a f t e r the S a l i n e and Cuming County settlements, a number of Czech communities between them i n the counties on e i t h e r side of the P l a t t e R i v e r came i n t o being i n B u t l e r , C o l f a x , Dodge and Saunders Counties (3270 f a m i l i e s says Habenicht). The begin­ ning was i n I867. The B u r l i n g t o n and M i s s o u r i R a i l r o a d had j u s t been b u i l t i n t o t h i s region. This company and the Union P a c i f i c promoted settlement i n the area of t h e i r r a i l r o a d lands i n com­ p e t i t i o n w i t h and by methods s i m i l a r to the land grant r a i l r o a d s i n Kansas (see # 7 . 4 f f . ) , g r e a t l y adding to the population of both the P l a t t e and B i g Blue R i v e r settlements. Vaclav L. VodiSka (1844 - 1 9 1 7 ) , the B u r l i n g t o n and M i s s o u r i land agent was of great help to the Czech s e t t l e r s . The great i n r u s h of new settlement went on through the I870 fs. In 1868 i n Chicago and Cleveland "800 f a m i l i e s j o i n e d a prearranged colony scheme and moved from those two c i t i e s en masse to the shores of the Niobrara and the M i s s o u r i " (HB 144). Their l o c a t i o n , i n other words, was i n Knox County i n northern Nebraska on the M i s s o u r i R i v e r s h o r t l y a f t e r i t becomes a boundary of that s t a t e (1000 f a m i l i e s i n Knox and the next county west). The Knox County settlement was the i n i t i a l p o i n t of a group of settlements that s t r e t c h many miles an up i n t o North Dakota ..along the M i s s o u r i and i t s immediate t r i b u ­ t a r i e s . A Czech name, that of the town of J e l e n , helps mark t h e i r l o c a t i o n i n Nebraska. Czech place names are a l s o found i n the P l a t t e R i v e r settlements, Prague, Praha, Bruno ( i . e . Brno) south of the r i v e r , Tabor north of i t . Shestak was the only Czech name to be imposed upon S a l i n e County. A few settlements besides West Poi n t were made between the Knox County and the P l a t t e R i v e r group, but from above that r i v e r south through S a l i n e County to the Kansas border i t i s never f a r from one Bohemian s e t ­ tlement to the next. This P l a t t e - t o - W i l b e r band i s some f i f t y m i l e s wide extending l i t t l e f u r t h e r east than L i n c o l n i n the north but broadening to the south. From Webster County above Esbon i n Kansas almost to the M i s s o u r i R i v e r Czech settlements are f r e ­ quent along the s t a t e l i n e . Settlements i n the r e s t of Nebraska are s c a t t e r e d much as i n Kansas. Indeed the Cuba and L i t t l e Blue settlements may be considered part of the Nebraska complex and a l l other Kansas settlements as r a d i a t i o n s from i t . Not that Nebraska provided much Czech p o p u l a t i o n to Kansas; r a t h e r Kansas and Nebraska had the same sources of population. But Omaha, though s p a t i a l l y separated from the other Nebraska Czech settlements became i n some pcrrt the c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l of Czechs i n the Mis­ s o u r i V a l l e y . At Omaha (2000 f a m i l i e s according to Habenicht) Czech n a t i o n a l i s m was strong enough to send Charles S t e i g e r to ca r r y the help of American Czechs to Masaryk. .8 In the Czech N a t i o n a l Cemetery at Omaha i n s c r i p t i o n s i n Czech are very frequent t i l l 1 9 3 0 , and new ones appeared a t l e a s t through 1 9 5 0 . The Czech language was p e r s i s t e n t i n the s e t t l e ­ ments i n Knox County. Across the r i v e r i n Yankton, South Dakota, an informant i n 1951 s a i d , "Bohemians don ft t a l k Bohemian i n town here, but i n small towns around here they do.11 Probably the - 6 7 8 - amount of t a l k was s i m i l a r to that a t Wilber i n S a l i n e County inhere i n the same year an informant aged seventy s a i d he had to " t a l k Bohemian with the o l d timers down town." Other Czechs used E n g l i s h . At M i l l i g a n some 20 miles west of Wilber there were more who spoke Czech. Robert Kutak described c o n d i t i o n s there i n 1 9 3 0 . The o l d men who frequented through the day what had once been the saloon t a l k e d Czech together. "Many of them use only the Czech language, but f i n d t h i s no handicap... as n e a r l y everyone understands them" (Ku 2 ). A loud speaker set up to e n t e r t a i n crowds on Saturday n i g h t played Czech records itfhich were not a l l music (Ku 5 )• The C a t h o l i c p r i e s t was h e l p i n g i n the production of plays produced i n Czech. "In the e a r l y days of the community Czech plays were the only ones o f f e r e d to the people. Today . . . the l a r g e s t crowds are found at the Czech dramas. There are s e v e r a l dramatic s o c i e t i e s . . . , the most recent of which c o n s i s t s almost e x c l u s i v e l y of young people, who present Czech plays i n a way which i s acceptable to the o l d e r people" (Ku 1 0 7 ). Two plays i n Czech were presented the year Kutak reported, 1930. An a f t e r theater dance promoted attendance. "Once or twice a year a company of p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t o r s comes to M i l l i g a n and presents Czech dramas" (Ku 108). There was already a c e r t a i n p r i d e among the speakers of Czech, they " f e e l themselves to be somewhat su­ p e r i o r to those who do not speak" i t (Ku 86). Kutak found more c h i l d r e n spoke Czech In the country than i n town, but that more a d u l t s spoke Czech i n town than i n the country. The number of - 6 7 9 - r e t i r e d people l i v i n g i n town e x p l a i n s the l a t t e r phenomenon. Languages Spoken i n Homes i n M i l l i g a n Community i n 1930 Czech E n g l i s h Both Parents c h i l d r e n Parents C h i l d r e n Parents C h i l d r e n F i r s t Generation Homes 90 35 8 20 ; 3 ^ Second Generation Homes 47 17 13 9 16 28 A b i l i t i e s i n us i n g Czech among M i l l i g a n Czech i n 1930 Read, Write Read & Speak Speak & Speak 2 d generation 2 5 ^ : 37^ 98$ 3d generation 7% V2$Z , 80$ " I t i s seen from the t a b l e s that the Czech language i s sl o w l y dying out i n M i l l i g a n " (Ku 6 4 ). B i l i n g u a l i s m was very common; at a f u n e r a l of 1930 (non-^religious) the E n g l i s h and Czech languages had equal r o l e s (Ku 921).....But while 90$ of the immigrants used Czech e x c l u s i v e l y i n t h e i r homes, only 62$ of t h e i r married sons and daughters d i d so; s t i l l i n 1930 f o u r - f i f t h of the c h i l d r e n of the l a t t e r were l e a r n i n g to speak Czech (Ku 63 & 147). R e l a t i o n s w ith Bohemia had t h e i r e f f e c t upon the conservation of Czech. "When they [the p i o n e e r s 3 f i r s t came, the o l d world was present with them and many l e t t e r s were w r i t t e n to f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s i n the o l d world. As the years passed by, t h i s stream d r i e d up. Many of the people to whom the l e t t e r s were f i r s t w r i t t e n came to l i v e i n Nebraska . . . . Death took i t s t o l l of f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s i n Bohemia. Several of the towrfs i n h a b i t a n t s have v i s i t e d Bohemia since the World War, - 6 8 0 - and while there they made new f r i e n d s to whom they w r i t e occa­ s i o n a l l y " (Ku 14). In 1951 i n one f a m i l y the grandmother, though understanding E n g l i s h , would not speak i t and the grand­ c h i l d r e n , though understanding Czech, would have none of such t a l k . The s i t u a t i o n i n the P l a t t e R i v e r settlements was s i m i l a r , only the very o l d speaking Czech i n the towns, the next genera­ t i o n not completely r u s t y at some p o i n t s i n the country. In the C a t h o l i c cemetery northwest of Wahoo the Czech i n s c r i p t i o n s ran at l e a s t u n t i l 1942; E n g l i s h had begun to appear i n the 1880's. At S a i n t Wenceslaus Church north of Prague near by records i n Czech came up to 1 9 2 8 ; o l d books i n Czech were i n current use. The s i t u a t i o n i n 1926 at Warsaw i n Howard County 130 miles west of Omaha i s expressed i n t h i s lament w r i t t e n by C.V. Svoboda f o r Miss Rosicky. (Howard County had ;230 Czech f a m i l i e s , she says) "The Czech language i s seldom heard i n the Warsaw church . . . Revs. Rose and Gleason learned to pray and read i n Czech f o r the sake of t h e i r Czech p a r i s h i o n e r s and Jacob Blaha, w i t h some of the o l d members, prays i n Czech a t the c l o s e of the s e r v i c e s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y a Czech p r i e s t i s c a l l e d a t the express wish of the o l d p a r i s h i o n e r s , but they are d i m i n i s h i n g and the f i n g e r s of one hand almost s u f f i c e to count the remainder. . . . The time i s not d i s t a n t when the dear Czech language w i l l vanish and only the Czech i n s c r i p t i o n s and names on the monuments"will be l e f t (R 3 2 7 ) . -681- 9 S t . Louis was the only p o i n t i n M i s s o u r i to re c e i v e important Czech settlement. I t s importance to Kansas l i e s i n the f a c t that i t was probably through i t that the f i r s t Moravians went to the Everest settlement i n 1857. As the most important r i v e r port above New Orleans i t began to r e c e i v e Czech immigrants very e a r l y , probably some of the very e a r l i e s t of the nineteenth cen­ t u r y immigration. C e r t a i n l y , a C a t h o l i c church was b u i l t f o r them i n 1 8 5 4 , and the CSPS benevolent brotherhood was founded the same year, accomplishments p o s s i b l e only i n a community of some s l i g h t m a t u r i t y . The founding of a Czech newspaper was a g i ­ t a t e d there i n 1857 and accomplished i n i 8 6 0 . The Czech s e t t l e ­ ment d i d not grow as f a s t or to be as l a r g e as the one i n Chicago, but i t remained sturdy. The o c c a s i o n a l Missourian included i n Czech settlements i n Kansas was almost n e c e s s a r i l y from St. Louis or i t s neighborhood, f o r few Czechs chose homes elsewhere i n Mis­ s o u r i . 0 Czechs a l l over the United States i n c l u d i n g Kansas were as a xtfhole remarkable f o r t h e i r lukewarmness toward r e l i g i o n . There are, however, settlements z e a l o u s l y C a t h o l i c , and i n almost a l l but the very small there i s a C a t h o l i c element a c t i v e enough to support a church. The Protesta n t churches that are e x c l u s i v e l y Czech are by no means so numerous, but where they e x i s t there was a zealous nucleus. The character of c o n d i t i o n s i n various p a r t s of the United States i s summarized by Capek (CC 119 f f . ) . In 1920 - he estimated that i n New York C i t y the Czechs were - 6 8 2 . . - 25.4$ C a t h o l i c , 11$ P r o t e s t a n t and 1 . 6 $ Jewish -- 62$ u n a f f i l i a t e d . In Chicago 50$ were C a t h o l i c . The C a t h o l i c Encyclopedia (1908) d e c l a r e s that the S t . Procopius p a r i s h i n Chicago was the l a r g e s t Czech p a r i s h , 1 0 , 0 0 0 s o u l s . The Poles are much more l o y a l to the church, but w i t h s i x times the po p u l a t i o n of the Czechs they had only four times as many churches. Two f a c t o r s enter i n t o t h i s . More P o l i s h churches than Czech were urban and an urban church serves many more p a r i s h i o n e r s than a r u r a l church. The Czechs were b e t t e r o f f economically. There were 138 Czech churches, 208 Czech p r i e s t s , 30 of whom served Slovaks. In Texas, Wiscon­ s i n and Minnesota the predominance of the C a t h o l i c s " i s b e l i e v e d to be the case." Capek leaves Ohio, Pennsylvania, Iowa, Neb­ raska and i t s neighbors with C a t h o l i c m i n o r i t i e s . Of 509 Czechs at M i l l i g a n , Nebraska, i n 1 9 3 0 , ?0$ belonged to no church and 25$ were p r a c t i c i n g C a t h o l i c s and 5$ nominal C a t h o l i c s (Ku 40). Most of the ?0$ were i n d i f f e r e n t i n matters of r e l i g i o n (Ku 75)$ but there were those among them h o s t i l e to r e l i g i o n . Grandma Smrha was a devout C a t h o l i c but very t o l e r a n t . "When her hus­ band died she i n s i s t e d that h i s f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s be conducted by the lodge . . . f o r f e a r that the p o l i t i c a l career of one of her sons would be i n j u r e d " (Ku 81). Roucek i n 1932 estimated the pro­ p o r t i o n of Czech C a t h o l i c s a t 18$. .10 P r o t e s t a n t i s m has l a t e l y a t t r a c t e d some of Czech stock through the s o c i a l connections to be e s t a b l i s h e d , but t h i s a t ­ t r a c t i o n d i d not develop u n t i l E n g l - i z i n g f o r c e s had l a r g e l y done - 6 8 3 - t h e i r work. Protestantism among the e a r l y immigrants was a con­ s e r v a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c f o r c e and where the e a r l y churches p e r s i s t e d , as at Tabor-Munden In Kansas, they continued to ej.xert a s i m i l a r Influence u n t i l very l a t e . In 1932 Roucek estimated that 2% of the Czechs x^rere P r o t e s t a n t s (RP 67) • In Kansas the P r o t e s t a n t s were Pr e s b y t e r i a n s and j o i n e d that denomination because they were r a t h e r of Reformed than Lutheran background i n Europe, Hus­ s i t e s o r i g i n a l l y . A u s t e r i t y i s not common among the Czechs, but the p i l l a r s of these P r e s b y t e r i a n congregations tended toward a u s t e r i t y — which explains t h e i r f a i l u r e to achieve p o p u l a r i t y and t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c conservatism. E n g l i s h was one of the snares of the world. The P r o t e s t a n t churches may be d i v i d e d i n t o two groups, one representing the dominant and o l d e r C a l v i n i s t i c t r a ­ d i t i o n , rooted i n H u s s i t i s m , and one the outgrowth of the p i e t i s - t i c movement which r e c e i v e d a very e a r l y impulse from the work of the Moravian Brethren. Driven i n great part from the Kingdom a f t e r the B a t t l e of the White Mountain, the Brethren gathered at Herrnhut i n Germany, which became the center of t h e i r r a d i a t i o n and German t h e i r general language, but the b e l i e v e r s xfere not a l l rooted out of Moravia. The C a l v i n i s t i c group of churches i n the United States contained i n 1910 .24 P r e s b y t e r i a n churches, 6 Reformed and 11 Congregational; the p i e t i s t i c group, 9 Metho­ d i s t , 6 B a p t i s t and 11 "Brethren" ( a l l i n Texas) (3a 3 8 6 ) . l l g Free-Thinkers were not so numerous among the Bohemians as those r e l i g i o u s l y i n d i f f e r e n t , but openly declared Free-Thought -684- was much more common than among the general population and much more respectable among humbler f o l k . E a r l y In the twentieth cen­ t u r y perhaps 15$ of the Czechs were Free-Thinkers; m i l i t a n c y In i t s f a v or has, however, dropped away. I f the r e l i g i o u s l y i n d i f ­ f e r e n t were counted among Free-Thinkers the p r o p o r t i o n would r i s e h igh. There were o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y to express Free- Thought, but i n general the s o c i a l organism i n which the Free- Thinkers throve were the lodges. The most popular j o u r n a l i s t i c e n t e r p r i s e s xfere a l s o undertaken by propagandists of Free-Thought. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y the Free-Thought movement acted much l i k e a r e l i ­ g i o n , that i s , c o n s e r v a t i v e l y u n t i l l a t e , and then E n g l - i z i n g . I t was conservative because as a respectable phenomenon I t was p e c u l i a r l y Czech and because i t s leaders were a t the helm of Czech s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and i n t e l l e c t u a l endeavor. While these leaders became r a p i d l y b i l i n g u a l , they found that a s p e c i a l language served to ho l d together t h e i r adherents u n t i l a new generation inexpert i n the language appeared upon the scene. .2 S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n among Czechs s a t i s f i e d a t h i r s t f o r assembly i n l a r g e numbers and w i t h a minimum of d i s c i p l i n e and u l t e r i o r purpose. A Bohemian h a l l was the f i r s t p u b l i c s t r u c ­ ture f e l t necessary i n almost a l l Czech settlements. Other com­ munities were s a t i s f i e d much longer with schoolhouses as a place of assembly. The h a l l might be owned by se v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s or by a s i n g l e one, but i n a l a r g e r sense the Narodny S i n (Na- - 6 8 5 - t i o n a l H a l l ) , as i t was f r e q u e n t l y l a b e l e d , belonged to the whole community. "Wherever Czech people are to be found, the f s i n f or h a l l serves as the s o c i a l agency which u n i f i e s the whole community" (Ku 2) . The most frequent owners were the lodges, which met i n them,* The most important f u n c t i o n was to * For Nebraska Miss Rosicky i n speaking of Free Thinkers l i s t s 44 h a l l s , the m a j o r i t y owned by the ZCBJ, most of the r e s t by SokoT (R 287- 291). There were a l s o communities where the h a l l was owned by C a t h o l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s . be the scene of "Bohemian dances," where people of a l l ages gathered. The dances were vigorous; c h i l d r e n raced about f r e e l y ; those too o l d to dance continuously t a l k e d and laughed h i l a r i o u s ­ l y ; the consumption of beer scandalized neighboring groups. But the f i g h t s were u s u a l l y w i t h i n t r u d e r s , who were not t o l e r a t e d , and the "wildness" produced much more noise than o b j e c t i o n a b l e conduct. I t was simply the proper t h i n g to be merry. Because a l l t h i s was p e c u l i a r l y n a t i o n a l , both by the w i l l of the p a r t i ­ c i p a n t s and that of the surrounding p o p u l a t i o n , the l i n g u i s t i c r e s u l t was markedly conservative• 30 "Benevolent" or " f r a t e r n a l " s o c i e t i e s — the " l o d g e s " — have been the most important element i n Czech s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . The insurance and p r o t e c t i v e f e a t u r e s of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s procured t h e i r continued e x i s t e n c e , but a f t e r the F i r s t World. War, l i k e t hat of lodges i n general though to a l e s s e r extent, t h e i r i n f l u - - 6 8 6 - ence d e c l i n e d . The o l d e s t and f o r the United States as a whole the most important of these o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s the C.S.P.S. (Cecko- Slovansky P o d p o r u j i c i Spolek—Czecho-Slovak Benevolent S o c i e t y ) . I t was organized i n S t . Louis i n 1854, but according to Capek (CC 258) d i d not become important throughout the United States u n t i l the 1880*s. The C.S.P.S. was c l o s e l y bound up with the f r e e - t h i n k i n g and l i b e r a l movement (PM 2 2 0 - 1 ) . Consequently, the church was h o s t i l e . In 1914 there were " 2 2 6 or more" lodges i n the United States with a membership of , 2 6 , 0 0 0 (SB 4 8 9 ) . The C.S.P.S. i s f o r men only; consequently there i s an a u x i l i a r y , the J.CD. (Jednota Ceskych Dam — Union of Czech L a d i e s ) . Swehla sa,ys, "Owing to a c o n f l i c t of i n t e r e s t between east and west" the ZCBJ was organized i n 1897 (ZCBJ: Zapadni Cesko-Bratrskp. Jednota — Western Czech F r a t e r n a l A s s o c i a t i o n ) . Miss Rosicky e x p l a i n s more f u l l y . The ZCBJ, she says, "was founded upon a b a s i s s i m i l a r , i n a general way, to the la r g e English-language o r g a n i z a t i o n s , " which were c u t t i n g i n t o Czech membership l a r g e l y because "insurance pay­ ments were based on age among them1! The CSPS i n 1898 " i n s t i t u t e d the same improvements, while p r i o r to that time the eastern d e l e ­ gates i n convention denied these improvements at the request of the western delegates." The ZCBJ gained p o p u l a r i t y too "because i t admits women on equal terms w i t h men and i s e n t i r e l y i m p a r t i a l i n the matter of r e l i g i o n . . . . Of l a t e i t i s e s t a b l i s h i n g lodges f o r the younfgeneration where business i s conducted i n E n g l i s h " (R 3 5 7 ) . In 1914 i t had 18 , 0 0 0 members; i n 1952^/- - 6 8 7 - there were 5 9 , 0 0 0 members. I t became the p r e v a i l i n g lodge i n Kansas, and almost every Czech settlement contains a chapter; the most f a i t h f u l C a t h o l i c communities are sometimes exceptions. Competing s o c i e t i e s of s i m i l a r nature were created f o r C a t h o l i c s . The o r g a n i z a t i o n t r a n s f e r r e d d i r e c t l y from Bohemia was the So- k o l — the gymnastic o r g a n i z a t i o n . In Bohemia i t was to a great extent a d i s g u i s e f o r p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , but the enthusiasm f o r gymnastics was r e a l and perpetuated among immigrants. The enthu­ siasm rose and waned through s e v e r a l periods (Ku 1 0 2 . ) . Sokol's Czech lodges, however, prospered more enduringly than American gymnastic groups, though i n 1932 ,at Sokol h a l l s with b a s k e t b a l l courts the E n g l i s h language i s heard c o n s t a n t l y during the game" (RP 6 9 ). The C a t h o l i c s a l s o organized s o c i e t i e s . In 1 9 0 8 , says the C a t h o l i c Encyclopedia, the Bohemian Roman Cath­ o l i c C e n t r a l Union had 1 1 , 5 0 5 members ( 1 5 , 0 0 0 i n CSPS). In 1932. Roucek s a i d that "Free-Thinking S o c i e t i e s " had 9 1 , 0 0 0 or 9 2 , 0 0 0 members, C a t h o l i c s o c i e t i e s 2 0 , 0 0 0 to 2 5 , 0 0 0 (RP 6 5 ) . The lodges endeavored to be l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e . Business d e l i b e r a t i o n s went on i n Czech as long as the members were able to p a r t i c i p a t e In that language — u n t i l about 1950 sometimes i n Kansas. The ZCBJ p u b l i c a t i o n , F r a t e r n a l Herald, B r a t r s k y .Vestnik, was 80$ i n Czech i n 1 9 5 4 . S t i l l e a r l i e r than 1930 there were chapters f o r the young conducted i n E n g l i s h (Rosicky above) as at M i l l i g a n (Ku 1 0 1 ) . 7 5 . 3 1 The N a t i o n a l Czech cemetery was another type of o r g a n i z a t i o n t h r i v i n g among the Czechs. Such cemeteries were not under the d i r e c t i o n of lodge or church, but were separate e n t e r p r i s e s . They were conservative of the language, both by the c o n t i n u i n g examples of Czech i n s c r i p t i o n s and by the h a b i t s of communication among those who came to v i s i t the graves. .4 Czech .journalism was a r a t h e r important l i n g u i s t i c f o r c e . The Czechs on a r r i v a l were as l i t e r a t e as the var i o u s Germanic peoples and because of the unrest i n t h e i r country had become used to c o n s u l t i n g the p r i n t e d word on current t o p i c s . "Czech news­ papers were a great f o r c e In a i d i n g immigrants to f i n d new homes... (jThere wasj a department devoted to communications from su b s c r i b e r s and. such communications o f t e n d e a l t with the subject of good • l o c a t i o n s 1 1 1 (R 2.6');' Thelf I r s t newspapers .appeared i n i 8 6 0 and "between January, i 8 6 0 , and the s p r i n g of 1911 , 326 Czech j o u r n a l s had come i n t o being... Some 85 s u r v i v e [ i n 1 9 2 0 ] .. . The H l a s a t e l (Herald) of Chicago claims a c i r c u l a t i o n of 2 5 , 0 0 0 . . . The Hospodar (Husbandman)... with a home.in Omaha i s s a i d to be a reg­ u l a r guest i n 3 0 , 0 0 0 households"•(CC 1 7 ) . In 1932Roucek s a i d t h a t there were 82 Czech newspapers. Journalism i n Nebraska de­ veloped s h o r t l y a f t e r the main t i d e of settlement set i n . Ed­ ward Rosewater, mentioned above, began i s s u i n g the Pokrok Zapadu (Progress of the West) i n 1 8 7 1 . "At f i r s t I t was more i n the nature of a land a d v e r t i s i n g sheet. I t was supported by the Bur­ l i n g t o n and MissoLiri and Union P a c i f i c ' r a i l r o a d companies, and the reading matter was arranged by V.L. Vodi&ka" of the B u r l i n g t o n -689- (R 26) . R a i l r o a d support continued t i l l 1 8 7 5 . In I876 John Rosicky became e d i t o r of i t and i n 1877 owner (R 28) . In I889 he s o l d i t to "a p r i n t company under the d i r e c t i o n of Mr, V z c l a v Bures" (HB 1 5 4 ) . He continued, as e d i t o r t i l l 1 9 0 0 . "In time Rosicky r a i s e d the Pokrok Zapadu to the f r o n t of Czech weeklies." Transformed i n t o Narodnl Pokrok ( N a t i o n a l Progress) i t was the only Czech newspaper c i r c u l a t i n g i n Nebraska i n 1930 (Ku 114). In 177 Czech f a m i l i e s a t M i l l i g a n , Neb., there were 98 Czech newspaper s u b s c r i p t i o n s , 222 E n g l i s h . (The p r o p o r t i o n f o r books bought i n 1929-30 was s i m i l a r — 103 Czech, 247 E n g l i s h , Ku 1 1 9 ) . The Pokrok company a l s o founded, i n 1891, Hospodar, a farmer 1 s j o u r n a l that became p r o f i t a b l e . These pampers c i r c u l a t e d i n Kansas, and a l s o others of the eight Czech d a i l i e s or weeklies e x i s t e n t i n Nebraska i n 1919- To a i d c i r c u l a t i o n " l o c a l e d i t i o n s " of the papers were p r i n t e d f o r the Czech s e t t l e m e n t s . •5 Czech schools x^ere over the United S t a t e s only supplementary schools. Because of t h e i r a t t i t u d e toward r e l i g i o n , p a r o c h i a l schools xtfere not numerous among the Bohemians. Roucek s a i d i n 1932 that there were " p a r o c h i a l schools where the Czech and Slovak c h i l d r e n are taught the Czech and Slovak language but i n some schools only" (RP 6 8 ). The e f f o r t s to maintain schooling i n Czech were u s u a l l y made by the lodges. A f t e r hours at p u b l i c schools and dur i n g the summer "language schools" were maintained i n most of the c i t i e s — unpopular with the c h i l d r e n whose time was thus invaded. The e f f o r t s a t M i l l i g a n , Nebraska, x^ere t y p i c a l . - 6 9 0 - "At v a r i o u s periods o f f and on attempts have been made to es­ t a b l i s h a 'Bohemian s c h o o l 1 i n the v i l l a g e . Glasses were h e l d once weekly i n the l o c a l lodge h a l l . I t has been (in 1930*3 s e v e r a l years s i n c e the l a s t of these schools d i e d a death due to poor attendance. Czech i s now £since 1924J o f f e r e d i n the high school as an o p t i o n a l f o r e i g n language" (Ku 6 3 ) . Roucek i n 1932 speaks more gene r a l l y s "Schools and l i ­ b r a r i e s are kept up by c e r t a i n s o c i e t i e s , but these schools are not, and cannot be, a success. The second generation w i t h very few exceptions knows only the elements of the Czech and Slovak language, i f they know them a t a l l , and any school of t h i s type resounds more w i t h the E n g l i s h language than w i t h the others" (RP 64). E f f o r t s a t Czech sc h o o l i n g i n Kansas were so minor that no w r i t t e n record of them i s preserved. Informants who learned to read Czech u s u a l l y report t h a t they learned to do so In the fam­ i l y * Even f o r Nebraska, Miss Hrbkova makes no mention of common school education i n Czech i n her a r t i c l e . To be sure, i t was published i n 1919 when the subject was a d e l i c a t e one. The r e ­ s u l t of i n s u f f i c i e n t s c hooling was of course the l o s s of the w r i t t e n language i n the second generation. .6 Czechs have more f r e q u e n t l y been accused of "clannishness" than any other immigrant group i n Kansas, though the reproach Is common against them a l l . The reproach has probably been based upon the vigorous and g e n e r a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e s o c i a l l i f e w i t h i n t h e i r group, not founded upon r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s . (That a -691- r e l i g i o u s group, l i k e the Mennonites, should hold i t s e l f apart has u s u a l l y seemed l e s s blameworthy.) Swehla defended h i s countrymen a g a i n s t the a c c u s a t i o n . * "Clannish?... Not a t a l l — * In Nebraska 40 out of 50 non-Czechs l i k e d to l i v e i n M i l l i g a n . But 7 of them f e l t l i k e "strangers l i v i n g on a l i e n s o i l . " There were Czechs who l i k e d i t because " i t i s a Bohemian community; the c h i l d r e n have a chance to l e a r n Bohemian" (Ku 1 3 7 ) . we are on the whole p r e t t y good mixers. . . . There are a h a l f dozen or more American s o c i e t i e s , lodges... e t c . , i n Wilson, and you w i l l f i n d Bohemians i n n e a r l y a l l of them. Years ago when the A.O.U.W. was s t a r t e d i n Wilson they extended t h e i r r e c r u i t i n g among our people and soon. . . they had more Bohemians than our own lodge" (SB 489). He d i d not remark t h a t o u t s i d e r s could not j o i n the C.S.P.S., that while the Bohemians r a d i a t e d i n t o com­ munity l i f e — p o l i t i c a l a l s o , he makes i t c l e a r , the absorption from outside i n t o t h e i r own body was not great. Intermarriage w i t h Germans was not very r a r e from e a r l y times, but intermarriage otherwise g e n e r a l l y awaited t i l l the p opulation of the settlements overflowed, and the young found mates as w e l l as jobs elsewhere. Czechs over the country tended to be Democrats r a t h e r than Repub­ l i c a n s but they were not at a l l m o n o l i t h i c i n t h i s respect. Fur­ thermore, what Swehla remarks was t y p i c a l where there were many Czechs. He says that i n " E l l s w o r t h county... a Bohemian candidate whether Republican or Democrat, g e n e r a l l y gets elected" (S3 495)• -692- A l l i n a l l , w hile neighbors Have exaggerated Bohemian clannishness, something of the s o r t , despite great d i v i s i v e n e s s i n the group, has been a conservative l i n g u i s t i c f o r c e , .7 The E n g l - i z i n g of Czechs i n the United States proceeded i n the t w e n t i e t h century as r a p i d l y as i n other stocks. In 1910 ob­ servers tended to t r e a t Czech immigrants as a l l Czech-speaking, though b i l i n g u a l i f young. By 1 9 2 0 , however, '.when Capek published h i s Czechs i n America he s a i d of the "American Czech youth, t h e i r s c h o o l i n g i s American, t h e i r mother tongue E n g l i s h " (CC 1 0 1 ). He reproduces a newspaper comment' on the i n d i f f e r e n c e of young readers toward a t r a n s l a t i o n of Nemcova's Babicka. " I f Babicka had been published here i n Czech we should have condoned the apathy of our young f o l k . " Capek goes on to describe phenomena we must o f t e n r e f e r to — c h i l d r e n unable to speak E n g l i s h on f i r s t a r r i v i n g at school who w i l l l a t e r speak Czech with no one but a monolingual grandmother — o l d e r c h i l d r e n i n a f a m i l y p r o f i c i e n t i n Czech, younger ones ignorant — the importance of the schools "The moment the c h i l d crosses the t h r e s h o l d of the schoolhouse, the question of h i s f u t u r e f e a l t y i s s e t t l e d " (CC 1 0 3 ). Capek perhaps exag­ gerates • E n g l - i z i n g somewhat as a concession to p u b l i c s p i r i t i n 1 9 2 0 . Dudek i n 1925 was more impressed by the debasement of Czech i n America through loan words than by the l o s s of f a c i l i t y In speaking Czech (Du 204 f,) To be sure a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of l o a n itfords i n a language i s one of the sure signs that i t i s l i k e l y to be abandoned. Eoucek fs observations i n 1932 were: " A l l the - 6 9 3 - Czech and Slovak immigrants c l i n g to the c o n v i c t i o n that t h e i r c h i l d r e n the second generation, f u l f i l l t h e i r duty to the land of t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s by l e a r n i n g to speak the language. . . . The c h i l d r e n look deism on the attempts of the parents to speak : the o l d language. With the passing of the old e r generation w i l l pass a l s o the use of the Czech and Slovak language i n America 1 1' (RP 64; see a l s o 7 0 ). In the sec t i o n s above we have seen, how­ ever, that Czech was not dead i n 1951> though that i t was gene­ r a l l y preserved only by the o l d . S t i l l In r u r a l communities and i n c e r t a i n groups In the c i t i e s Czechs are q u i t e conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y even i n the 1960's." At C o m h i l l , Texas, f o r t y miles n o r t h of A u s t i n , i n 1961, the cemetery shows i n s c r i p t i o n s i n Czech as l a t e as 1944 ( i n Ger­ man to 1 9 3 6 ) . A l l Czechs born before 1953 spoke Czech. Teaching of the Czech language had ceased i n 1957 and pre-school c h i l d r e n could not speak Czech. 8 Slovaks have made but a small f i g u r e i n Kansas, t r e a t e d i n the accounts of Leavenworth and Kansas C i t y . Those at Leaven­ worth had connections p a r t i c u l a r l y with the I l l i n o i s c o a l f i e l d s . Slovaks were a l s o a small element In the Crawford-Cherokee c o a l f i e l d s . Some of them were among the f i r s t f o r - l i n g s to be brought from Pennsylvania,. "Slovaks l i v e mainly around P i t t s ­ burgh" s a i d Roucek i n 1932 (RP 63) . We s h a l l make no e f f o r t to r e f i n e t h i s statement. Roucek portrayed the Slovaks as yet - 6 9 4 - fonder of s o c i e t i e s than the Czechs. C e r t a i n l y they were more r e ­ l i g i o u s , mostly serious C a t h o l i c s ( 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 says Roucek — RP 6 8 ) , but w i t h a P r o t e s t a n t , c h i e f l y Lutheran element of importance ( 5 7 , 0 0 0 says Roucek). Their l i n g u i s t i c behavior i n I l l i n o i s i s t r e a t e d i n Sections 79 •! to 7 9 - 4 . (For Slovaks i n Europe, see # 7 2 . 0 . ) .0 The s i z e of the P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n of the United States i s best understood from the censuses of 1920 and 1910 and estimates made i n 1907 and 1910. Data f o r the ten s t a t e s c o n t a i n i n g the most Poles and f o r Kansas follows [/The census f i g u r e s are f o r mother tongue of f o r e i g n white stock (immigrants and t h e i r c h i l ­ dren) Cfi 1920 - p. 983. The 1907 estimate i s Father Kruszka's c i t e d from Ba 262, who copied the P o l i s h P r e s s , 2 March 1907. The 1910 estimate i s that of the PNA Calendar, quoted Fo 62 J 1920 1910 1910 PNA 1907 estimate Gruszka 1s estimate United S t a t e s 2,436,895 1,684,108 3,063,000 2,199,411 Pennsylvania 412,211 318,639 500,000 422,700 New York 403,969 278,351 475,000 355,725 I l l i n o i s 382,101 272,122 475,000 388,745 New Jersey 176,342 106,219 120,000 92,785 Wisconsin 152,063 127,453 250,000 197,945 Massachusetts 145,822 86,241 240,000 128,515 Ohio 138,106 77,045 200,000 96,110 Michigan 130,967 17,005 240,000 160,830 Connecticut 97,309 54,700 120,000 61,490 Minnesota 49,490 48,240 120,000 88,805 M i s s o u r i 15,603 15,809 40,000 21,400 Nebraska 14,720 13,421 25,000 18,770 Kansas 4,571 4,809 12,000 5,455 The PNA estimate must be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as exaggerated, even a l l o w i n g f o r a t h i r d generation and census underenumeration. Father Gruszka 1s doubtless i n c l u d e s a t h i r d generation, but even so the United States census seems somewhat more accurate f o r Kansas a t l e a s t . An estimate made f o r t h i s study f o r 1908 comes to very n e a r l y 4,000 f o r a l l generations. Of the m i l l i o n and two-thirds of P o l i s h mother tongue i n 1910, t h e i r p r i n c i p a l c o u n t r i e s of o r i g i n were d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s * Russia 655,733 Germany 513,446 A u s t r i a 404,629 Hungary 4,005 76.10 American immigration s t a t i s t i c s show that there a r r i v e d a wave of Poles i n 1872-4, n e a r l y 7,000 f o r the three years whereas no s i n g l e year before or a f t e r that reached a thousand u n t i l 1880. Through the 1380s immigration ranged between 2 and 6 thousand, the peak i n 1887. Between 1890 and 1893 95,000 Poles entered the United S t a t e s . There was then a l u l l , 691 i n 1896, but num­ bers had increased much by the end of the century. In thousands the a r r i v a l s from 1899 to 1915 were* ; 1899 - .28 1907 - 138 1900 - 47 1908 - 68 1901 - 44 1909 - 78 1902 - 70 1910 - 128 1903 - 82 1911 - 71 1904 - 68 1912 - 85 1905 - 102 1913 - 174 1906 - 96 1914 - 123 1915 9 The small annual share coming to Kansas i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to the t o t a l numbers e n t e r i n g the United S t a t e s . 76.11 The s t a t i s t i c s f o r emigration set f o r t h i n the P e t i t e Ency- cl o p S d i e p o l o n a i s e of 1916, which does not c i t e i t s sources, are e v i d e n t l y i n p a r t American. Here we can d i s t i n g u i s h Poles ac- c o r d i n g to t h e i r o r i g i n i n the separated s e c t i o n s of Poland, Emigration from German Poland showed a wave a f t e r the i n i t i a t i o n of the Kulturkampf i n 1871. The B e l l e v i l l e Poles of Kansa s came at t h i s time. From 1880 to 1896 i t was strong. I t was then t h a t the Leavenworth Poles came from Germany. "Between 1871 and 1911, 643,861 persons, of whom some 430,000 were P o l e s , l e f t the f o u r P o l i s h provinces of P r u s s i a to go to the United S t a t e s (from 1881 to 1885s 185,348; from 1906 to I909i 18,264)" (Pe 282). As to A u s t r i a n Poland* f , I n the space of 30 years [not s p e c i ­ f i e d but presumably the 30 before the F i r s t World Warj, 856,000 Poles from G a l i c i a emigrated to America. I t has been c a l c u l a t e d t h a t i n 1913, a year e s p e c i a l l y d i s a s t r o u s i n G a l i c i a from the ag­ r i c u l t u r a l p o i n t of view because of the b a s i c scourges that s t r u c k the country and because of the Balkan wars, more than 400,000 per­ sons l e f t t h e i r n a t i v e land e i t h e r f o r e v e r or temporarily* t h a t i s , 5% of the pop u l a t i o n . 1 1 As to Russian Poland* " In the Kingdom of Poland, emigration to America began ten years l a t e r than i n G a l i c i a . In 1890, 19,323 persons emigrated; t h i s f i g u r e decreased i n the years f o l l o w i n g . From 1900 to 1904, 29,972 Poles from the Russian Empire annually t r a v e l e d to the United S t a t e s ; from 1905 to 1909 48,433; i n the f i s c a l year 1911-12 54,244; i n 1912-13 l l 2 , 3 4 5 l f . 80% were of r u r a l o r i g i n . In Kansas C i t y the G a l i c i a n Poles were i n 1900 twice as numerous as those from Germany, but h a l f as numerous as those from Russia. P o l i s h Emigration to the United S t a t e s , 1901-1913 Austria-Hungary 484,329 Germany 38,327 Russia 596,950 from elsewhere 13 1582 T o t a l 1,133,188 76.2 S t a t i s t i c s f o r P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n i n 1910 are presented here as they are set f o r t h i n the P e t i t e Encyclopgdie p o l o n a i s e , p. 15» Russian Poland Kingdom of Poland 9,100,000 (Here they were 7470 of the popula­ t i o n , Jews, 14%, Germans 5%, others 7%) Elsewhere i n Russia 2,898,000 ( I n the "governments" of L i t h u a n i a a d j o i n i n g the Kingdom they were from a f o u r t h to an e i g h t h of the popula­ t i o n ; i n western Ruthenia from 3 to 10%) T o t a l f o r Russia - 11,998,000 A u s t r i a n Poland G a l i c i a 4,672,000 (western G a l i c i a almost a l l P o l i s h , e a stern 39.63% P o l e s , 58.69% Ru- thenians. Poles i n c l u d e 870,000 Jews) S i l e s i a 235,000 Elsewhere i n Austria-Hungary 272,000 T o t a l f o r Austria-Hungary - 5,179,000 German Poland Poznan (Posen)(61.5%) 1,291,000 West P r u s s i a (35.5%) 604,000 East P r u s s i a (50% on border) 286,000 S i l e s i a (56.88% on border) 1,338,000 Elsewhere ( c h i e f l y Westphalia) 580,000 T o t a l f o r Germany 4,099,000 Elsewhere i n Europe 100,000 T o t a l i n Europe 21,376,000 In North America 3,100,000 Elsewhere 130,000 T o t a l 24,606,000 The P o l i s h Encyclopedia of 1921 says: "From 1815-1817 to 1912- 1913 the p o p u l a t i o n of the t e r r i t o r i e s of ancient Poland more than t r e b l e d . . . 206.7%w (Po 159). The Kingdom of Poland i n ­ creased 363.9% i n t h i s p e r i o d . Between 1857-1858 and 1912-1913 the increases were 110.9% and 179.4%. The pressure f o r emigration from o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n an area where i n d u s t r i a l i z a ­ t i o n a f f e c t e d o n l y a s m a l l s e c t i o n g e o g r a p h i c a l l y and where im r provement i n a g r i c u l t u r a l methods was slow, became very great. In terms of p o p u l a t i o n per square m i l e the f i g u r e i n 1910 f o r the Kingdom of Poland was 262.1 and f o r G a l i c i a 264.7 — corresponding f i g u r e f o r h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d P r u s s i a 298.4, f o r A u s t r i a 246.0. 30 D i v i s i o n s of Poland before 1918. The "Kingdom of Poland" r e ­ f e r r e d to above was sometimes c a l l e d "Congress Poland" or "the Con­ gress Kingdom," th a t i s , the kingdom set up by the Congress of V i ­ enna i n 1815. I t was p r a c t i c a l l y what had been Russian Poland a f ­ t e r the t h i r d p a r t i t i o n i n 1795 and the only d i s t i n c t i o n from out­ r i g h t Russian r u l e brought about by i t s c r e a t i o n was the r e c o g n i ­ t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e that a P o l i s h n a t i o n e x i s t e d . The p a r t i t i o n s of Poland took place i n 1772, 1793, and 1795. About 70% of the kingdom e x i s t i n g i n 1772 f e l l to Russ i a . The p o r t i o n f a l l i n g to A u s t r i a became known, except f o r l i t t l e Teschen, under the name of G a l i c i a (No. 45 on the map, 68), i n general that p a r t of A u s t r i a - Hungary beyond the Carpathians, c a p i t a l Lemberg or Lwow. Cracow and i t s environs at the west end were under a separate government from 1815 to 1846. Cracow and approximately the western f o u r t h -700- of A u s t r i a n Poland had not formed p a r t of the p r i n c i p a l i t y of Ru- t h e n i a . The r e s t of G a l i c i a had been part of that p r i n c i p a l i t y . The Poles who were n e a r l y s o l i d i n the west, were a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the p o p u l a t i o n of Chis p a r t of Ruthenia. There were i n i t a l s o c e r t a i n German c o l o n i e s (the one f u r n i s h i n g the Hanston Germans to Kansas i n c l u d e d ) . There were a l s o l a r g e numbers of U k r a i n i a n s , or Ruthenians. Few Ruthenians, e i t h e r from the Aus­ t r i a n crownlands, G a l i c i a and Bukowina ( f u r t h e r south) or from Russia came to Kansas. P r u s s i a through the p a r t i t i o n s gained Poznania, c a p i t a l Posen (Poznan) and lands northward to the B a l ­ t i c ; a l s o East P r u s s i a was extended i n l a n d so as to more than dou­ ble i t s t e r r i t o r y ( V o l . I,, p. 68, Nos. 28, 17, 18, 19). •31 P o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y of the Poles i n Germany From the f a l l of Napoleon to the F i r s t World War the h i s t o r y of Poles must neces­ s a r i l y be considered under the three headings, Germany, R u s s i a , A u s t r i a . In Germany the Poles f e l l under the strong P r u s s i a n government, d u r i n g a p e r i o d when the economic s t r e n g t h of the Ger­ mans was on the upswing, and when t h e i r c u l t u r a l claims were always ambitious; the P o l i s h language might t h e r e f o r e have been expected to grow weak and y i e l d t e r r i t o r y . Perhaps i t was growing weaker during the f i r s t f i f t e e n years of the nineteenth century. When i t and the C a t h o l i c c l e r g y were attacked by overt P r u s s i a n i z a t i o n a f t e r 1830, however, the onslaught was only strong enough to i r r i ­ t a t e the Poles and cause them to organize d e f e n s i v e l y so that when Bismarck undertook h i s Kulturkampf i n 1871 they could stubbornly h o l d t h e i r ground under an a t t a c k that was always a b l e and that became i n c r e a s i n g l y f e r o c i o u s . Emigration was probably i n p a r t p o l i t i c a l l y i n s p i r e d a t l e a s t d u r i n g the l 8 7 0 , s ; economic reasons j o i n e d more s t r o n g l y w i t h p o l i t i c s d u r i n g the lSSO's and e a r l y . 1890*8, but l a t e r , w i t h a post-Bismarckian r e l a x a t i o n of pressure (P 118), w i t h the p r o s p e r i t y common to Germany, and the c o n f i ­ dence born of the w i l l to triumph i t very n e a r l y disappeared i n German Poland. Germany accepted Poles(and other S l a v s ) as i n d u s t r i a l workers and they were numerous by the end of the nineteenth century. In periods of business depression these men were unwelcome and some­ times went on to America. An a g r i c u l t u r a l i n v a s i o n of Germany by by the Poles took p l a c e e a r l i e r , when German a g r i c u l t u r e was i n c r i s i s because of the general European g r a i n p r i c e depression. Bismarck i n 1885 sent about 30,000 of these invaders back home, and t h e r e a f t e r a g r i c u l t u r a l Poles came i n t o Germany only under seasonal permits. The r e s u l t was n a t u r a l l y increased emigration to America from the Congress Kingdom and G a l i c i a . .32 In the Con&ress Kingdom the Russian Czar suppressed i n blood the r e v o l t s of 1831 and 1863. At moments there were Poles who en­ visaged cooperation w i t h him so as to r e u n i t e a l l Poland by reab­ s o r b i n g the lands i n A u s t r i a and P r u s s i a . But u s u a l l y everybody and always a s t r o n g elemen^t regarded the Russians as a r c h enemies In 1876 the i n i t i a t i o n of u n i v e r s a l m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , together w i t h crop f a i l u r e s , gave an i n i t i a l impetus to emigration. -702- E f f o r t s a t R u s s i f i c a t i o n became ser i o u s only a f t e r 1863, much more so a f t e r the a c c e s s i o n to the throne of Alexander I I I , who under­ took R u s s i f i c a t i o n . P o l i s h as the language of i n s t r u c t i o n was . suppressed a t the u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l i n 1869 and i n elementary schools i n 1885. The r e s u l t was an increase i n i l l i t e r a c y . The Russian Poles remained P o l i s h i n speech ; but a t the lower l e v e l s P o l i s h as a c u l t u r a l language was weakened, making i t s replacement by an­ other among emigrants e a s i e r . With the R e v o l u t i o n of 1905 i n Rus­ s i a c e r t a i n pressures r e l a x e d , but the c u l t u r a l oppression was r e ­ sumed, which promoted emigration. The economic p o l i c i e s of the Russians "always favored the c e n t r a l provinces to the detriment of the Kingdom where taxes are twice as h i g h as i n the r e s t of t J t i e empire" (Pe 39). Obviously emigration was again promoted. 33 In P o l i s h A u s t r i a "the f i r s t f i f t y years of Habsburg r u l e . . . d i d not d i f f e r fundamentally from t h a t of the HohenzoHerns. . . or of the Romanovs" ( F i 38). D i v i s i o n among the Poles themselves weakened P o l i s h n a t i o n a l i s m . The establishment of the dual monar­ chy i n 1867 gave a s o r t of autonomy to G a l i c i a . The P o l i s h land­ l o r d s became the governing c l a s s , and a l l i e d themselves w i t h the Hapsburgs i n i m p e r i a l a f f a i r s i n r e t u r n f o r concessions. The a l ­ l i a n c e l a s t e d t i l l 1917. I t s e x i s t e n c e d i d not mean that there was no P o l i s h n a t i o n a l i s m . I t was t o l e r a t e d by A u s t r i a and s t r u g ­ g led c h i e f l y a g a i n s t the Ruthenian n a t i o n a l i s m which grew strong among the peasants of t h a t o r i g i n i n o p p o s i t i o n to P o l i s h land­ owners. The Poles were i n command, but because of economic c o n d i - t i o n s , f o r which the u n w i l l i n g n e s s of the A u s t r i a n government to undertake measures of betterment were p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e , the for c e s f o r emigration were st r o n g , 76.34g P o l i s h u n i t y d u r i n g the century and a h a l f of p a r t i t i o n n a t u r a l l y depended upon c u l t u r a l t i e s . "Language has been the most important f a c t o r of P o l i s h n a t i o n a l u n i t y . Though there a r e a number of p r o v i n c i a l d i a l e c t s , the d i f f e r e n c e s between them are much l e s s marked than i n Germany or I t a l y . The common language i s a s y n t h e t i c product of s e v e r a l d i a l e c t s . . . . I t o r i g i n a t e d i n the needs of p o l i t i c a l l i f e . Poland i n the past was a h a l f - r e p u b l i c a n s t a t e . . . • The common p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s produced an e a r l y c u l t u r a l . u n i f i c a t i o n of the p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e elements of the country 1 1 (Fa 198 - P o l i s h s e c t i o n by Znamecki). The bond between p o l i t i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c i n t e r e s t s was a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e among emigrants. 76.4 The Church was another u n i f y i n g f o r c e d u r i n g the p a r t i t i o n e d p e r i o d . The Poles i n Europe, l i k e t h e i r descendants i n the United S t a t e s , were almost a l l Roman C a t h o l i c s of a high degree of f a i t h ­ f u l n e s s . "The l a r g e mass of the P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n . . . i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n the s o c i a l than i n the m y s t i c a l aspect of r e l i g i o n " (Fa 199). The nature of C a t h o l i c i s m as developed i n Poland was admirably f i t t e d to s a t i s f y t h i s a p p e t i t e . "The P o l i s h p r i e s t i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h every phase of the peasant l i f e , and there are no f e s t i v a l s i n which he does not take a p a r t . He i s looked up to as the guide and guardian of h i s f l o c k , and i s regarded and t r e a t e d -704- w i t h utmost deference by h i s p a r i s h i o n e r s " (Fo 54)• In c o n t r a s t to the Czechs, among whom the Church was an instrument of Gerrnan- i z a t i o n , the Poles found that t h e i r n a t i o n a l i s m and t h e i r r e l i g i o n reenforced each other. To the governments of both the K a i s e r and the Czar the Roman C a t h o l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n was obnoxious as promoting s p l i t l o y a l t i e s . In G a l i c i a Roman C a t h o l i c s of the L a t i n r i t e were Poles and the Roman C a t h o l i c s of the Greek r i t e (Uniates) were Ru­ thenians, and thus n a t i o n a l i s m and r e l i g i o n again combined. Cath­ o l i c preaching and education were i n P o l i s h . The R u s s i f i c a t i o n measure that r e q u i r e d the teaching of the catechism i n Russian accentuated the a l l i a n c e of r e l i g i o n and n a t i o n a l i s m . S i m i l a r phenomena e x i s t e d i n Germany. Enthusiasm f o r t h e i r n a t i v e language was n a t u r a l among Poles who became p r i e s t s i n the United S t a t e s . Government o p p o s i t i o n to C a t h o l i c i s m promoted the d e s i r e to emi­ g r a t e , but except i n Germany was not of the greatest moment i n determining departures , as i s shown by the f a c t that emigration from G a l i c i a was as great as t h a t from Russian Poland. .50 The economic push f o r emigration among the Poles was, as f o r other stocks i n Europe, the most important. In Germany once indus­ t r i a l i z a t i o n was w e l l underway the push could be s a t i s f i e d by minor movement, but i n the I880 fs and e a r l y n i n e t i e s when a g r i c u l t u r e was subject to the general European depression, and Bismarck was t r y i n g to d i s p l a c e P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n w i t h Germans (P 93), i t was an important f a c t o r i n determining emigration to America. The i n ­ d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n was not i d e a l . When times were good, i t l e d to the establishment of l a r g e P o l i s h settlements, e s p e c i a l l y i n -705- Westphalia? when times were s l a c k , some of these s e t t l e r s emigrated to America, and some reached Kansas, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the coalmines. Examples of increase of the s i z e of the P o l i s h settlement i n West­ p h a l i a are f o r c e r t a i n governmental d i s t r i c t s : These settlements remained P o l i s h . "The Poles could maintain most z e a l o u s l y t h e i r n a t i o n a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n speech, morals and f a i t h ; t h i s was explained both by t h e i r low, c l a n n i s h c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n , and by the f a c t t h a t the German S o c i a l Democrats showed no i n c l i n ­ a t i o n to busy themselves i n t h i s domain of p a t r i o t i c a c t i v i t y , and f i n a l l y by the crowding together of the v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s of the i n d u s t r i a l p o p u l a t i o n of these places where German customs and manners f r e q u e n t l y d i d not i n any way p r e v a i l " (Sw 475). 51 Economic c o n d i t i o n s i n the Congress Kingdom were bad, l a r g e l y because of over p o p u l a t i o n , but were a l s o p a r t l y to be explained by the l a t e 19th century a g r i c u l t u r a l depression, p a r t l y too be­ cause Russian t a r i f f and r a i l r o a d r a t e s g r e a t l y favored production i n Russia proper, and because improvement i n a g r i c u l t u r a l methods lagged. The t a r d i n e s s i n t h i s l a s t respect was i n great p a r t the r e s u l t of the breaking up of l a r g e estates which began i n 1864. Very s m a l l holdings became common (3/8 of the farms had l e s s than 10 a c r e s ) , and the new owners were not w e l l informed; p r o d u c t i v i t y sank. ; A l l these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s assume t h a t the Kingdom 1s economic 1890 1905 Arnsberg Mttnster Recklinghausen Dortmund Bochum p r o s p e r i t y depended upon a g r i c u l t u r e , which was l a r g e l y t r u e . Three-fourths of the p o p u l a t i o n were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e , and N r u r a l areas f u r n i s h e d most of the emigrants to America. Industry d i d develop around Warsaw and centers to the southwest, Lodz and Czenstochowa -- thus none f a r from the German f r o n t i e r ; f o r Ger­ man c a p i t a l was being invested to tap, unhindered by t a r i f f s , the Russian market; i n d u s t r i a l workers increased from 86,000 i n 1877 to 401,000 i n 1910. But the p r o p o r t i o n of those so employed to l a n d l e s s or q u a s i - l a n d l e s s a g r i c u l t u r a l l aborers was s m a l l ; the l a t t e r numbered a m i l l i o n and a h a l f . In 1904 s i x to seven hun­ dred thousand of them were unemployed. Even employed, the wage was low, 40 cents a day without board i n 1912 f o r a male a g r i c u l ­ t u r a l l a b o r e r * Taxes, g e n e r a l l y born by the poor, were very h i g h , twice as h i g h as f o r Russia proper, seven times as h i g h f o r r e a l e s t a t e (Po£J 246). The push f o r emigration was e v i d e n t l y immense. .52 In G a l i c i a a g r i c u l t u r e played a r & l e f u l l y as important. A g r i c u l t u r e occupied 80% of the people* With a p o p u l a t i o n about h a l f t h a t of the Congress Kingdom there were a f o u r t h as many workers i n i n d u s t r y and the mines. "The d e n s i t y of the a g r i c u l ­ t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n i s the greatest i n Europe" (Pe 268). There were 1.2 m i l l i o n excess a g r i c u l t u r a l workers. Wages were yet lower than i n the Congress Kingdom. Governmental c o n d i t i o n s seemed ec­ onomically more f a v o r a b l e , but r e a l l y o n l y the "landed" p r o p r i e t o r was favored. The tax s i t u a t i o n was p a r a l l e l to that i n Russia f o r the peasant. T a r i f f s and i n d u s t r y , a l r e a d y developed i n Bohemia, e t c . , r etarded development i n G a l i c i a by prospects of competition. A g r i c u l t u r a l l y methods lagged as much as to the north. The push f o r emigration was as great as i n R u s s i a , 76.53 P o l i s h s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n among peasants made no push f o r emigration, but g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d a s s i m i l a t i o n and l i n g u i s t i c de­ velopment i n America. I t was remarkable f o r the importance that i t attached t o the " l a r g e f a m i l y " , that i s i n c l u s i v e of kindred out to s e v e r a l degrees, and to l o c a l p o l i t i c a l and economic u n i t s (Fa 209). The tendency on a r r i v i n g i n America was to c r e a t e s i m i ­ l a r u n i t s even w i t h i n c i t i e s . The group was, however, h o s p i t a b l e to Poles from outsidie, not dominated by s u s p i c i o n of strangers c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of south I t a l i a n s w i t h t h e i r campanilismo. 76.53g The push f o r emigration among; Lithuanians and Russians was c o n t r o l e d by the same f a c t o r s among them as i n Congress Poland. Because most of the Russians were Ukrainians or e l s e White Russians from areas under P o l i s h r u l e before 1772, the Russian Czar was no more f a v o r a b l e to any of these people than to P o l e s ; the propor­ t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b orers i n t h e i r area was yet h i g h e r , and the wages were no b e t t e r . 76.60 P o l i s h settlement, a s i d e from e a r l i e r i s o l a t e d cases, began i n the United States i n 1855 when f i f t e e n or twenty f a m i l i e s new­ l y a r r i v e d from S i l e s i a founded the church at Panna Marya, Texas. The foundation dates of other e a r l y P o l i s h parishes gives a suf­ f i c i e n t idea of the progress of settlement.* Up u n t i l 1880 the * Father W.X. Kruszka assembled these dates i n H i s t o r y a P o l - ska W Ameryce ( I I 6,7), Milwaukee, 1905. Emily Greene B a l c h r e ­ produced them i n Que S l a v i c F e l l o w C i t i z e n s * P. 459. For data a f t e r 1880 see Ba 264. f i r s t i n each s t a t e was* -708- 1855 Texas 1870 Pennsylvania 1857 Michigan 1871 Indiana 1858 Wisconsin 1872 Ohio (Milwaukee 1863) 1873 New York, 1866 M i s s o u r i Minnesota 1869 I l l i n o i s (Chicago) 1876 Nebraska By 1880 the number of parishes f o r each of these s t a t e s was* I l l i n o i s 6 New York 4 Indiana 4 Ohio 5 Michigan o Pennsylvania 7 Minnesota 3 Wisconsin 15 M i s s o u r i 6 Texas 17 Nebraska 1 The census data provided above f a i l t o show the importance of \; Texas because the settlements i n i t were of o l d date and many of the foreign-born had d i e d by 1920. "By 1906, Texas had a P o l i s h p o p u l a t i o n of 17,000" (Wi 422). As i n Texas^ much other e a r l y settlement was r u r a l , but i n the years of major immigration the newcomers u s u a l l y went i n t o the c i t i e s or mining areas. Impor­ tant a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements d i d develop, however, as r a t h e r l a t e i n the Connecticut v a l l e y i n Massachusetts. Examples s t u d i e d by the Immigration Commission f o r the Senate i n 1909 i n the s t a t e s of g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t .to Kansas were i n Wisconsin, I l l i n o i s , and Indiana. The S o b i e s k i - P u l a s k i settlement north of the c i t y of Green Bay on the landward s i d e contained 4400 P o l e s , the s e t t l e ­ ment i n c e n t r a l Wisconsin's counties of Portage and Waushara, 12,910, the settlement i n Trempeateau County above La Crosse 4000. In I l l i n o i s the c h i e f r u r a l settlement was southeast of S t . Louis some 60 m i l e s , beyond the Germans, centered where J e f f e r s o n , Perry and Washington Counties j o i n s 7700 persons. In northern Indiana near New C a r l i s l e between La Porte and South Bend there were 1,930 Poles (S 156). As a g e n e r a l i t y the 1909 i n v e s t i g a t o r s s a i d , "Where the community i s i s o l a t e d . . . i t i s a long time before the E n g l i s h tongue becomes the common medium of speech. Where the c o l o n i e s or settlements are extensive i t i s not uncommon to f i n d . . . even the second generation are able to speak only P o l i s h " (S 161), and a l i t t l e l a t e r , "The P o l i s h farm p o p u l a t i o n l e a r n the E n g l i s h language l e s s q u i c k l y . . . than t h e i r c i t y f e l l o w s " (S 162). The settlements which they s t u d i e d do not oc­ cupy us f u r t h e r , r u r a l examples, i n Nebraska, do (#76.62, 76.73g). The l a r g e s t P o l i s h colony was i n Chicago, 250,000 i n 1903, 350,000 i n 1920; Milwaukee had 65,000 i n 1903, 75,000 i n 1920 (Ba 264, W 420). This work considers the P o l i s h urban settlements of the Middle West i n connection w i t h the churches i n them. Kansas con­ nections w i t h Poles i n other s t a t e s were c h i e f l y w i t h those where there were mining populations ( I l l i n o i s ^ Pennsylvania,(^76^7^) and many meat packing employees (Chicago, S t . Joseph, Omaha, #76.62, 76.72). 61 The Poles of M i s s o u r i were mainly congregated i n three c i t i e s t they numbered i n 1920 at S t . L o u i s , 5224 f b . , i n Kansas C i t y , Mo. 944 f b . , i n S t . Joseph, 632 f b . There were a l s o 100 f b . i n Barry County, the southernmost county i n the second t i e r east from the Kansas border. These were located i n P u l a s k i f i e l d near Monett on the northern edge of the county. Many of these people moved to Kansas C i t y , Kansas. Kansas connections w i t h the Kansas C i t y , M i s s o u r i , Poles were not so c l o s e as p r o x i m i t y might lead one to -709a- expect* They s e t t l e d on the east edge of the c i t y near the Blue R i v e r at S h e f f i e l d where a great many worked i n the s t e e l m i l l s * A f t e r the Second World War they were j o i n e d by a number of d i s ­ placed persons who prospered soon. The tone of t h i s settlement has bean l e s s P o l i s h than that i n Kansas C i t y , Kansas, f o r t h e i r pastors were not as zealous f o r t h i n g s P o l i s h . T h e i r church, S t . S t a n i s l a u s ' s , was founded a f t e r 1900. In 1915 i t was a n a t i o n a l p a r i s h w i t h a P o l i s h p r i e s t , Rogosz, but i n 1949 i t was n e i t h e r -710- a n a t i o n a l p a r i s h nor provided w i t h a P o l i s h pastor. P r i e s t s w i t h P o l i s h names were assigned to other M i s s o u r i p a r i s h e s . 62§ In Omaha, Nebraska, l i v e d 2374 P o l e s , only 64 i n Lincoln? h a l f of the Nebraska Poles were t h e r e f o r e r u r a l . Nearly a thou­ sand of them l i v e d i n an area c l o s e to the P l a t t e and i t s p a r a l l e l t r i b u t a r y , the Loup. The .area began about seventy m i l e s west of Omaha and extended westward as f a r again. The circumstances of the foundation of Warsaw, Neb., a t the western end of t h i s d i s t r i c t (settlement on l i n e between Sherman and Howard Counties) i n 1876 and 1877 ( i . e . among the e a r l i e s t ) o f f e r a good example of methods of r u r a l settlement. The Rev. K l a v i t e r came to the area from P i t t s b u r g h i n 1876 " f o r the purpose of viewing the lands, t h i n k ­ i n g to e s t a b l i s h a P o l i s h settlement." Soon the Poles a r r i v e d , s e t t l i n g "almost a l t o g e t h e r on B u r l i n g t o n and M i s s o u r i r a i l r o a d lands.. . . The P o l e s , through t h e i r agent John B a r z y n s k i , h e l d the s o l e r i g h t to buy these lands f o r a term of two years. In 1878 they b u i l t a church. . . where the r a i l r o a d company i n ques­ t i o n had donated a quart e r s e c t i o n and b u i l t an immigration home f o r the temporary lodging of t h e i r s e t t l e r s " (R 326). There was no P o l i s h settlement i n Nebraska of any importance c l o s e to the B e l l e v i l l e P o l e s . : : 70 The C a t h o l i c church among the Poles i n the United S t a t e s was at l e a s t as powerful as i t was among them i n Poland. W i t h i n the range of a u t h o r i t y that i t occupied i n Poland i t was l e s s power­ f u l because i t was not backed by the community as a whole nor by -711- l o c a l p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . The p a r i s h r a t h e r than the church as a whole was the possessor of t h i s power i n the United S t a t e s . 11 I t performs the f u n c t i o n s which i n Poland are f u l f i l l e d by both the P a r i s h and the commune.... What the P o l i s h colony r e a l l y wishes i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a p a r i s h i s not merely r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s but a community center of i t s own... [The Poles] do not f e e l -at home1 i n a p a r i s h whose prevalent language and mores are d i f f e r e n t , ... {where] they have l e s s c o n t r o l over i t s management than over t h a t of a P o l i s h p a r i s h , which they have founded by f r e e coopera­ t i o n . . . . They do not get out of the English-speaking C a t h o l i c p a r i s h any s a t i s f a c t i o n of t h e i r ' s o c i a l i n s t i n c t 1 1 1 (TZ 1524-1526? see a l s o Fa 208). The P o l i s h parishes numbered 517 i n 1911. Among the people there were those who f e l l away, even one t h i r d estimated Father Kruszka i n a p e s s i m i s t i c moment, but the cleavage was s e l ­ dom complete and the number a f f e c t e d l e s s great than i n other s t o c k s . The Poles combatted more e f f e c t i v e l y than other stocks e p i s c o p a l u n w i l l i n g n e s s to e s t a b l i s h n a t i o n a l p a r i s h e s , because i f thwarted they were ready sometimes to form independent p a r i s h e s ^ In 1911 the greatest number of P o l i s h n a t i o n a l parishes i n a d i o ­ cese was i n Chicago, 36; Milwaukee had 18, Green Bay 28, S t . Louis 6, Omaha 12. The importance of Poles among miners i s brought out by the 33 i n Pittsburghand 32 i n Scranton. In an e a r l i e r s e c t i o n the dates of foundation of the p a r i s h e s were employed as the best way of showing the date of beginning of a settlement. This method i s n e a r l y as accurate f o r other stocks as f o r the P o l e s , t h a t i s , church o r g a n i z a t i o n f o l l o w s settlement w i t h i n f i v e or s i x y e a r s , though when the Poles are found w i t h other S l a v i c s t o c k s , the case may be, as i t was at Kansas C i t y , t h a t the bishop would s t r i v e to make one p a r i s h serve them a l l f o r a w h i l e . In any event the Poles p u l l e d out of the I r i s h churches as f a s t as they could and sloughed o f f r a p i d l y a l l who could not worship and r e ­ c e i v e i n s t r u c t i o n i n P o l i s h . "Around {the church} and sti m u l a t e d by i t , grows the P o l i s h colony, w i t h i t s agencies w e l l organized and c o n t r o l l e d . The church not only expresses the r e l i g i o u s as­ p i r a t i o n s of the Po l e s . . . but a l s o completely dominates the e n t i r e l i f e of the colony. This accounts f o r the unprogressive c h a r a c t e r of some of the s m a l l e r c o l o n i e s . " So says Paul Fox (p. 92) i n 1922. The l a s t sentence i s colored by the f a c t t h a t , though of P o l i s h b l o o d , he was a P r o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r w r i t i n g f o r a P r o t e s t a n t au­ dience. I f , r e p l a c i n g the word "unprogressive" by " n o s t a l g i c " , we mellow that l a s t sentence, the whole statement agrees w i t h others f r e q u e n t l y made. The " n a t i o n a l " churches became an i n s t r u ­ ment of l i n g u i s t i c c o n s e r v a t i o n . The tendency to n a t i o n a l i s t i c separatism, strongest a t the end of the nineteenth century, was so great that i n the e a s t , notably i n Pennsylvania, churches to the number of 90 i n 1910 and 1939, withdrew from the Roman o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n to form the N a t i o n a l P o l i s h church (60,000 adherents i n 1939). 71 A l l was not peace i n the n a t i o n a l p a r i s h e s * In the e a r l y days P o l i s h p r i e s t s were numerous enough so that sometimes they were i n charge of other parishes than the P o l i s h u n i t s . Together w i t h true p r i e s t s there were some of d o u b t f u l a u t h e n t i c i t y who preyed upon P o l i s h settlements. The Leavenworth community had e a r l y d i f f i c u l t i e s on t h e i r account. In numerous cases wrangles arose between the p r i e s t s and the people, u s u a l l y over money. Lack of d i s c i p l i n e on both side s i n t h i s respect was probably caused by the s h i f t from c o u n t r i e s w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d churches to a country where f i n a n c i a l resources depended upon d i r e c t c o n t r i ­ butions from the people of tthe p a r i s h . At any r a t e , Father Sero- c z y n s k i i n 1911 wrote i n the C a t h o l i c Encyclopedia« ,fThe Poles form an aggregation of u n i t s f r e q u e n t l y l a c k i n g e f f i c i e n t s p i r i ­ t u a l l e a d e r s h i p , t o r n by d i s s e n s i o n s , l e d a s t r a y by a l i b e r a l press. 1 1 In s p i t e of disputes the p r i e s t s u s u a l l y exerted much a u t h o r i t y , and, as f o r many years they themselves were immigrants, they clung to the use of P o l i s h , sometimes f i e r c e l y , sometimes d e s p i t e the bishops. T h e i r p e r s i s t e n c e i s to be explained not merely by love and o l d h a b i t but because the language was an i n ­ strument f o r making the people d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e to them. As to money, though the p a r i s h i o n e r s sometimes r e b e l l e d so as to ob­ t a i n an accounting from the p r i e s t s , they made great s a c r i f i c e s f o r the church, and t h e i r r e l i g i o u s establishments were imposing, e s p e c i a l l y c o n s i d e r i n g the slender resources that created them. They were a monument to " t h e i r deep f a i t h [and] t h e i r intense na­ t i o n a l i s m " ( S e r o c z y n s k i ) • -714- 76.72 P o l i s h r e s i s t a n c e i n r e l i g i o n to £nRl-izin& f i n a l l y broke down, though v e s t i g e s of i t s t i l l remained a f t e r the middle of the t w e n t i e t h century. For i n s t a n c e , i n 1951 the r e c t o r y of S t . Ann fs i n Chicago bore a posted n o t i c e near i t s door announcing " o f f i c e Hours." I t was i n both P o l i s h and E n g l i s h and was of r e ­ cent o r i g i n . On the other hand, l a t e r migrations from one quarter to another w i t h i n the c i t y , t r u e a l s o f o r Milwaukee, took many Poles out of n a t i o n a l p a r i s h e s . S t . Joseph's i n Chicago was o r i ­ g i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r French Canadians, but i n 1951 the p a r i s h was 90% P o l i s h and h e l d by an I r i s h p r i e s t who was g r a t e f u l that " h i s Eminence discouraged the use of f o r e i g n language." However, he s a i d t h a t other P o l i s h parishes were the only ones u s i n g f o r ­ eign language. He was wrong i n the f a c t , but not i n the r e f l e c ­ t i o n of general o p i n i o n concerning the use of P o l i s h . In Milwau­ kee i n 1949 eleven parishes out of f i f t y - s e v e n were P o l i s h n a t i o n ­ a l churches ( s e v e r a l more had P o l i s h c l e r g y ) . At S a i n t Casimir's i n 1951 two masses out of s i x had P o l i s h sermons. They were w e l l attended. 76.73g Two examples of P o l i s h churches e s t a b l i s h e d i n c o a l f i e l d s t h a t no longer prosper provide a basis f o r comparison w i t h the Leavenworth and the Crawford-Cherokee Poles. At Oglesby i n n o r t h ­ ern I l l i n o i s (western L a S a l l e County, 61, 133), two C a t h o l i c par­ i s h e s , one o r i g i n a l l y P o l i s h l a r g e l y superseded by Slovenians and I t a l i a n s , the other L i t h u a n i a n were combined i n t o one i n the 1940's. When c o a l mining c o l l a p s e d most of the Poles had l e f t j there were 25 P o l i s h f a m i l i e s remaining out of 800 f a m i l i e s (60% I t a l i a n ) i n the p a r i s h . There was no r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e i n any f o r e i g n language, though the pas t o r was a second generation Pole and passably p r o f i c i e n t i n the language. At C h r i s t o p h e r , i n southern I l l i n o i s , ( F r a n k l i n County, 60 - 132) the s e r v i c e s were i n P o l i s h u n t i l about 1938. Then the Poles almost a l l moved away i n search of employment. The I t a l i a n s , who had not gone to church w h i l e the Poles predominated, then began a t t e n d i n g . The p r i e s t s c o n t i n ­ ued to be Poles or other S l a v s . In 1951 not more than ten o l d people r e q u i r e d p a s t o r a l s e r v i c e s i n S l a v i c . As an example of a western r u r a l P o l i s h church l e t us c o n s i ­ der S t . S t a n i s l a u s ' s at Duncan, P l a t t e Co., Nebraska, where Poles s e t t l e d i n the 1870's. The immigration went on u n t i l 1913. In 1951 there was s t i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y a sermon i n P o l i s h f o r the very o l d . P o l i s h had been the current language of the community t i l l 1918. .80 The f i r s t P o l i s h p a r o c h i a l school was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1866 i n Texas and the second i n Chicago i n 1867. They became e a r l y very numerous, and P o l i s h was used as the language of i n s t r u c t i o n f o r longer periods than i n many groups. Mrs. Balch quotes Father Kruszka as e s t i m a t i n g 70,000 p u p i l s i n these schools i n 1901. In 1920 there were f i v e i n Chicago w i t h more than 2,000 p u p i l s (TZ 1533). Mrs. Balch continues, speaking i n 1910$ "These schools undertake to t r a i n the c h i l d r e n i n r e l i g i o n and i n the P o l i s h language and P o l i s h h i s t o r y , as w e l l as i n the r e g u l a r p u b l i c -716- s c h o o l branches. E n g l i s h i s taught as a subject throughout the c l a s s e s , and g e n e r a l l y some of the other subjects are taught i n E n g l i s h , a s, f o r i n s t a n c e , geography, United States h i s t o r y and bookkeeping and algebra f o r those who get so f a r . I t i s claimed by those i n t e r e s t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n l e a v i n g these schools f o r the p u b l i c schools enter c l a s s e s above or on a l e v e l w i t h those they have l e f t 1 1 (Ba 416). The c l a i m was made i n p r i n t by Father Fxuszka (Fa 93). Paul Fox i n 1922 on the other hand a s s e r t e d , "To our knowledge the i n s t r u c t i o n i n P o l i s h p a r o c h i a l schools does not equal that of p u b l i c schools" (Fo 93). Mrs. Balch a l s o reproduces i n an appendix an a r t i c l e from the Milwaukee P o l i s h paper Prasa which a t t a c k s the q u a l i t y of the teaching i n the pa­ r o c h i a l schools. In the face of the s i t u a t i o n parents "do not mind any more t h r e a t s , r i d i c u l e and pe r s e c u t i o n ; they see that t h e i r f i r s t duty toward t h e i r c h i l d r e n i& good s c h o o l i n g . And were the p u b l i c school a u t h o r i t i e s not so alow i n adding the P o l i s h language to the c u r r i c u l u m i n the P o l i s h d i s t r i c t s , h a l f of the P o l i s h c h i l d r e n would be now i n the p u b l i c schools." (Ba 478) Father S e r o s z y n s k i recognized i m p e r f e c t i o n s . There were too many p u p i l s f o r the teaching s t a f f ; the a u t h o r i t i e s had t o "send i n t o the classroom the young nun to whom i t has been im­ p o s s i b l e to give a thorough t r a i n i n g . " In the quotation from Prasa two opposite urges are seen, the a t t r a c t i o n of a s s i m i l a ­ t i o n and the w i l l to conserve the use of P o l i s h . The l i n g u i s t i c preoccupation was expressed thus by Father S e r o c z y n s k i j "The n e c e s s i t y of teaching two languages doubles the work of the i . teachers, and yet i t i s t h i s very system which w i l l most i n t e l l i ­ g e n t l y a d j u s t the Poles to t h e i r American surroundings. 1' Even i n 1920 when p u b l i c o p p o s i t i o n to a language of i n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r than E n g l i s h was very great, Thomas and Znaniencki recorded, " P o l ­ i s h and E n g l i s h are both employed as teaching languages, the pro­ p o r t i o n v a r y i n g i n d i f f e r e n t schools" (TZ 1532). The z e a l f o r the language was bound up w i t h the wish to perpetuate the s t r e n g t h of the f a m i l y t i e . uWhereas c h i l d r e n who go to p u b l i c school be­ come completely estranged from t h e i r parents, the p a r i s h s c h o o l . . . i n a l a r g e measure prevents t h i s estrangement, not only because i t makes the c h i l d r e n acquainted w i t h t h e i r parents' r e l i g i o n , language, and n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y , but a l s o because i t i n c u l c a t e s respect f o r these t r a d i t i o n a l values and f o r the n a t i o n from which they came" (TZ 1533). In 1939 according to C a r l Wittke "the ma­ j o r i t y of P o l i s h c h i l d r e n today attend p u b l i c schools" (Wi 425). - Fox had made the same a s s e r t i o n i n 1922 (p. 95). In the 1960's from the l i n g u i s t i c p o i n t of view i t does not matter which school system t r a i n s the c h i l d r e n . I n s t r u c t i o n i n P o l i s h ceased i n Leavenworth i n 1925. The slowness of the evolution, i n Kansas C i t y i s d e t a i l e d i n V o l . I I . In Milwaukee i n s t r u c t i o n i n P o l i s h ceased i n 1940; those o l d enough to have gone to school before that time learned to speak P o l i s h even i f i t was used i n homes only by grandparents. The p a r o c h i a l school was then a d e f i n i t e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e f o r b i - l i n g u a l i s m without long being an ob s t a c l e to the a c q u i s i t i o n of E n g l i s h . .81 P o l i s h s o c i a l clubs and s o c i e t i e s "numbered three to four thousand o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n 1905" (Fo 90). The people 1s s o c i a b i l i t y s e i z e d a l l occasions f o r demonstration, weddings, c h r i s t e n i n g s , h o l i d a y s . The c o l o n i s t s b u i l t P o l i s h h a l l s almost everywhere, u s u a l l y a f t e r o r g a n i z i n g i n t o stock companies, sometimes tinder the guidance of t h e i r churches, sometimes advised by saloonkeepers, who With the p r i e s t s were before p r o h i b i t i o n very f r e q u e n t l y l e a d e r s ; understandably these a d v i s e r s were not always d i s i n t e r ­ ested (Fo 100). P o l i s h lodges have been almost as important as Czech lodges, but except f o r t h e i r insurance features i n a d i f ­ f e r e n t way. They were h e l d together by, and f i r s t organized w i t h , the aim of advancing the l i b e r a t i o n of the n a t i v e land (Fa 200). Almost a l l came to be sponsored by the C a t h o l i c church,* though * Park and M i l l e r give a l i s t 2% pages long of o r g a n i z a t i o n s connected w i t h S t . S t a n i s l a w Kostka i n Chicago (pp. 213-215). the church began to cre a t e i t s s o c i e t i e s as a b a c k f i r e to the P o l i s h N a t i o n a l A l l i a n c e , o r i g i n a l l y r a t h e r a n t i - c l e r i c a l , and to the tendencies t h a t l e d to the c r e a t i o n of the A l l i a n c e of P o l i s h S o c i a l i s t s . The S o c i a l i s t s were never numerous, but they were among the most i n t e l l i g e n t immigrants. They were t r u l y a branch of t h e i r p a r t y i n Europe, t h e r e f o r e h i g h l y n a t i o n a l i s t i c and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e i n America. The PNA was created i n i t s present form i n 1880, but i t s embryos go back to 1842 (Fo 90). I t was at f i r s t p r i m a r i l y devoted to the maintenance of a " f o u r t h p r ovince" among the Poles p a r a l l e l to the three e x i s t i n g i n Europe under unsympathetic governments ( F i 58). This n a t i o n ­ a l i s t i c concept l a t e r became the expression of the ambition r a t h e r -719- to e r e c t European Poland i n t o an independent country than to create a s u p r a - n a t i o n a l s t a t e . In the years immediately before the F i r s t World War there was even m i l i t a r y d r i l l * In 1910 there were 53,000 members i n 780 chapters (Ba 380); 125,000 i n 1921; 275,000 i n 1939. In a d d i t i o n to being a p a t r i o t i c and i n s u r i n g s o c i e t y i t was very a c t i v e l y a promoter of c u l t u r e and s o c i a l betterment. The o r g a n i ­ z a t i o n p e r s i s t s i n t o the I 9 6 0 , s f but as i n most other P o l i s h so­ c i e t i e s the business meetings are attended mostly by o l d men* O r i g ­ i n a l l y , w h i l e not a n t i - r e l i g i o u s l i k e Czech lodges, the PNA was a n t i - c l e r i c a l i n tone, but i t has become c l o s e l y connected w i t h the church w i t h the passage of time. In Kansas C i t y i n 1964 the announcements f o r i t s meetings were included w i t h those of f i v e other lodges on S t . Joseph 1s calendar. The Roman C a t h o l i c Union came i n t o e x i s t e n c e a l s o about 1880. The p r o l i f e r a t i o n of other s o c i e t i e s of a r e l i g i o u s nature i s thus explained by Thomas and Z n a n i e c k i j f , I t seems that the church i s r a t h e r d i s i n c l i n e d to l e t any one l a y o r g a n i z a t i o n ... assume too much power l e s t i t should some time become d i f f i c u l t to manage; the p o l i c y i s to encourage s e v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s at once i n every f i e l d and to c o n t r o l a l l of them11 (TZ 1606). A l l these o r g a n i z a t i o n s have been the center of P o l i s h community l i f e and on the whole have been conser v a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c forces because the o l d e r members : have been i n c o n t r o l , and s t i l l were i n the I960 fs. Because of them, d e l i b e r a t i o n s were s t i l l being c a r r i e d on i n P o l i s h . They, most a r d e n t l y the PNA, have been so to some degree because of -720- t h e i r strong n a t i o n a l i s m . The l i n k between n a t i o n a l i s m and l i n ­ g u i s t i c p r e s e r v a t i o n i n 1921 stands out i n the case of the r e ­ quirements f o r membership i n the C a t h o l i c y o u t h o r g a n i z a t i o n , She Zouaves of S t . S t a n i s l a w Kostka at Chicago. Besides being models of p i e t y , the members were "to know the h i s t o r y of t h e i r a n c e s t o r s , the great men of Poland, and to t a l k P o l i s h among themselves and at home" (PM 216). P o l i s h and American n a t i o n a l ­ isms have never been i n c o n f l i c t so that the a l l - p e r v a d i n g Ameri­ canism s l o w l y triumphs. .82 The P o l i s h press has been c l o s e l y a l l i e d to the s o c i e t i e s . Zjgoda, organ of the P o l i s h N a t i o n a l A l l i a n c e , "the most i n f l u e n ­ t i a l " and one of "the best" P o l i s h p e r i o d i c a l s (TZ 1509) was r e ­ ported by Mrs. Balch (Ba 383) i n 1910 as having 55,000 s u b s c r i b e r s . C a r l Wittke (Wi 424) i n 1939 l i s t s i t as the l a r g e s t d a i l y w i t h 32,435 s u b s c r i b e r s i n 1931. F i s h e r s a i d i n 1930 that there were "15 d a i l i e s and 64 P o l i s h w e eklies" ( F i 60). Doroszewski quotes Osada as e s t i m a t i n g 129 f o r that year. The discrepancy i s to be explained by F i s h e r ' s n e g l e c t i n g papers that "were mainly d e a l i n g w i t h a f f a i r s of s t r i c t l y l o c a l i n t e r e s t . . .[whose c i r c u l a t i o n ] was l i m i t e d to s m a l l settlements . . . [andj had but a short e x i s t e n c e " (DJ 219). As s t a t e d above Capek reported 85 Czech j o u r n a l s i n 1920. There were about twice as many foreign-born Poles as Czechs i n the United States i n 1920, but c o n s i d e r i n g that about 30% of the Poles immigrating i n 1900 and 1912 were i l l i t e r a t e and only 3% of the Czechs, we must deduce from the -721- above f a c t s that great progress i n l i t e r a c y i n P o l i s h occurred a f t e r a r r i v a l i n the United S t a t e s . Night schools g r e a t l y aided i n t h i s process (Fo 97). A w r i t t e n language i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e , and the progress of l i t e r a c y must a l s o be so considered, though i t must be remembered that l i t e r a c y i n E n g l i s h i n the American-born u l t i m a t e l y smothered t h i s e f f e c t . • 9 fcnRl-izing; amon& Poles has on the whole i n s p i t e of ghetto- i z i n g i n c i t i e s been r a p i d , i n p a r t because "the innate p o s i t i v e d i s l i k e of c h i l d r e n to be d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r playmates 1 1 (Fo 101) was p a r t i c u l a r l y strong among the Poles; another i n f l u e n c e at work was the f a c t that "there i s no important d i f f e r e n c e between the P o l i s h and American c l a s s system" (Fa 202) as a r e s u l t of the ob­ l i t e r a t i o n of the importance of P o l i s h a r i s t o c r a t s by the P r u s s i a n and Russian governments. A l s o i n harmony w i t h a change that oc­ curred i n Poland when peasants moved to town (Fa 206), the f a m i l y l o s t much of i t s importance to P o l i s h c h i l d r e n i n c i t i e s , and de­ s e r t i o n of the language seemed n a t u r a l . F i n a l l y and q u i t e impor­ tant p u b l i c h o s t i l i t y to the use of f o r e i g n language became great­ est s h o r t l y a f t e r the p e r i o d of a r r i v a l of the greatest number.* * The i n f l u e n c e of environment was so potent i n 1920 t h a t Fox recommended that the few young Poles who became P r o t e s t a n t t h e o l o g i c a l students should be housed together, among other r e a ­ sons " f o r the purpose of keeping up the language" (Fo 133). However, because of the l a t e p e r i o d of a r r i v a l , because f o r many -722- year s P o l i s h n a t i o n a l i s m l e d p r i e s t s and l e a d e r s , "some of the best men" (S 156) to t r y to "keep the P o l i s h language i n t a c t % •We would be Americanized but not A n g l i c i z e d 1 " , because "very few immigrants • • . came to America w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of remain in g permanently" (Fa 203), and consequently made l i t t l e e f f o r t to a c q u i r e E n g l i s h , and because the f i r s t generation remained f a m i l y centered, there are i n the 1960's more speakers of P o l i s h i n pro­ p o r t i o n to the s i z e of the P o l i s h element i n the p o p u l a t i o n i n the United S t a t e s than there are f o r - l i n g speakers i n the stocks a r r i v i n g e a r l i e r , .0 The United S t a t e s Immigration S t a t i s t i c s and i n e a r l i e r years the census t r e a t e d Slovenians and Croatians as a l i n g u i s t i c and n a t i o n a l u n i t before Jugo-Slavia was created. Hence i n p a r t s of the d i s c u s s i o n to f o l l o w they w i l l be t r e a t e d together, but they are d i s t i n c t peoples. T h e i r d i a l e c t s approach each other even to the p o i n t that Ivan Krek, a S l o v e n i a n whose l i t t l e work on h i s people was published i n a French t r a n s l a t i o n i n 1917, speaks of "the s m a l l l i n g u i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e between the Slovenes and the Croats; the l a t t e r , i t so happens, d i g n i f i e d as t h e i r c a p i t a l Zagreb (Agram) which i s i n the Slovenian l i n g u i s t i c sphere" (Kr 16), and a g a i n , "The languages of the South Slavs are i n r e a l i t y only d i a l e c t s which succeed and penetrate each other. Since t h i s l i n g u i s t i c c h a i n i s no where i n t e r r u p t e d , i t i s impossible to de­ f i n e p r e c i s e l y where Slovenian ends and C r o a t i a n begins" (Kr 52). Despite t h i s f a c t speakers of standard Slovenian and C r o a t i a n are -723- mutually u n i n t e l l i g i b l e -- without great e f f o r t or some t r a i n i n g — because the Croatians and Serbs adopted as t h e i r standard language a d i a l e c t , approximately t h a t of Herzegovina, f a r to the south­ east of the area of the Slovenes, so d i f f e r e n t and remote i n the cha i n of d i a l e c t s t h a t the Slovenes, who had alre a d y developed a l i t e r a r y language from a d i a l e c t spoken i n the heart of t h e i r a r e a , r e j e c t e d t h i s way of speech, even though i t had the great advantage of being mutually i n t e l l i g i b l e to a l l the Serbs and Croats. One reason t h a t t h i s o r i g i n a l l y r a t h e r southern d i a l e c t could o b t a i n acceptance i n C r o a t i a was that d u r i n g the T u r k i s h i n v a s i o n s and conquest and even l a t e r a great many people took refuge from the danger by m i g r a t i n g i n t o the C r o a t i a n area and the now composite p o p u l a t i o n flowed back as the danger receded? thus the speakers of v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s , but only to a s m a l l extent those of the Slovene r e g i o n , were mixed together, and a common idiom could be chosen not t o t a l l y u n f a m i l i a r to any one. The d i f f e r e n c e s between the two peoples have been: marked enough so that Slovenians and Croatians have r e g u l a r l y made separate s e t t l e ­ ments i n the American c i t i e s as they have i n Kansas C i t y . S t i l l the two stocks were so n e a r l y a l i k e that o u t s i d e r s , even though they knew th a t there were two groups, had d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n g ­ u i s h i n g them. The immigration a u t h o r i t i e s d i d not t r y t o , and the Senate i n v e s t i g a t o r s of 1909 and 1910, even when they made the e f f o r t , were u s u a l l y i n a s t a t e of confusion on the matter. U#S. Immigration data on the Croatians and Slovenians f o l l o w s . -724- United S t a t e s Immigration Data on Croatians aijtd Slovenians Year 1 Immigrants to a l l U.S. I I Immigrants w i t h D e s t i n a t i o n Kansas Year I I I 1899 8,632 24 1908 20,472 387 1900 17,184 28 1909 20,181 282 1901 17,298 60 1910 39,562 260 1902 30,233 108 1911 18,982 361 1903 32,907 116 1912 24,366 247 1904 21,242 265 1913 42,499 401 1905 35,104 339 1914 37,284 156 1906 44,272 298 1915 1,942 11 1907 47,286 475 I Beginning i n 1910 the United States census provides s t a t i s ­ t i c s on "mother-tongues 8 1 t h a t a l l o w us to separate Slovenians from Croats. Speakers of Slovenian and Cr o a t i a n i n the U.S. and Sel e c t e d States (Foreign White Stock, that i s , foreign-born and t h e i r c h i l d r e n , as published i n 1920. The f i g u r e s published i n 1910 are s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . ) Slovenians Serbo-Croatians 1910 1920 1910* 1920 U.S. 181,594 208,552 128,064 200,421 Penna. 67,177 50,257 36,708 56,483 111. 16,482 21,595 15,966 24,844 Neb. 269 334 825 1,608 Mo. 1,010 1,021 3,487 3,814 Kans. 1,493 2,935 2,667 3,538 *I n 1910 i n a l l U.S. f o r Croatians alone, 93,036; Serbs, -725- 26,752; Dalmations, 9,471, e t c . ; C r o a t i a n f o r e i g n - b o r n , 74,036; Slovenian f o r e i g n - b o r n , 12,663. .20 The Slovenians i n Europe out of some 13 m i l l i o n South Slavs i n 1910 numbered somewhere between one and one and a h a l f m i l l i o n s , depending on how b i l i n g u a l s were counted; p o p u l a t i o n s t a t i s t i c s f o r them were bound up w i t h German and Slovenian n a t i o n a l a s p i r a ­ t i o n s , and thus subject to d i s p u t e . Jose Rus, a Slovene, gives as the t o t a l f o r S l o v e n i a i n 1910 1,181,000 (quoted by Tomasevich, T 152). There were a d d i t i o n a l speakers i n Hungary and C r o a t i a amounting to 52,379 and 2,400 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n 1857. The A u s t r i a n S t a t i s t i c Manual quoted by Drage (DA 60) f u r n i s h e s the f i g u r e s f o r 1900; the census f o r 1857 i s quoted from LSvy. The d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n of Slovenian p o p u l a t i o n among A u s t r i a n provinces f o r 1857 and 1900 was as f o l l o w s . 1857 1900 S t y r i a 369,246 409,531 G a r i n t h i a 92,767 90,495 C a r n i o i a 421,398 475,302 L i t t o r a l (Ktistenland) 198,451 212,978 Elsewhere 4,474 T o t a l 1,081,862 1,192,780 (The four A u s t r i a n provinces are grouped on the east f r o n t i e r of I t a l y , Nos. 43, 47, 48, 49 of the map of p. 68 of V o l . I) Arnez, rounding to the nearest thousand, presents f o r four censuses the o f f i c i a l f i g u r e s thus* -726- 1880 1,141,000 1890 1,177,000 1900 1,193,000 1910 1,253,000 This increase was t a k i n g place d e s p i t e the f a c t that c o n s i d e r a b l e numbers of Slovenians i n mixed d i s t r i c t s were becoming Germans; a f t e r r e s i s t i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s they were y i e l d i n g to the pressures of education and commerce (BS 90). The s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t des­ p i t e some r e l i e f from emigration i n the l a t e 19th century popula­ t i o n pressure was i n c r e a s i n g . The Slovenians were only about a t h i r d of the populations of a l l the provinces but G a r n i o l a , which was s o l i d l y Slovene except f o r one important enclave, Gottschegg. In 1900 the L i t t o r a l contained 334,000 I t a l i a n s and 144,000 Croats. Elsewhere the non-Slovenians were Germans. The more northern p a r t s of S t y r i a and C a r i n t h i a were p u r e l y German. •2 l g The Slovenian emigrants who went to Kansas seem very gener­ a l l y to have come from the s e c t i o n s nearer I t a l y , so much so that i n the c o a l f i e l d s the I t a l i a n or Slovenian appearance of a fam­ i l y name i s sometimes deceptive. U n t i l 1884 A u s t r i a n s computed emigration by means of permits i s s u e d . There were no s i g n i f i c a n t numbers l e a v i n g the Slovenian provinces before 1884 except from the L i t t o r a l whence 812 l e f t l e g a l l y i n 1867 and 2,293 i n the two year p e r i o d 1878-9. The f i r s t miners i n Kansas must have been from t h i s e a r l y wave. Nothing of great s i g n i f i c a n c e took p l a c e i n the l a t e r e i g h t i e s . In 1910 Mrs, B a l c h found that the emigra- -727- t i o n was mainly from Carniola; she r e p o r t s as l e a v i n g that province: 1893-4 600 1899-00 6,400 1895-6 2,700 1901-2 7,300 1897-8 2,700 1903-4 9,300 The A u s t r i a n s a f t e r 1871 used port departures as a means of judging emigration overseas. The data from the p o r t s nearest the Slovenian area (Genoa, Fiume, and T r i e s t e ) show an important up­ swing and peak i n 1895 and 1896 and from 1904 r a t h e r steady embar­ k a t i o n s of 12 or 13 thousand A u s t r i a n s except f o r a d i p i n 1908 a f t e r the American panic of the preceding year; not 6,000 l e f t i n 1908. .3 The C r o a t i a n s . as we have seen, occupied i n small p a r t the A u s t r i a n l i t t o r a l . A l s o , as d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from Serbs, they l i v e d i n Dalmatia and somewhat i n Bosnia but l a r g e l y they l i v e d i n the Kingdom of C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a , subject to the Hungarian h a l f of Austria-Hungary. I i t h i s kingdom, the western part of C r o a t i a - had a spur extending along the A d r i a t i c c o a s t , but the t e r r i t o r y soon narrowed i n l a n d above Bosnia, then expanded somewhat at the merid­ i a n of Zagreb to a width of some 70 m i l e s and thence s t r e t c h e d east i n an elongated t r i a n g l e t h a t became S l a v o n i a . I t s southern boundary was the Sava R i v e r which empties i n t o the Danube very c l o s e to Belgrade. The S l a v o n i a n s e c t i o n was not C r o a t i a n i n p o p u l a t i o n , but i t d i d not f u r n i s h many emigrants to America and the s t a t i s t i c s from C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a t h e r e f o r e f u r n i s h a good guide as t o C r o a t i a n movement. The census of 1857 shows Croats -728- and Serbs enumerated together as f o l l o w s ; A u s t r i a L i t t o r a l 132,591 Dalmatia 369,310 C a r n i o l a 15,660 Elsewhere 7,870 Hungary proper 518,046 C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a 809,357 M i l i t a r y lands 865,377 T o t a l 2,718,211 The Serbo-Croat i n h a b i t a n t s of the M i l i t a r y lands and of Hungary proper were mostly Serbs, so that we may estimate the number of Croats a t something more than one and a h a l f m i l l i o n a t that time. In 1900 the number of Croats i n C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a alone was s l i g h t l y s u p e r i o r to 1,300,000. Then 2 1/6 m i l l i o n s spoke Serbo- C r o a t i a n ; about 750,000 were orthodox, t h e r e f o r e Serbs. The i n ­ crease of p o p u l a t i o n f o r C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a ( i n c l u d i n g d u r i n g the p e r i o d of t h e i r e x i s t e n c e the M i l i t a r y lands) i s according to Tomasevich i n thousands 1860 1,629 1890 2,186 1870 1,838 1900 2,416 1880 1,892 1910 2,622 ca 1914 2,700 A l l a u t h o r i t i e s f i n d t h a t the o v e r p o p u l a t i o n was g r e a t , and i t e x c i t e d great pressure f o r emigration. -729- 77.4 Emigration t o America began along the C r o a t i a n coast by 1850 but d i d not become great f o r some years. In the decade 1881-1890 C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a gained 10,000 persons from m i g r a t i o n , i n the next decade l o s t 37,000. The four western counties back from the coast as f a r as Zagreb (Lieka-Krbava, Modrus-Fiume, Ag- ram and Varashav) l o s t c o n s i s t e n t l y — 49,000 i n the e i g h t i e s , 60,000 i n the n i n e t i e s . Some of these went elsewhere i n Europe, but the emigration to America was g a i n i n g momentum. Emigration s t a t i s t i c s from C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a begin only i n 1904. Rounded to the nearest hundred they are f o r the decade beginning i n 1904 a 1904 4,800 1909 13,400 1905 27,100 1910 16,100 1906 24,700 1911 8,200 1907 25,500 1912 16,000 1908 5,000 1913 14,000 The port s t a t i s t i c s from Fiume and T r i e s t e a l s o show that the peak i n departures was i n 1906 and 1907. The resumption i n 1909 and 1910 appears greater i n them, but a f a l l i n g o f f again l a t e r . 77.5 In the Slovenian area the p o l i t i c a l push f o r emigration was p r a c t i c a l l y n on-existent. The demand f o r p o l i t i c a l autonomy de­ veloped l a t e a f t e r c e n t u r i e s of accepted d i s u n i o n and became u r ­ gent o n l y as the F i r s t World War approached. The growth of S l o ­ venian n a t i o n a l i s m , was, however, important 1 i n g u i s t i c a 1 l y . In these A u s t r i a n provinces completely dominated f o r c e n t u r i e s by a German-speaking governing c l a s s , S l o v enian was saved from ex- -730- t i n c t i o n by r e l i g i o u s f e r v o r d u r i n g the Reformation. The P r o t e s ­ tant w r i t e r s (Trubar, Dalmatin) e s t a b l i s h e d a l i t e r a r y language i n t h e i r e f f o r t to appeal to a l l the people. P r o t e s t a n t i s m was u l t i m a t e l y destroyed completely, but the n a t i o n a l language as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from d i a l e c t s p e r s i s t e d . The p a r t i c u l a r i s m inher­ ent i n the Romantic movement sei z e d upon t h i s t o o l i n the l a t e 18th century and put the language i n a p o s i t i o n to express a b s t r a c t thought i n a more extensive domain. In the p e r i o d 1800-1849 S l o ­ venian n a t i o n a l i s m became st r o n g , demanding education i n the l a n ­ guage of the people. Development of the vocabulary went on i n t o the t w e n t i e t h century to the extent that r e t u r n i n g emigrants, and even some of l i m i t e d e a r l y education who remained i n Europe, d i d not know the meaning of w r i t i n g s i n the language th a t they spoke. • 6 A f t e r 1848 i n s t r u c t i o n i n S l o v e n i a n i n schools began to be t o l e r a t e d . The law of 1868-1872 improved matters v a s t l y so t h a t Krek could say f o r C a r n i o l a i n 1917, ifA s u i t a b l e p l a c e i s given S l o v e n i a n i n government a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and a t school* 1 (Kr 78). S t i l l , i n C a r n i o l a 28,000 Germans had 32 elementary schools (872*1) and 490,000 Slovenians had 388 (1288*1). Almost every­ where e l s e the r a t i o s were worse. But l i t e r a c y was higher than among the C r o a t i a n s ; l i t e r a c y i n German was not unusual. Though the Germans as a r u l i n g c l a s s i r k e d the Slovenians more and more, the German language was very f r e q u e n t l y regarded w i t h no h o s t i l i t y * Each language had i t s p l a c e . Such a t t i t u d e s made immigrants ready -731- to accept b i l i n g u a l i s m i n America, but, as w i t h the Czechs, the f i r s t generations were slow to abandon t h e i r S l a v i c speech f o r use i n the home because they were accustomed to a Heimprache d i f f e r e n t from the language of p u b l i c usage (Um^angsprache). •70 The Croats had a much more f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n of p o l i t i c a l independence than the Slovenians. In f a c t the e x i s t e n c e of something l i k e a C r o a t i a n s t a t e goes back to the remote Middle Ages. Very e a r l y the Magyars regarded themselves as possessing a hegemony over the area. The c e n t u r i e s of war against the Turks made of the C r o a t i a n domain a b u f f e r land where the government was such as could develop among r a i d s and g u e r i l l a warfare. The nobles were t y r a n n i c a l ; the peasants r e v o l t e d , and t h e i r r i s i n g s were b l o o d i l y suppressed. Thus there grew up a curious combina­ t i o n of a f i e r c e s p i r i t of independence and of acceptance of de­ p l o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s . The establishment i n Napoleonic times of a French I l l y r i a , a combination of South S l a v s t a t e s which included S l o v e n i a , gave to both Croats and Slovenes a sense of a r i g h t to autonomy that p e r s i s t e d a f t e r Napoleon 1s d o w n f a l l . The Croatians then came to possessvagovernmental u n i t which sided i n 1848 w i t h the Crown a g a i n s t Hungary, but was i l l - r e w a r d e d . A f t e r the Com­ promise which created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary i n 1867, the Kingdom of C r o a t i a - S l a v o n i a became a t e r r i t o r y administered s e p a r a t e l y , but w i t h autonomy only i n very l o c a l matters, from Budapest. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y the Croats gained the p r i v i l e g e of u s i n g t h e i r language f o r o f f i c i a l purposes, but the p r i v i l e g e was under -732- constant pressure f o r Curtailment. In 1907 Magyar was made the o f f i c i a l language of C r o a t i a n r a i l r o a d s (HK 78). The Magyars were masters who d i d not make themselves beloved, and the w i l l f o r i n ­ dependence grew, made greater among the lowly by the founding of a Peasants P a r t y . The push f o r emigration that r e s u l t e d from t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s was not so much from the d i r e c t i r r i t a t i o n s of government as from a pervading sense of i n s e c u r i t y because of po­ l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y ; a l s o from governmental neglect of endeavors t h a t would advance C r o a t i a 1 s economy as i t might have been advanced and from the adoption of measures of f i n a n c i a l f a v o r i t i s m to Magyars. R a i l r o a d f r e i g h t r a t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , were l e s s from Hungary proper to Fiume than from Zagreb. A s i g n i f i c a n t pressure f o r emigration r e s u l t e d a l s o from the m i g r a t i o n of Serbian e l e ­ ments i n t o the C r o a t i a n - S l a v o n i a n kingdom from s t i l l l e s s favored s e c t i o n s t h a t had been rele a s e d from the Turks i n 1878. The Hun­ ga r i a n government promoted t h i s m i g r a t i o n (DK 65). The increase i n p o p u l a t i o n went on. The p o l i t i c a l i r r i t a t i o n s under Serbian domination a f t e r the c r e a t i o n of J u g o s l a v i a were s t i l l great though l e s s , but American laws had cut o f f emigration. 7 l g The i m p l i c a t i o n s of what was s a i d above regarding education i n the S l o v e n i a n area was t h a t i l l i t e r a c y was low at l e a s t i n C a r n i o l a and the s e c t i o n s w i t h German neighbors. On the other hand, i l l i t e r a c y i n C r o a t i a was r e l a t i v e l y h i g h . In 1921, the Yugoslav census shows th a t i n the regions f u r n i s h i n g few immigrants Macedonia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro S e r b i a , i l l i t e r a c y -733- ranged from 65% to 84% as f o l l o w s i The fo u r other regions had percentages Dalmatia 49.5% Croat i a - S l a v o n i a 32.2% S l o v e n i a 8.8% Vojvodina (The Serbo-Croat area of o l d Hungary proper) 23.3% I l l i t e r a c y i n r u r a l areas was much higher than i n c i t i e s (T 198-99). The e f f e c t on emigrants of high i l l i t e r a c y i s comparable to that described f o r the Pol e s . a l l Roman C a t h o l i c s . The Serbs were Orthodox and the h o s t i l i t y r e s u l t i n g between Serbs and Croatians kept them separate d e s p i t e t h e i r common language. The sep a r a t i o n h e l d f i r m i n America. The f a i t h of the Slovenians was moderate, not i n f l u e n c e d by n a t i o n a l ­ ism. The f e r v o r of the Croatians was g r e a t e r , increased by the age-old f r i c t i o n w i t h the Orthodox Serbians and perhaps by the greater l a c k of other c u l t u r a l o u t l e t s . R e l i g i o n f u r n i s h e d no push f o r em i g r a t i o n , but i n f l u e n c e d developments i n America. 77.9 The economic stimulus to emigra t i o n i n both C r o a t i a and S l o ­ v e n i a was c e r t a i n l y the most important f a c t o r . However, the eco­ nomic s i t u a t i o n was i n l a r g e p a r t the r e s u l t of p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l developments. Of these over p o p u l a t i o n was the most impor­ t a n t , which brought about as elsewhere fragmentation of land holdings or the 'departure of the progeny l e f t without land when holdings 77.8 The Slovenians and Croatians of the pe r i o d of emigration were -734- were maintained, as was frequent i n S l o v e n i a . One feature i n t h i s area was the d e c l i n e of the Zadrugas i n C r o a t i a d u r i n g the p e r i o d of emigration. Zadrugas were farming u n i t s made up of s e v e r a l r e ­ l a t e d f a m i l i e s who had a common d w e l l i n g and a communal organiza­ t i o n of l i f e . They were lar|bly s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n t h e i r prosper­ ous days, and broke up not o n l y under the pressure of growth i n numbers of members, but because new a p p e t i t e s developed, new taxes were imposed and the need to s a t i s f y these w i t h current money des­ troyed the p o s s i b i l i t y of p a t r i a r c h a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . For l a c k of c a p i t a l the s m a l l e r u n i t s created were economically i n e f f i c i e n t l i k e the fragments of l a r g e e s t a t e s which had been broken up. There was by departure a l s o the p o s s i b i l i t y of escaping the i r k - someness of p a t r i a r c h a l a u t h o r i t y . The f r e i g h t r a t e d i f f e r e n t i a ­ t i o n s a l r e a d y spoken of were a p o l i t i c a l measure making the :eco- nomic s i t u a t i o n worse. There was a l s o the general European a g r i ­ c u l t u r a l depression of the l a t e 19th century a t work i n t h i s area (T 176). I t was exasperated i n c e r t a i n wine growing areas i n both S l o v e n i a and C r o a t i a by the i n v a s i o n of p h y l l o x e r a . The b u i l d i n g of a r a i l r o a d from the i n t e r i o r to Fiume destroyed p r i m i t i v e f r e i g h t i n g through the mountains, and men l e f t i d l e tended to emi­ grate. Very f r e q u e n t l y the absence was meant to be temporary, and f a m i l i e s were l e f t behind. Sometimes those who expected to r e t u r n d i d come back, but o f t e n to be d i s s a t i s f i e d , and depart once more. T h e i r movements make the s t a t i s t i c s on m i g r a t i o n some­ what l e s s v a l i d . Remittances from America to f a m i l i e s at home were a p e r c e p t i b l e element i n the r e g i o n a l income. -735- .0 Though Slovenians came e a r l y to the United S t a t e s , nothing t h a t could be c a l l e d the beginning of a settlement antedates the C i v i l War. "Slovenians are s a i d to have f i r s t appeared i n Chicago and i n Iowa about 1863, and i n 1866 they founded t h e i r c h i e f farming colony i n Brock^ay, Minnesota. They were i n Omaha i n 1868. About 1873 t h e i r present l a r g e colony i n J o l i e t was founded. They began to come to New York about 1878.11 So says Mrs. Balch (Ba 233) and adds other data (Ba 269) provided by Slovenian Americans. The 25,000 i n 23 places i n Pennsylvania i n 1907 were " g e n e r a l l y c o a l miners, laborers i n steelworks, b u s i ­ ness men (saloon keepers . . . ) . . . . " The Slovenians had ap­ peared there w e l l before 1878. The 15,000 i n Ohio " l a r g e l y i n and about Cleveland 1 1 were mostly " f a c t o r y l a b o r e r s . " Michigan had 7,000 "(3,000 or 4,000 i n Calumet and the adjacent copper mining s e t t l e m e n t s ) , " 10,000 miners i n Colorado, 5,000 miners i n Montana. The settlement i n Milwaukee grew up l a t e ; i t had no church i n 1915; S t . John's which served i t had 400 f a m i l i e s i n 1951. In I l l i n o i s there were 10,000 "besides b i g c o l o n i e s i n J o l i e t ( w i t h 3,000, o r , according to a l o c a l estimate, 9,000) and Chicago and South Chicago ( w i t h 2,000)." With bad times i n Kansas c o a l f i e l d s the settlement a t J o l i e t r e c e i v ed many of those who l e f t . The c o a l f i e l d s r e c e i v e d most of the r e s t of those i n I l l i n o i s , but the concentrations were not great. The element a t Oglesby was most n e a r l y r e l a t e d to Kansas mining groups; i t too was g r e a t l y reduced by c o a l mining d e c l i n e . The r e l a t i o n s of Kansas c o a l miners w i t h Pennsylvania were i n the e a r l y days f r e - -736- quent. In 1900 the South S l a v churches i n that s t a t e were a l l i n Allegheny County where P i t t s b u r g h i s l o c a t e d ; two were Sloven­ i a n and two were C r o a t i a n . 78.1 The Serbo-Croatians were very f r e q u e n t l y i n the same centers as the Slovenians i n the United S t a t e s . The Croatians i n the narrower sense of the term were about h a l f as numerous as the Slovenians i n 1910, and i n the western areas where both had s e t ­ tlements t h e i r r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s were, u n l i k e those i n Kansas C i t y , s i m i l a r . For instance i n 1915 at J o l i e t , I l l i n o i s , where each had a church, the C r o a t i a n Church had 180 p u p i l s i n i t s s c h o o l , the S l o v e n i a n , 637. Mrs. Balch reported both groups at Calumet, Michigan, and Pueblo, Colorado; the Slovenians had a church i n each but not the C r o a t i a n s . In Chicago on the other hand the Croatians had three churches and the Slovenians only two; each had a church i n the stockyards d i s t r i c t . Croatians i n the c o a l f i e l d s were i n p a r t s of I l l i n o i s as w e l l as i n Pennsyl­ v a n i a more numerous than i n Kansas, as at Mount O l i v e and Beti Id northeast of S t . L o u i s . In a l l c o a l areas taken together they were more numerous than S l o v e n i a n s , which forms a c o n t r a s t w i t h Kansas. In Ohio the Croatians outnumbered the .Slovenians, but seem to have had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n w i t h Kansas. 78.2 The Slovenians and Croats remained l o y a l to the Roman Cath­ o l i c church i n the United S t a t e s . N a t i o n a l parishes were r e a d i l y c reated f o r them. Mrs. Balch (Ba 387) i n 1910 reported f o r the Slovenians 42 p r i e s t s and 2 bishops i n the United S t a t e s , f o r the Croatians 10 churches. According to the C a t h o l i c Encyclopedia -737- there were i n 1912 92 Slov e n i a n p r i e s t s i n the United S t a t e s , 25 churches, and 16 C r o a t i a n p a r i s h e s , an increase of 4 s i n c e 1908.* * The Kansas C i t y , Kansas, church i s included among the Cr o a t i a n churches of 1908, a l s o three i n the P i t t s b u r g h , Pa., are a , one at S t e e l t o n near H a r r i s b u r g i n Pa., one each i n Calumet, M i c h i ­ gan, and Great F a l l s , Montana, the r e s t i n c i t i e s , Chicago, Cleve­ l a n d , San F r a n c i s c o . The s m a l l number of parishes i n mining areas shows t h a t the same t h i n g was true elsewhere as i n Kansas? parishes were d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h i n a f l o a t i n g p o p u l a t i o n . .30 Mining p o p u l a t i o n , as j u s t suggested, was too unstable to a l l o w foundation of parishes s o l e l y f o r one n a t i o n a l i t y . R e s i s ­ tance to being o b l i g a t e d to mingle w i t h other n a t i o n a l s i f an im­ migrant was to worship cut down church attendance i n such mixed p a r i s h e s . S t i l l some of these complex parishes prospered s u f f i ­ c i e n t l y . An example i n I l l i n o i s c o n t a i n i n g a C r o a t i a n element e x i s t s i n the now almost i n a c t i v e S t a u n t o n - L i t c h f i e l d area i n Ma­ coupin County on the highway from S t . Louis to S p r i n g f i e l d . In that d i s t r i c t , a t Benld, the people of S t . Joseph's p a r i s h are 35% Slovak, 15% I t a l i a n , 15% C r o a t i a n s , and the r e s t s c a t t e r e d (see a l s o # 82.71). Conditions i n 1961 had long been such as to permit l i n g u i s t i c conservatism,for the p a r i s h i o n e r s were mostly o l d ; the p r o p o r t i o n between b i r t h s and deaths was one to three. As l a t e as the beginning of the Second World War the use of f o r ­ e i g n language was wide spread. I t narrowed as death removed -738- speakers. The pastor was s t i l l hearing a few confessions i n I t a l ­ ian? some 25 had gone to a Slovak p r i e s t who had r e c e n t l y come t o hear them. The Croatians needing and p r e f e r r i n g s i m i l a r s e r v i c e were too few to warrant b r i n g i n g them a s p e c i a l confessor. An example which includes Slovenians e x i s t s at Oglesby i n L a s a l l e County (61 133) i n northern I l l i n o i s . Nearby i n the c i t y of La­ s a l l e S t . Roch's p a r i s h was o r i g i n a l l y a Slovenian n a t i o n a l par­ i s h , and was served by Slovenian p r i e s t s a t l e a s t through 1960, when there were 139 p u p i l s i n i t s s c h o o l . The Slovenians at Oglesby had found work i n L a s a l l e when the mines c l o s e d down. The people at Sacred Heart i n Oglesby (800 f a m i l i e s ) were o r i g ­ i n a l l y Poles (see #76.73); they were d i s p l a c e d l a r g e l y by I t a l i a n s and Slovenians to whom Lithu a n i a n s were j o i n e d when t h e i r own p a r i s h was a b o l i s h e d . Less than 1% of t h i s v a r i e d group clamored f o r r e l i g i o u s use of t h e i r own tongue i n 1951, among Slovenians about 2%. In n o n - r e l i g i o u s connections the o l d e r Slovenians were u s i n g S l o v e n i a n w i t h each o t h e r , but usage had d e c l i n e d very g r e a t l y a f t e r 1930. 31g In the n a t i o n a l parishes of the c i t i e s o f f i c i a l church usage was much more f a i t h f u l to Slovenian and C r o a t i a n . The pastor of S t . John's i n Milwaukee died i n the summer of 1951. He had preached i n S l o v enian i n three masses out of four ; h i s a s s i s t a n t a f t e r h i s death confined h i m s e l f to E n g l i s h . At S t . Stephen's i n Chicago the Franciscans preached i n E n g l i s h a t a l l s i x masses, but a l s o preached i n Slovenian a t three. They f e l t that the Slovenian -739- language was best preserved i n Cl e v e l a n d , but much more so i n C h i ­ cago than i n Kansas C i t y w i t h which they were acquainted, and a t ­ t r i b u t e d the d i f f e r e n c e to the l a c k of preaching i n Kansas C i t y . At S t . George's i n South Chicago c o n d i t i o n s were s i m i l a r to those i n Kansas C i t y ; there were only songs i n Slovenian. The Slovenian churches a t the time were under the p a t r i o t i c i n f l u e n c e of the refugee bishop of L j u b l i a n a i n e x i l e from the communistic Jugo­ s l a v s t a t e . Other p r i e s t s were refugees w i t h him and made a con­ s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e when they were placed among compatriots. Some because of t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y i n German went to German settlements where they were again a co n s e r v a t i v e i n f l u e n c e . One of them, Ivan L a v r i c h , reached the Colwich-St. Mark's German settlement i n Kan­ sas. As regards preaching c o n d i t i o n s at S t . Joseph's i n J o l i e t (1100 f a m i l i e s and named as having the f i n e s t church s t r u c t u r e i n 1912 by the C a t h o l i c E n cyclopedia), they were very s i m i l a r to those a t S t . Stephen's i n Chicago; four sermons out of seven were i n S l ovenian. These were s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r the immigrants, who were o l d ; they made up 18% of the p a r i s h i o n e r s , and not even a l l of them i n s i s t e d on Slovenian. At J o l i e t the C r o a t i a n church, S t . Mary's, possessed i n 1951 a l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s i m i l a r to : that a t S t . Stephen's; i t had been broken, however, f o r a number of years before by having a Slovak p r i e s t who d i d not preach i n C r o a t i a n . The r e t u r n to C r o a t i a n expressed a c o n t i n u i n g demand of the o l d . At P i t t s b u r g h the l i n g u i s t i c p e r s i s t e n c e of the Croatians i n matters of r e l i g i o n as compared w i t h the Slovenians may be seen thus; the C r o a t i a n churches i n 1949 were s t i l l c l a s s e d -740- as n a t i o n a l ( l i k e most S l a v i c churches i n the a r e a ) , but not the Slovenian churches. At Omaha where n a t i o n a l parishes were l a r g e l y taboo ( t h e r e was one L i t h u a n i a n church i n 1915) the Croatians along w i t h the other S l a v s were considered by the c l e r g y as being r e ­ l i g i o u s l y p e r s i s t e n t i n f o r e i g n language usage. .4 I n s t r u c t i o n i n the n a t i v e language i n the homes of immigrants from S l o v e n i a was not uncommon? r a r e among the C r o a t i a n s , among whom i l l i t e r a c y on a r r i v a l was more common. In 1915 not a l l South S l a v churches had p a r o c h i a l schools. In the P i t t s b u r g h area there were none f o r C r o a t i a n s ; the Slovenian school at S t . Mary's was attended by 166. In Cleveland two Slovenian parishes out of three had s c h o o l s , 1,472 p u p i l s a t S t . V i t u s 1 and S t . Law­ rence's. The one C r o a t i a n p a r i s h , S t . P a u l ' s , had 250 p u p i l s . In the Cleveland diocese a Slovenian p a r i s h at L o r a i n had 270 pu­ p i l s and a C r o a t i a n p a r i s h a t Youngstown 120. In Chicago the two S l o v e n i a n parishes had no s c h o o l s , the three C r o a t i a n , one w i t h 60 p u p i l s . In J o l i e t S l o v e nian S t . Joseph's had 637 p u p i l s , Cro­ a t i a n S t . Mary's 180. Slovenian S t . Roch's a t L a s a l l e , I l l i n o i s , had 1 2 i p u p i l s . These s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t , although there were h a l f as many Croatians i n the United States as S l o v e n i a n s , the number of Slovene p u p i l s i n 1915 was much more than twice t h a t of the C r o a t i a n s . C r o a t i a n education i n Kansas C i t y where S t . John's had 276 p u p i l s , more than any C r o a t i a n school named above, was t h e r e f o r e f a r advanced i n comparison w i t h other p a r i s h e s . Con- s i d e r i n g the s i z e of the p a r i s h Slovenian Holy Family School w i t h -741- 60 p u p i l s was n e a r l y p a r a l l e l w i t h other c e n t e r s . The C a t h o l i c Encyclopedia l i s t s o n l y Kansas C i t y , J o l i e t , and Cleveland as having S l o v e n i a n s i s t e r s to i n s t r u c t i n the language. 78.5 The_Slov^ne-^National B e n e f i t S o c i e t y f more f r e q u e n t l y abbre­ v i a t e d SNPJ (Slovenske Narodne Podporne Jednote), i s the most im­ portant of the numerous Slovenian s o c i e t i e s . I t had a t one time at l e a s t 764 chapters; i n 1949 there were 558. I t was organized i n 1904 at Chicago w i t h e a r l y lodges a t Cleveland and P i t t s b u r g h * Among C a t h o l i c Slovenian s o c i e t i e s the C a r n i o l i a n C a t h o l i c Union i s the o l d e s t , founded i n J o l i e t i n 1894. I t had 100 c o u n c i l s and 12,000 members i n 1912. 78.60 The N a t i o n a l C r o a t i a n S o c i e t y (N.H,Z., Narodne Hrvatske Za- jenednice ) w i t h 22,000 members i n 1910, 29,000 i n 1912, (Ba 381) was an important e a r l y s o c i e t y of the Croats. I t s name i n d i c a t e s the greater importance of n a t i o n a l i s m among Croats as compared w i t h Slovenes. The C r o a t i a n F r a t e r n a l Union was organized i n 1894 a t Allegheny, Pennsylvania ( l a t e r P i t t s b u r g h ' s n o r t h s i d e ) . At Allegheny i n 1907 the United C r o a t i a n s o c i e t i e s were pub­ l i s h i n g a paper, Napredak. 78.6lg A f t e r the F i r s t World War and the b i r t h of J u g o s l a v i a many s o c i e t i e s took the name Jugoslav, f o r i n s t a n c e , as recorded i n 1937 by Brown'Roucek, "20 Sokol s o c i e t i e s w i t h 3,000 members," "250,000 Yugoslavs . . . i n 15 n a t i o n a l f r a t e r n a l and insurance o r g a n i z a t i o n s , 1 1 " s e v e r a l hundred independent b e n e f i t s o c i e t i e s , l o c a l l y , which w i t h the 2,700 branches of the n a t i o n a l organiza- -742- t i o n s b r i n g the t o t a l up to n e a r l y 3,000" (BR 250). The South Slavs of Kansas C i t y apparently f e l t no more drawn to each other before than a f t e r 1919. C r o a t i a n - P o l i s h marriages and Slovenian- P o l i s h were more common than Cr o a t i a n - S l o v e n i a n . Elsewhere, too, i t would appear t h a t i t was u s u a l l y Croatians who a v a i l e d them­ selves of the term Jugoslav, and Croatians of a l e f t i s h t u r n , who were not numerous i n Kansas C i t y and deserted the Kansas c o a l f i e l d s e a r l y . 78.7 The South S l a v press was to a lar g e extent made up of the "organs 1 1 of the churches, s o c i e t i e s and lodges as noted above f o r C r o a t i a n Napredak and t h e i r Z a i e d n i c a r . (organ of the N.H.Z., mentioned above). One of these was a d a i l y , and the Slovenians i n 1907 a l s o had one (Ba 383). Napredak was f i r s t issued a t Ho- boken i n 1891 and Amerikanski Slovenec appeared i n the same year, but they had been antedated by another Slovenian paper, Slovenska Sloga, which began p u b l i c a t i o n i n San Fra n c i s c o i n 1884 (BR 250). In 1937 there were "45 e s t a b l i s h e d Yugoslav p u b l i c a t i o n s " (BR 251) i n c l u d i n g 8 d a i l i e s . The c l o s e connection between the press and the s o c i e t i e s made f o r reading by more persons even though the amount read might not be extensive f o r each i n d i v i d u a l . The con­ s e r v a t i v e l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t of these p u b l i c a t i o n s was c o n s i d e r a b l e , though lessened by t h e i r tendency toward b i l i n g u a l i s m e x h i b i t e d even e a r l y . 78.8 Serbs have he l d themselves apart not only from the Slovenians whose language i s d i f f e r e n t but from the Croats who speak the same -743- language. The great b a r r i e r has been that of r e l i g i o n . There were, says Mrs. Balch (Ba 387) 6 Serbian Orthodox churches i n 1910, 30 i n 1937 say Brown-Roucek. They were not organized i n t o a d i o ­ cese u n t i l a f t e r the F i r s t World War. The church i n Kansas C i t y , organized i n 1905, i s t h e r e f o r e one of the e a r l y establishments. The diocesan see i s a t L i b e r t y v i l l e i n extreme northeastern I l l i ­ n o i s , and a l a r g e settlement e x i s t s i n the P i t t s b u r g h area. J o l i e t too has i t s S e r b i a n s strong enough to b u i l d a h a l l i n 1904. In 1955 the Serbian N a t i o n a l Federation was f l o u r i s h i n g and issued a newspaper, American Srbobran. w i t h e d i t i o n s i n Serbian and E n g l i s h . .9 The displacement of the C r o a t i a n and Slovenian languages has elsewhere shown the same tendencies as i n Kansas. Slovenian im­ migrants because of t h e i r contact w i t h German and I t a l i a n i n Europe added E n g l i s h to t h e i r stock of languages more r e a d i l y than the C r o a t i a n s , and because more C r o a t i a n sons and daughters were ob­ l i g e d to t a l k C r o a t i a n w i t h t h e i r p a r ents, t h e i r second generation had more examples of b i l i n g u a l p r o f i c i e n c y than the Slovenian second generation, but w i t h the t h i r d generation E n g l - i z i n g was as complete i n one stock as i n the other. The statement above concerning sermons shows r a t h e r w e l l what the tendencies have been, but here i s a d d i t i o n a l evidence o u t r i d e church usage f o r 1951. In Milwaukee an informant born ca. 1914 i n Minnesota was p r o f i c i e n t i n Slovenian but s a i d r e g r e t f u l l y t h a t few of her age were, although there were s t i l l some c h i l d r e n able t o speak i t somewhat. In Chicago the r e p o r t was that the t h i r d generation knew no S l o v e n i a n , but that many who were "young 1 1 (presumably i n -744- t h e i r t h i r t i e s ) understood but d i d not speak the 4language. E a r l i e r p r e d i c t i o n s t h at Slovenian would have disappeared by 1938 had not been f u l f i l l e d . In J o l i e t a p r i e s t s a i d t h a t "those born here don't speak" r e f e r r i n g to both Slovenians and C r o a t i a n s , but at Cleveland he found more conservatism. At Oglesby the Slovenians had remained f a i t h f u l t o t h e i r language longer than other stocks because they had l i v e d " i n groups," but the younger ones were l o s i n g i t . In Omaha the Croatians w i t h other B a l t o - S l a v s were regarded as cons e r v a t i v e compared w i t h other s t o c k s . At Benld, 111. (see #78.30 and 79.3), i n 1961 only 2% of the Croatians r e ­ mained f a i t h f u l to t h e i r n a t i v e tongue. At Mount O l i v e (sec. # 79.3) nearby the Croatians were more co n s e r v a t i v e . We have here a t once a record of adherence to the o l d tongue under t r y i n g pres­ sures and abandonment by new generations. .0 Those B a l t o - S l a v languages represented i n Kansas by Small groups of speakers o n l y have r e c e i v e d passing a t t e n t i o n i n the preceding d i s c u s s i o n , f o r - l i n g c o a l miners i n Sections 49.33 f f . , p a r t i c u l a r l y the Slovaks i n S e c t i o n 72.0, the Lithuanians and East S l a v s i n S e c t i o n 76.53 and the Serbs i n S e c t i o n 78.8. Ukrain­ ians or Ruthenians were so few i n Kansas that no e f f o r t i s made to t r e a t them i n t h i s volume. An ample treatment of the l i n g u i s ­ t i c problem of U k r a i n i a n immigrants i s to be found i n Fishman, Language L o y a l t y i n the U.S., 318-359. No data on the l i n g u i s t i c behavior of any of these groups i n the United States o u t s i d e of Kansas has so f a r been presented except as i t appears i n the sec t i o n s on c o a l mining. More f o l l o w s . -745- 79.1 In northern I l l i n o i s i n 1951 the Slovaks a t S t r e a t o r were reported to be j u s t l e a v i n g the p e r i o d when the language q u e s t i o n i n church was b i t t e r ; the o l d were j u s t beginning to be r e c o n c i l e d to the l i n g u i s t i c apostasy of the young. A£ Oglesby not f a r o f f the L i t h u a n i a n s l i k e the Slovenians (see # 78.30) there had only about % 2 % i n s i s t i n g on the use of t h e i r language i n r e l i g i o n . The surrender had however been r e c e n t , and had occurred because they could not support a church. 79.2 In Southern I l l i n o i s i n the Herrin-Marion c o a l f i e l d s , i n 1952, a t West F r a n k f o r t the Slovaks. L i t h u a n i a n s , and Poles (see # 49.36) were s t i l l speaking t h e i r f o r e i g n language i f they were o l d , but the younger people were i n t e r m a r r y i n g r e a d i l y so that E n g l i s h i n homes w i t h growing c h i l d r e n was normal. Among the Slavs at C h r i s t o p h e r , l a r g e l y P o l i s h (see # 76.73) but w i t h Slovaks present, there were l e s s ;than ten i n S t . Andrew 1s p a r i s h unable to speak E n g l i s h . Those born about 1930 knew a few words of f o r e i g n language. At H e r r i n c o n d i t i o n s were s i m i l a r . The na­ t i o n a l lodges were s t i l l important. 79.3 In c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s i n the 3 t a u n t o n - L i t c h f i e I d area (see # 49.35) i n 1961 Lutheran Slovaks a t Staunton l i s t e n e d to a Slovak p a s t o r twice a month from Granite C i t y ; only a handful attended. The younger married people were never hearttto use Slovak. Among the C a t h o l i c s there were ten who r e q u i r e d a Slovak p r i e s t f o r confessions. At Benld (see # 79.3) i n a mixed C a t h o l i c p a r i s h there were 25 or 30 who confessed i n Slovak, used Slovak prayer -746- books and sang i n Slovak? the few Lithuanians d i d not draw a t t e n ­ t i o n . Benld was of l a t e r o r i g i n than Staunton — miners came from Pennsylvania about 1915. At Mount O l i v e Slovaks were brought to the mines about 1887. A C a t h o l i c church was founded a f t e r 1900, Ascension, f o r a l l n a t i o n a l i t i e s , but by 1915 the Slovak n a t i o n a l church, Holy T r i n i t y , a l r e a d y e x i s t e d and i n 1960 was s t i l l o f­ f i c i a l l y n a t i o n a l . I t appears to have been intended a t f i r s t as much f o r Croatians as Slovaks, but d i s s e n s i o n arose and l o c a l l y Ascension Church, which at f i r s t had had I r i s h p a s t o r s , became known as the C r o a t i a n Church (sec. 78.9). The people of the town were p e r s i s t e n t enough i n the use of S l a v i c so that business was sometimes c a r r i e d on i n those languages i n 1961. Mount O l i v e showed l i n g u i s t i c conservatism among the Germans, too. 4g The S l a v s of the New Immigration who j u s t a f t e r the great i n f l u x were f r e q u e n t l y described as u n a s s i m i l a b l e have become En g l - i z e d more r a p i d l y than the Old Immigrants l a r g e l y because of pressure from other Americans from 1918 to 1930 and because new f o r e i g n blood could be added a f t e r 1914 only i n the b r i e f p e r i o d before the immigration laws became severe toward them. 80.0g The Romance languages that bare been spoken in Kansas by immigrants are Italian, French, and Spanish. Portuguese, Rumanian, and the languages which hare no nation bearing a related name hare had no noteworthy representation among speakers in this state.* Speakers of French are represented mainly by -^Portuguese in Kansas numbered 20 in 1900, 1$ in 1910, 8 in 1920j most of the foreign-born from Rumania were Germans, but even so there were only 81 in 1900, $6 in 1920* Canadians, speakers of Spanish overwhelmingly by Mexicans. The only stock in Kansas speaking a Romance language and emigrating from Europe after 1800 is the Italian. They will occupy us fi r s t * 81*0 Bibliography for Italians A - Arias, Gino. La Questions Meridionale, Vol. I of 2 volumes* Bologna, 1919* Ba - Bago$, Richard* The Italians of Today. London, 1912. BL - Bulletin of the Department of Labor II (1897), 691-727 (for Tolme X? see under Sheridan) BR - Brown and Roucek. Otir Racial and National Minorities. Mew lork, 1937. Chapter on Language and Social Adjustment by L. Covello, 68l-696# GP - Cane a, Alexander E. "Piedmontese on the Mississippi," Survey XXVI (1911), 779-785. CC - Carr, John H. ^Coming of the Italians 1 1 Outlook, LXXXII (21* Feb*, 1906) 1*19-430. Ch - Child, Irvin L. Italian or American? Mew Haven, 191*3. -748- CI - Colojanni, Napoleon©. 611 Italian! Megli Stati Tfaiti, Rome, 1909• Co - Covello, Leonard. The Heart is the Teacher. Hew Tork, 1958. Da - Davenport, William 1. »The Italian Immigrant in America11 Outlook, LJCXIII (3 Jan., ,03), 29-37. Bi • Dickinson, Robert I. The Population Problem of Southern Italy. Syracuse, 1955• Fa - Falorsi, Vittorlo, Probleai di Eaigrazione. Bologna, 1921*. Fe - Ferenczi, Jmre. International Migrations, Vol. I. New York, 1929* I* - Ferreri, Gherardo. Gli Italian! in America, Rome, 1907* FI - Foerster, Robert F. Italian Emigration of our Times* Cambridge, Mass., 1919# Fa - FaciUa, Joseph G. *The Anglicization of Italian Surnames in the United States" American Speech, XVIII (191*3), 26-32. GM - Glazer & Moynihan. Beyond the Melting Pot. Cambridge, Mass., 1963. HA - Hall, Robert A., Jr. Review of Menarinifs Ai Margini della Lingua. Language, XXIV (191*8 )^ 239*2l*l. H - Howe, Maude. ^From Italy to Pittsburgh,n Lippincott's, Feb. 1901*, 200-205. ID - Report of the Industrial Commission, 1900-1902, Wol. XV. JL - Jenks & Lauck. The Immigration Problem. First edition 1911 • KO - King and Okey. Italy Today. London, 1909. L - Lemonon, Ernest. L'ltalie economique et socials. Paris, 1913• MI - Mariano, John H. The Italian Contribution to American Democracy. Boston, 1921. ML - Martenengo Cesaresco, Evelyn. Lombard Studies. London, 1902. -7^9- Me - Meade, Emily Fogg. *The Italian on the Land? a Study of Immigration,11 Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor XI? (1907), 1*73-533. m - Park and Miller. Old World Traits Transplanted. Chicago, 192$. Pe - Pecorini, Alberto. **The Italians in the Ifoited States.11 Forum XL? (1911) 15-29. Pi - Pisani, Lawrence F. The Italian i n America. New York, 1957. Pr - Probyn, John ¥. Italy 1815 to 1890. London, 1891. R - Radin, Paul. The Italians of San Francisco, ?ol. I. SERA Project, 1935. Ro - Rose, Philip M. The Italians in America. New Tork, 1922. Ru - RUSSD, Giacamo Barone. L1Emigration et ses Effets dans le midi de l' l t a l i e . Paris, 1912. Sa - Sartorio, Enrico G. Social and Religious Life of Italians i n America. Boston, 1918. f9 - Sixty-First Congress - Second Session - Senate Documents, ?ol. 69. f9R - same, Vol. 83 Sh - Sheridan, Frank J. MItalian, Slavic and Hungarian unskilled immigrant laborers ih the United States. n Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, X? (1907), 1*03-486. Si ^ Silone, Ignazio. Fontamara, t r . by David and Mosbacher. London, 193k. T^ - Turano, Anthony M. »The Speech of Little Italy, 1 1 American Mercury, \ XXXII (1926) 357-9. T f Toschi, Umberto. Geografia economiea. Turin, 1959. ?a - ?aughan, Herbert H. ^Italian and its dialects as Spoken in the United States,11 American Speech, 1(1926), 1$31-5| II (1926) 13-18* ? - Vi l l a r i , Loigi # Italian Life in Town and Country. Hew Tork, 1902. VSU - V i l l a r i , Luigi, Gli Stati Uniti d ^ e r i c a e lfEn&gra&ione italiana. Milan, 1912. ¥ - Williams, Miyllis H* South Italian Folkways in Europe and America. Hew Haven, 1938. 81.1 In many other parts of the United States Italians were much more numerous than in Kansas. Statistics ffrom California and from several states with Italian inhabitants who had connections with Kansas ares Persons Bora in Italy Residing in the Waited States 1920 1910 1900 1890 United States* 1,610,113 1,31*3,125 1*81*,207 182,580 Kansas 3,1*06 3,520 987 616 New York 5U5,173 1*72,201 I82,2fe8 61*,11*1 Pennsylvania 222,761* 196,122 66,655 2l*,662 Ohio 60,658 1*1,620 11,321 5*857 Illinois 9k,k07 72,163 23,523 8,035 California 88,501* 63,615 22,777 15,1*95 Missouri 34,609 12,981* wtm 2,1*16 Nebraska 3,5U8 3,799 752 717 Iowa W985 5,81*6 1,198 399 *$he size of the Italian stock in the United States has, of course, been much greater* lose in 1922 quoted Mangano as estimating that there were three and a half million Italians in the United States (Ro 25). The statistics and discussion which follow do not attempt to take into account immigrants from the Italian districts held by Austria before the First World War* These people are in the United States generally referred to by other Italians as Tirolesi (Tyrolese). The district most appropriately giving rise to this name is Trentino, and some of the people so designated came from Istria, the district around Trieste* These people furnished part of the Italian element in the coal fields* including the Crawford-Cherokee area* Falorsi in 192k reported that one tenth of the Trentino population w was in the United States* The people from the region for a long time were given to seasonal migrations for work* The heavy permanent emigration which began about the end of the nineteenth century was influenced by the political conditions (Fa 229-231)* See also the discussion of the Slovenians* The economic push was similar to that for Slovenians and north Italians* In the : United States they amalgamated with other north Italians* Among these states Pennsylvania and Illinois are of the most interest, for the coal mining relations of Kansas were greatest with these two* Some of the Missouri Italian-born were part of the Crawford-Cherokee group* about one hundred in 1920* An equal number in Kansas City* Kansas, were in some sort an appendage of the Kansas City, Missouri* settlement which will b r i e f l y concern us* 81*2 The Italians entering the United States numbered something over a thousand annually from l$$k t i l l i860; the immigration f e U off during the Civil War but in 1866 reached 1*382* Beginning in 1869 the number of Italians arriving in the United S&fttes was as followsz 1869 - 1,1*89 1879 - 5,791 1889 - 25,307 1870 - 2,891 1880 - 12,35k 1890 - 52,003 1871 - 2*856 1881 - I5,li01 1891 - 76,055 1872 - 1*,190 1882 - 32,159 1892 - 61,631 1873 «•> 3,811 1883 - 31,792 1893 - 72,11*5 1871* - 2,1*1*1* 1881* - 16,530 1891* - 1*2,977 1875 «•> 3,631 1885 - 13,61*2 1895 - 35,1*27 1876 - 3,015 1886 - 21,315 1896 - 68,060 1877 - 3,195 1887 - 1*7,672 1897 - 59,1*31 1878 k,3hk 1888 - 51,558 1898 - 58,613 The pertinent immigration statistics for the period beginnifag in 1899 are set forth in Section 81 • ^ } a distinction is f i r s t necessary. •3 Horth Italy furnished most of the Italians to Kansas and farther data will separate Horth from South* The distinction between Italians from the Horth and from the South is important because (1) the groups of dialects in the two areas are quite different, (2) the conditions bringing abeu^ emifera- tion from Italy were not identical, (3) hostility between the two stocks both in Italy and in the United States was common, and (U) South Italians, more frequently than Horth Italians have been subject to segregative tendencies in the United States and this in turn has affected Engl-iming* A number of quotations will serve to bring out opinions on this distinction* In 1909 the British authors, King and Okey* spoke of ^ Ihe contrast be­ tween the industrial, progressive, democratic Horth and the agricultural* stagnant* feudal South, w&sre *•* illiterates are nearly thrice as many* where there are three or more times as many murders and violent assaults*** [where] the wealth per head is only half as great* (KO-lll). This opinion is expressed uncharitably, even unfairly* but with somewhat different em­ phases i t has been repeated many times before and since* (For attenuations of King and Okey's judgment see f9, Ilk* l!3u) And Italians can be at least as severe j Ferreri, in 1907* said of the Southfchat ^ modern times are a ayth there* and progress and civilization are yet to come like the Messiah to the Hebrews0 (Fr5l). Concerning the hostility in the United States the 1909 Investigators inter alia comment on ^different races and nationalities* some of which may be more or less hostile to each other* such as the North and South Italians" 09* 332)* Foerster comments that "the Horth Italians repudiated kinship with the Heapolitaas and Calabrians11 (FI 325)• Fisani, who does not reveal the origins of his own family, repudiates this division: "The remark was often heard that whatever faults the speaker might attribute to Italians in general, the Horth Italians* who fwere a l l right, 1 were exempted* Some Horth Italians*•* themselves sometimes made the distinction 1 1 (Pi, 116)* In 196k Olaaer and Moynihan s t i l l felt i t necessary in dealing with the Italians of Hew York City to devote a page to the distinction between Horth and South Italians and to speak of "the disdain of the northern and Central Italians and the Southern gentry for the South Italian and Sicilian peasant* South Italians wile considered inferior, hardly civilised •» (*7# were also above i t * The proportion of the absent who were abroad was below the average, 5>8*5%, in aU the North but Venetia where i t was 69%} in the South i t was above the average, more than in Venetia except for Apulia, as high as 78*2$ in Sicily* Two-thirds of those abroad from the South were in the United States, h or $% in Europe* 83$ of the citizens of Venetia abroad were i n Europe, two- thirds of those from Piedmont and Lombardy, three-fifths of those from Umbria* Llguria had Uh% of the absent abroad in Europe, large numbers were in the United States (A 317-19)• #7 The linguistic situation in Italy affected not the amount of emigration but the behavior of emigrants* Italian dialects differ a great deal from each other, no more than Low German from High German dialects, nor French from Provencal, nor Castilian from Catalan, but more perhaps than the Scan­ dinavian languages from each other or than Slovenian from Serbo-Croatian* The dialects do not have the same importance as the Slavic and Scandinavian examples because only one cultural language developed from a l l the dialects of Italy, but they have much more importance than the dialects in France and Germany because in Italy at least into the twentieth century dialect remained the accepted manner of exchanging oral ideas and the written language counted for less where so many were illiterate** On this matter Luigi T i l l a r i * See inter alia KO 203• Hall in 191*8 pointed out as a recent phenome­ non that ^through universal education, the use and control of standard Ital­ ian has passed from the few to the many11 (Ha 239 )• writing for a British audience in 1902 is quoted by other Italians without dissent during the first quarter of the twentieth century: "Every one in Italy speaks dialect* Each region has its own vernacu­ lar, and so marked is the difference between, say, Piedmontese and Neapoli­ tan, that even a foreigner will notice i t * . * , fhe different dialects are spoken not only by the common people, but by the bourgeoisie and the aris­ tocracy. Even the late King and his father were wont to use the Piedmontese vernacular when speaking to people of that province*..* At Florence, Lucca, and at Siena, particularly at the latter place, the language i s fairly pure but even [there one finds] local inflections and locutions* Among the upper classes in Tuscany pure Italian is generally spoken* In the rest of Italy i t is used as a written tongue, and i s spoken i n the company of foreigners or of Italians ftom different provinces*..* A North Italian and a South Italian will understand each other, because each will Wy to use as many purely Italian words as he can, but a Northerner will not understand two Sicilians who are talking by themselves* (V Hi, see also Gh 21)* Carr went a t r i f l e farther in 1906 maintaining that "an ignorant Valtellinese, from the mountains of the North, and an ignorant Neapolitan have as yet no means of understanding each other" (CO 1*19)• These authors draw their examples of mutual incomprehensibility from the extreme North and the extreme South, but Carr also points out that "the speech of the unschooled peasant of Genoa is unintelligible to his fellow in Piedmont, who lives less than 100 miles away.11 No where else in Italy are contrasts within a few miles quite so great, and few, even in the 19th century, were tjie Italians unable to muster up enough words of standard Italian to communicate with some one who came f*em a distance, but the effort required was considerable and unwelcome** # Sartorio declares that the dialects "stand in the way of the national unity of the race® (Sa 1*0). Rose states that "villages within sight of one another vary widely in language and customs" (RO 39). Miss Williams (¥10) gives examples to illustrate her discussion of the great dialectal differ­ ences. Radin (R 2) insists on the dialectal gap between social gradients (see also Si 10), but the privileged classes were fond of dialect — see the V i l l a r i quotation above. Vaughan is describing the attitude of this "upper crust" when he says in 1926 "Italian is a formal language. It is learned from textbooks and is for polite discourse with strangers and for literature possessing some dignity. In the heart of the family and between the clo­ sest friends the more familiar and spontaneous dialect i s the natural medium of expression." (7a 1*3) • On the other hand Ignazio Silone, though, like Radin, he says that his people of Pontamara in the Abruzzi do not understand the speech of the men firom the cities, makes his protagonist declare, "In the Argentine**. I talked to peasants of a l l races from Spaniards to Indians and we understood one another" (Si 22). The Pontamaran spoke truths basic Romance is similar enough along the rim of the Mediterranean to permit such interchanges* at least when the objects discussed are lying before one* Italians and South Italians were therefore very nearly two linguistic enti­ ties* and* particularly in the South* the speech characteristics of some one from another village* near or far* marked him at once as a forestiere, a foreigner, a person not to be trusted. When people with such notions emi­ grated, the effect on their speech development as on a l l their social l i f e was great* 81*8 The political events in Italy during the nineteenth century favored the North rather than the South* The Risorgimento which ended with the unifica­ tion of Italy had its origins and the seat of almost a l l its effective ef­ forts in the North. The most notable exception was Garibaldis campaign of i860j Garibaldi came by sea to Sicily from Genoa. The North was continually stimulated to exhibitions of initiative, and its citizens were of a mind to take action whenever any type of dconditions was unsatisfactory* In the South the Kingdom of Naples forbade emigration, and while the rule of the Bourbons was, though tyrannical, so weak that i t could not have halted a determined exodus, the Southerners did not seek to depart for other lands to escape misery that was to them a matter of course* The beginnings of emi­ gration there came only after the unification of Italy* Evidence in this respect is furnished by the U.S. Immigration records which, until 1867, dis­ tinguished immigrants from Sicily firom those from continental Italy. Be- tween 1351 and i860 only 1*69 Sicilians came to the United States whereas there were nearly 10,000 from a l l Italy* Arias states in 1919 that Southern emi­ gration began first in the mountainous area of Basilicata "about i860 and has gradually become more marked since that year" (A 225)* In the north rest­ lessness of a group more highly evolved economically tinder much less evil conditions (Ro 26) began earlier, and resulted in emigration* In 181*5, 20,000 left Genoa mainly for Argentina (Fe 812)* Txi 1859 the figure was 5,000 and a comparable number left Genoa for the next several years* Lin­ guistically the effect of unification upon Italy was to give more presfeige to standard Italian* The written word was more important in the North than in the South and consequently there was greater familiarity with standard speech, though dialects had not been abandoned by the masses* In the South the use of the language with prestige seemed as distant to the contadini as other things aristocratic* Bi-lingualism was only beginning to be forced upon them hy political forces* The unification of Italy made the North more prosperous and the South less so* The new government laid on heavier taxes than the old (A 209, FI 89, f f * , Pi 1*7, KD 2X3)$ and by improving transport brought the goods of the South into ruinous competition with those transported from the North (A 226)* Dickinson in 1955 explained ad­ ditional factors hurting the south* "Between i860 and 1900 the unification of Italy dealt a severe blow to the South f i r s t , as a result of the aboli­ tion of eustoms barriers, which by permitting the import of foreign goods c caused a decline of industry in the Southj second, by the adoption of a pro­ tectionist system between 1883 and 1888 to defend the industries of the North that had a r i s e n d u r i n g the twenty-five years of f r e e trade. Between 1900 and 1 9 3 8 t h i s d i s e q u i l i b r i u m i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n of indus­ t r y between the North and the South s t e a d i l y increased and the cumu­ l a t i v e f a c t o r s t hat -7#f- favored growth ill the North exacerbated the depressed conditions in the South" (Di 10y see also KO 113)« Later governments came to feel that a "depressed South" was injurious to the economy of aU Italy, but even the determined effort of the 1950*s to aid the South, while i t resulted in amelioration, did not make the South advance as rapidly as the North was advancing at the same time so that in the 1960's the economic gap wqs s t i l l greater between them than i t had been in former years* 81.9 The economic situation in Italy has long been dominated by the "disequi­ librium between the capacities for production and consumption of the popula­ tion and the means at i t s disposition either to occupy its whole potentiality of available labor on the one hand or on the other to satisfy its needs" (T 398)# Economic considerations, whether the result of political develop­ ments or more inherent conditions provided the principal push for Italian emigration and also almost the sole pull from abroad The response by * Falorsi fs lyrical summary of the elements of the pull reflects the prospective emigrants own feelings? nAmerica: — a sonorous word from a distant land, a hystericus country where there was work for everyone and where wages were paid in multiples [of the pay current in ItalyJ according to the most recent information, the country ftcm which in a short time f e l ­ low townsmen had sent home sums sufficient to pay off the old debt that weighed upon the ancestral cottage, a vast country where pay was in dollars." (Fa 23k)# See also L 176* emigrants to economic conditions in both Italian departures and returns was more immediate and more radical than with most emigrating stocks. The -765- ( effect on returns i s to be explained by the common expectation, at least in the South, of coming home to enjoy the money earned. The linguistic result of this phenomenon was conservative. Why learn a foreign language while you are abroad i f you were to be gone only briefly? If bettered conditions abroad led to another departure, the old habits of speech had been made f i r ­ mer by the second immersion in early environment. 82.0 Economically, though the Horth of Italy is the more prosperous half of the country, the areas which have furnished most of the emigrants to Kansas have been less prosperous and in the second half of the twentieth century are recognized as "depressed." "Almost a l l mountainous areas pre­ sent conditions which have posed a 'mountain problem,1 a problem concerning an area economically and socially depressed with the symptom which has seemed most significant: depopulation. So there has been passed a law for 'la montagna,* fixing vast sectors for its application in the Alps as wel! as in the Appentnes" (T 1*07) • Conditions in these parts of the North of Italy were moreover subject to a number of shocks in the latter part of the nine­ teenth century that upset the serenity of l i f e of the peasants and the trades­ men and handicraft workers of the villages. One area of disturbance was in the silk industry. In the middle of the century peasants in the Po valipy and sub-Alpine region very commonly supplemented their income from crops by raising silkwortes and also by doing a part of the spinning. The Franco-Prus­ sian War caused such a depression in the markets for this industry that small manufacturers in the villages were often ruined, and the peasants had no outlet. When the industry regained some prosperity, household silk spin­ ning was not resumed (ML 193)5 the factories, which were the sturdier units surviving the bad years, took over the whole operation* These not infre­ quently continued to be in villages (FI 125). At nearly the same period silkworm disease and a mulberry tree bligh£ almost completely ruined pro­ duction for some time* There was no income because there were few cocoons and at the end of the century prices were down* In much of Lombardy vine­ yards were important* About the middle of the centuryeMdium or powdery mildew attacked the vines; the results were ruinous, and recovery was not complete when phylloxera appeared* The general European depression in grain prices beginning in the 1870's also played i t s part (L 77)• la the last decades of the nineteenth century the farmer in Lombardy and other sub-Alpine areas, though he lived tolerably, was constantly in debt and the victim of taxation and poor markets* There were several classes of these agriculturalists, from day laborers to small proprietors, but the tendency in this period was to sink in the scale. Fragmentation of farms through too many heirs cut down the small proprietors, usurious money len­ ders preyed upon the lowest classes** The push to leave the farms was don- # Foerster's chapter on North Italy (pp* 106-126) emphasizes fragmen­ tation and the absenteeism of landlords as the worst evils* The Countess EveJyn Martinengo Gesaresco in her Lombard Studies, 1902, has a chapter on "Lombard Agriculture" which shows experienced, accurate, and sympathetic observation, expressed as one aristocrat writing for others of her class. For example "It is s t i l l true that the mezzajuolo (share-cropper} i s con­ stantly in the master's debt, but this is a less ruinous state of things for him than to be in the debt of the usurer, as happens with peasant pro- prietors* (ML 239). I stant and not fully taken care of by industrial growth, hence emigration. The push in the villages was great; there a baker*s earnings were such as to make the pay of a track laborer in the United States seem princely, even in terms of buying power* The situation in a l l the sub-Alpine region and in Umbria was quite similar* People lived passably, but insecurely* 82*10 The economic situation in the South of Italy was much worse and re­ mained bad much longer** Rain seldom falls during the summer i n South r—• ~ * Various ccamentators are in essential agreement for the description that follows* The citations are but examples* For a short general treat­ ment see Pi 1*5-1*7 • L_ Italy* The growing season is therefore quite unreliable* Aridity has been aggravated by deforestation (FI 53)$ and the felling of trees occurred as a frantic effort to extract income from the land* The rains of winter flood land and leave pools* Malaria flourishes (FI 60)* Mo efforts were made to alleviate the South1 s unhappy state until the twentieth century and until after the Second World War they were not too well planned or were poorly executed** The handicrafts that had been as advanced in the South as in the I "—' ' ' *The efforts after the Second World War have been greater, better or- ^ ganized and more successful (See T 1*02 ff) but not successful enough. Horth withered as factory-made goods came in (Di U*), agriculture continued on the downward path that i t had for seme time been following. Deforestation became almost complete in the efforts of landowners to extract income from their holdings* There was much worn-out land that was no longer being t i l l e d . One-third of Calabria says Arias in 1919, was "uncultivated and abandoned" (A 238)* On the other hand wherever there were two or three square rods of land with ground that might yield a crop despite surrounding wastes i t was rented and efforts expended upon i t were disproportionate to any possible yield because of bad weather and bad methods (A 25, Bi 31)* The tillage was ineffective partly because of primitive methods (Di 31) • There were various systems of land holdings from great estates to i n f i n i ­ tesimal plots (A 25)* Both produced unhappy results because of absentee landowners and misdirected efforts. The agricultural workers were distrib­ uted through as complicated a hierarchy as in the North. •11 Agglomeration into very large villages (10 or 12 thousand, even 50,000 inhabitants) was not uncommon even where the couhtry would not sup­ port such large groups. Foerster explains this mode of living as an effort to avoid malaria (FI 61). Arias asserts and others would agree, that in the census data on agglomeration "the differences between the South and the North have come out less than the actual ones" (A 310), but the published < statistics are s t i l l interesting. Coefficient of Agglomeration in Italy in 1911 Kingdom (including great cities) 71*5 The South Abruzzi e Holise 72.2 Campania (includes Naples) 83*7 Apulia 91,9 Basilicata 89.2 Calabria 82.5 Sicily (includes Palermo) 88*? The North Liguria (includes Genoa) 79#0 Lombard (includes Milan) 76.9 Piedmont (includes Turin) 71*8 (A 309) The boot bottom without large cities was made up of three highly agglom­ erated compartimenti, Apulia the most highly in the Kingdom. This was the more lamentable as " a l l areas of the interior have degrees of rurality that range from 70 to 80$w (Di 13)* The linguistic effect of this phenomenon was to make mare definite the dialectal differences between one agglomeration and the next* When immigrants of any origin find themselves mingled with people from various other localities, sharp differences tend to make even the immigrants themselves abandon the imported language for a lingua franca. This effect was put off until the second generation in the case of the Ital­ ians because one of the characteristics of South Italian immigrants in the United States was their tenieney to keep groups from any one region and even village together* The economic effect of agglomeration before emigration was to cut down time spent laboring in the fields because of the long dis­ tances to them (see Bi 22). If yield was not reduced thereby, i t was only because laborers were superabundant. •12 In 1936, says Dickinson, employment in the South absorbed only about 1/3 of the labor time available (Di 80). To be sure once emigration was well under way the landlords cried that there were not enough laborers, but always added "at a reasonable wage." What they considered *high wages" did not allow high living* Conditions were worse earlier* Since farm labor is necessarily in large part seasonal* the push to develop industries or handicrafts as additional sources of income would naturally be great* but the urge had no results, probably because there were no sales outlets* Gen­ eral poverty prevented these people from consuming locally produced goods* There was then much idleness in the villages among agricultural workers (Di 23), much "busy work" by others, for the South Italian is industrious given half a chance* Town l i f e was mostly in the open air* In 1912 Russo wrote about his compatriots for the French* "In one of these towns*.. (the streets) seem rather places for work and social gathering* In front of almost every door women are busy with their various household tasks, children often bare­ footed and half-naked play among them; shoemakers, tailors, locksmiths, etc*, work in the open air rather than in their i l l - l i t houses, and on the public squards, especially toward evening, groups of peasants, workmen, day laborers of a l l kinds gather who talk together as they wait for offers of employment" (Ru 129)• Similar but less sympathetic descriptions were given by the con­ suls to Naples and Palermo (EI 280,289). [For EI see German Bibliography*"} •13 In 1913 the wages for common labor near Bari just above the boot heel "from the f i r s t of March through September for work from dawn t i l l noon with half an hour off, more than 2 l i r e (i*0 cents) were given % even one-half or three-fourths of a l i r a more" (A 381*). In the winter seven hou»s of labor were worth a total of 37 cents* Wages were up 50$ over 1908* In Calabria in 1906 they were up from $0% to 100$ over 1901. The range in 1906 was from -771- 2 l i r e to 2 3A l i r e (A 375 )• In Basilicata about 1918 migrants from the mountains spent October to April in seaside fields* Counting a l l side bene­ fi t s a man earned a l i r a a day* a woman three-fifth as much* In Sicily wages ran from 1*60 l i r e to 1*70 l i r e (32 to 3i* cents) a day t i l l the war broke out* Money lenders were worse than in the North; they mighjs take two- thirds of a crop (A 128). Giovanni ?ergafs great novel* La Casa del Nespolo (Under the Medlar Tree)* relates the ruin of a humble Sicilian family by a usurer* 82S1U Because income was so small* undernourishment and the habit of light eating existed. Many were unable to work hard for long hours because not well enough fed* Therefore* in America occupations which attracted these South Italians who had to transfer out of agriculture* were not usually those where a man had to drive himself* as was true in the underground work in coal mines in Kansas — or elsewhere in the United States* The relatively small number who did become deep pit miners were rated low as workers by the mine owners* But though lowly in the United States the emigrants were rich men back home* Their remittances were an important contribution to the economy (A 1*03 inter alia)** Naturally economic accidents played a role in Southern emigration* * It is difficult to say how much the remittances advanced the Italian economy. Part of them were used to pay the passage for s t i l l more emigrants (Ru 185)• not always in Italian bottoms* For instance* 1871-1901 "was the era of high vine prices when vineyards were greatly extended**.* The erection of the French tariff on wines (1888) f o l ­ lowed by the spread of phylloxera after 1900* played havoc with the vine- -772- yards, and stimulated the main stream of emigration (1900-1911*.)11 (Di 16)* 82*2 Certain social characteristics of the South Italians greatly affected their fate in the United States* One was their tendency to distrust any one beyond their village (Sh 1*82) and the corollary tendency to put fai^h in those who came from their village or in receding degrees from their pro­ vince, the South, or from Italy (A 1*95, Sh 482, GM 195)* This confidence was often misplaced so that exploitation was common* More importantly from theiMnguistic point of view i t meant dependence upon agents of their own background with whom they could deal without shift of language* Other stocks sloughed off such dependence more rapidly in America* It promoted segrega­ tion here, linguistically a conservative force* Associated with this dis­ trust of strangers and also tending to promote segregation in America was distrust of the law which led to refusal to testify in criminal cases and to the transportation to America of such institutions as the Neapolitan Camarra and the Sicilian Mafia (KO 117 f f ) * Unorganized crimes of passion wei?e also thus promoted* As Arias says, "the tendency to passionate homicide is unde­ niable in our Southern population, and this is one of the major avowed causes of its discredit in the United States and elsewhere" (A 1*92 )• The distrust of the law was partly justified, even largely in the days before unification* The Protestant minister Sartorio from Milan palliates the tendency* "The state of political administration which existed in Italy, and especially in i t s Southern part, only a short time ago, practically com­ pelled a man to take the law into his own hands in order to safeguard his interests, his family and his l i f e . * . . When an Italian k i l l s a man, ... i t may be only a keen sense of honor wrongly applied that prompted him ..* to defend his wife fs or daughter's honor or to punish a man who had wronged a kinsman" (Sa 2i*)* The family was strong, in the North as well as in the South, but especially in the South, not only the immediate family but the larger group including god-parents (Pi 53* W 73), a characteristic allied to the confidence in paesani discussed above, and likewise, by cutting down the time spent outside the family, a deterrent to linguistic change* Women, especially in Sicily, were seldom free of family surveillance; a g i r l from. puberty t i l l marriage was almost constantly with her mother; her mother passed on traditions; she received no other education (Fr 56)# Marriages were arranged and exogamy was almost non-existent* New linguistic experi­ ence was most difficult for women* •3 Catholicity in Itfrly has known no real competitor, but religion both in the South and the North has been unpopular (see particularly Fr Hi*), and also has been regarded as rather the special province of the women (Pi 167)• There are also many indifferent (Sa 83, Ro 1*3)* Furthermore the Catholic Church arouses many animosities in Italy* To most people "re­ ligion, confounded with ecclesiasticism, is odious" (Ro 1*2)* Nobody ques­ tions the spiritual authority of the church* A l l participate at least as spectators in its feste (Pi 53), but as a political force, i t i s disliked (Pi 169)* Its economic demands are considered excessive, and its priests are regarded with suspicion* When, as not uncommonly happens in Central and Southern Italy, a pastor achieves respect from others than the most devout, i t is because of his personal qualities or his local family con­ nections and not because of his profession except at baptisings, weddings, funerals, and when acting as master of ceremonies at feste* Perhaps -774- because of thise considerations vocations to the priesthood were not so numerous as to provide an overflow of good priests from Italy to serve emigrants* At first* those who were sent abroad were often rejects, guilty of misconduct at home* The practice did not persist, and priestly emigra­ tion became smaller* The low status of priests was at once the result and the cause of difficulties in recruiting proper personnel. Sartorio in 1918 quotes Father BartoH as saying, "Ninety-eight per cent of the theological students come from the mountains or poor mountainous districts," and he quotes Luigi V i l l a r i farther, "The average priest knows l i t t l e beyond read­ ing and writing and he is often shaky at that." Sartorio speaking in his own righ;fc says, "The Italian government does not recognize as sufficient for college entrance the diploma of graduation which the seminaries grant to young men as an indication of their possessing sufficient education for ordination to the priesthood.... The half-educated type of priest, often of low morals and of greedy disposition, is not Uncommon" (Sa 83-85)» A* Robertson maintained that priests were in polite society unacceptable in North Italyj his hostess told him, "Nobody receives a priest*... It would be considered not only unpatriotic but immoral... the army stands in this respect far above the church" (Sa 86). Discrimination evidently had political roots. In much of Italy this political situation is perpetuated at a lesser social level in the twentieth century by the eternal feud in every village and city between the church and the communists. Great masses of people insist upon Christian baptism, weddings, and burial, and vote communist. The position of the priest in the South was better, but he was one of the people* There, say King and Okey "the average priest i s pious, kind, hard working, often the friend and comforter of his people, but he is ignorant and superstitious" (KO $k$ see also 31). "The local priest was usually related to one of the Tillage families.,.. The priest's rela­ tives aided in making his charge profitable and i n adding to his reputation as a faithful shepherd" (W U4I, see also 128)* The priest 1 s family had usually made sacrifices to put him where he was. His status was not high in general, but i t was high among peasants, and families worked hard to put a boy of theirs among the elect (W 128, quoting Collins). "Given a fairly intelligent boy, the money expended on educating him to become a priest is regarded as an investment... forty pounds... and numerous per­ quisites... the honor and glory of having a son who says mass... gives a social l i f t to his family.... However,... the profession has lost some­ thing of its popularity" concluded Bagot in 1912 (Ba 63). Families were then aiming at government positions for their son or mtkma&ing a profes­ sional man of him. Priests in America, who were generally without a back­ ground of influence founded on close cultural or blood relationship to pa­ rishioners were to have difficulty in establishing rapport with their people. Religion in the South retained seme degree of influence because of local patriotism. The village saint and his miracles were the citizens 9 possession. He brought people to town; personal interest meant he must be protected (Ro !*£). mkS The North of Italy has educationally as well as economically steadily been more fortunate than the South (see inter alia Fr 119). In the South more time had to be devoted to teaching the standard language (KO 239), and schooling was not compulsory t i l l after unification. Illiteracy among army recruits in 1868 was much higher in the South than in the North* The gene­ ral average for the nation was 64.27$. Sample provincial rates were: North Turin Bergamo Brescia Genoa 26.18$ 33.13$ 41.18$ 54.61$ South Upper Calabria 82.16$ Basilicata 82.23$ Trapani 83.58$ (in Sicily) By 1901 the national average had fallen to 1*8.5$ (Ru 137) and in 1911 i t had been reduced to 37.6$, but in southern provinces i t s t i l l averaged between 60 and 70$ (Ro 31)• The decrease in illiteracy favored rather than hindered emigration, by showing the educated why they should be discontented (Ru 181). Evidence from the United States is of the same nature. The Immigration Com­ missioner reported as follows: Over 14 Years of Age Admitted Cannot Read and Write Hale Female Total Male Female Total $ of Total North Italians 13,540 3,776 South Italians 63,684 20,662 1909 North Italians 18,844 6,306 South Italians 135,080 30,168 17,316 84,346 25,150 165,248 1,489 1,804 10.4$ 39,150 46.6$ 419 i,908 7.5$ 71,240 14,016 85,256 51.6$ 1911* North Italians 6,222 1,392 7,6lU 268 51 319 iu2* South Italians 16,81,6 2,989 19,835 6,1*2$ 1,092 7,517 37*9$ The 1909 investigators reporting on 6,$8Jb North Italian employees in the soft coal industry found that 12.2$ could neither read nor writes of 1*,197 South Italian employees 3k*3% were in the same condition. In the homes these were the results for the Kansas-Oklahoma coal fields: No. Reporting % Cannot Read or Write Male Female Total Male Female Total North Italians 180 100 280 13*3$ 23#0$ 16#8# South Italians 59 39 98 2%M 1*8.7$ 36.7% In the homes of coal miners over the country among the males 13*3% of the North Italians could not read and 1*2.8$ of the South Italians $ among fe­ males, North 26.1$, South 50$. Observers disputed as to whether illiteracy was a cause of emigration or whether increasing literacy was not rather a cause (Ru 181). At any rate European observers recognized this weakness as a great disadvantage to the emigrants, ^handicapped in the fierce com­ petition by his poverty and illiteracy, 1 1 say the Englishmen King and Okey (p. 3lh) in 1909• The Italian Arias a decade later declared that «It is truly Utopian to hope for the fraternal fusion of such disparate elements as our undesired Southern illiterates and the intelligent and educated American workmen11 (p. 1*94 see also CI 181*). Emigration did not improve the literacy situation in Italy. Opportunities to put children to work became -778- more numerous thereby and school neglected (A 1*56, Pi 57) • Emigrants wrote home on the need for education and thus had a contrary effect, which was, however, exerted later. The main force for reducing illiteracy was the national government which unlike the Bourbons undertook to educate the people. 82.50 Italians had their importance in American histoiy from the time of Colum­ bus on, but they werennot numerous enough before Kansas was opened in 1851* to create settlements that might harbor immigrants for further distribution. At a somewhat later period, tfAbout 1870..• they {the immigrants from Italy] were largely North Italians, i t would teem.... Some were grocers and keepers of barrooms and restaurants. Some were i n market gardening, especially about New Orleans, or in other branches of agriculture® (FI 321*). They did not establish farms in Kansas, but the group at Leavenworth occupied themselves with restaurants and kindred occupations. Such occupations developed later at Osage City and in the Pittsburg area. 82#51 The New Orleans and San Francisco areas furnish examples of closely related rural and urban settlements. Let us consider New Orleans. The shift away from the use of Italian there was rapid. For rural residents arriving before 1880 and for certain city dwellers the language sometimes became French (VSU 226), since in New Orleans and in its neighborhood French was the language of the elite and of those catering to them like the best restaurateurs. At worst French was only countrified, but to use Italian marked you as a foreigner and subject to a stigma to be obliterated as soon as possible. The Italians drove the French residents from the Vieux Carre, and the language of their children became English. It was sometimes of a peculiar character, but by 1961 i t was the language of the Italian element in districts which like those around Plaquemine and Houma were s t i l l in the process of abandoning French. At Plaquemine one-eighth of the names were Italian. The rural Italians in the San Francisco area have tended to be sooner Engl-ized completely than those in the city, partly to maintain pres­ tige when dealing with hired help. 82.52 During the years of heavy migration few Italians went to the country (Ch 33)• They had had their f i l l of agricultural slavery and those whom i l l luck took to cotton or sugar plantations felt that i t was continued (VSU 226). S t i l l in 1909 the Immigration Coiamission investigators for the Senate found some thirty colonies to study. Rural settlements of Italians in New Jersey, North Carolina, Texas and California are interesting, Cali­ fornia most of a U because of its grape growers; however, as an examples presenting conditions most nearly similar to what would have developed in and Hammonton, New Jersey, Kansas i f Italians had taken farms there, Genoa, ¥isconsin,^may serve. On the upper Mississippi, opposite the southeastern corner of Minnesota, North Italians founded Genoa, in 1862 (church, 1863$ *9R 390 confirms date for churchj fixes f i r s t arrivals at i860). They eventually became largely dairy farmers. Immigration continued until the First World War, though few arrived after 1890 (*9R 390). Some South Italians who had been r a i l ­ road workers close by joined those from the North, unwelcome though. Ger­ mans and ^English* Catholics joined the Italians, said Alexander Cance in 19U, and added, ^Except between North Italians and Sicilians there i s no race friction \j9R 1*03 eonfirms) .... The percentage of intermarriage i s high particularly with... Catholics.... Services... are conducted alter­ nately in Italian, German, and English11 (CP 785). wThe Italian contingent after the turn of the century was, in fact, less than half. By this time they had lost much of their Italian characteristics 1 1 (Pi 71, see also FI 366). As regards numbers the 1909 investigators are more specific} they recorded kk purely Italian families out of 207 in the township. The 1909 investigators were also impressed by the good relations between the North Italians and the other Catholics: «Even on'Italian Day1 (at church] there is a mixed congregation11 (f9R 1*03 )• They remained, however, anlisolated group, partly because except for the Germans, they became a l l the Catholics in the area. They felt the same forces as the Italians in Louisiana. As to their langaage the 1909 investigators noted that ^most of them speak good English11 (f9R liOl*), but added that "some Italians were refused second [naturalisation} papers by the court on the ground of failing to speak English fluently 1 1 as well as because of poor knowledge of the workings of American government* Their Irish pastor in 1951 said "Most don*t like to be referred to as Italians, 1 1 but their immigrant language was current enough so that after a year's residence he had become able to hear confes­ sions in Italian. This was, however, for the benefit of the old, two who k knew no English. The sons and daughters of immigrants, of whom there were many, were fluent in Italian, but used i t only with the old. Youngsters were ignorant of i t . The settlement at Hammonton, New Jersey, was an early Italian rural settlement that has attracted attention. Settlement, incipient in 1861, gained headway during $he 1870fsj new arrivals continued to be important during the rest of the century. Immigration was heaviest 1885-1895 • Ac­ cording to the 1909 investigators, there were in 1905 at Hammonton 11 some- t h i n g l i k e 2 , 0 0 0 I t a l i a n s o o f the f i r s t and second generation, "With the exception of Vineland, N.J., 111 we have here the l a r g e s t I t a l i a n a g r i ­ c u l t u r a l colony i n the United States" (*9R 9 5 ) . The study omitted C a l i ­ f o r n i a . The immigrants were mostly S i c i l i a n s .and Neapolitans, between xfhom there were h o s t i l i t i e s . Out of f a m i l i e s s t u d i e d , the 1 9 0 9 i n v e s ­ t i g a t o r s recorded that 31 were S i c i l i a n , 15 Neapolitan, one C a l a b r i a n ( * 9 9 9 ) ; 33 were d i r e c t from I t a l y . Race p r e j u d i c e e x i s t e d a t Hammonton. No n - I t a l i a n s scorned the immigrants; the surveys;-speak of d i r t , but p r a i s e progress. Mrs. Headers account based on data gathered i n 1 9 0 5 pays s l i g h t heed to language, but c e r t a i n inferences shoxf Pennsylvania^ ~ Allegheny, Westmoreland, Fayette, and Washington — the Italian miners of bituminous coal have been s t i l l more numerous" (Fi 350). He does not mention Mercer County somewhat to the north of the others, whence Italians f i r s t came to Kansas* Why they might wish to come appears from this passage by V i l l a r i , "The workers em­ ployed near Pittsburgh live in wooden shacks built expressly by the indus­ t r i a l and mining companies near which they work; here are reproduced the worst conditions of Pittsburgh slums, though the ground costs much less. Criminality in that Italian colony is high, a common characteristic likewise of a l l foreign colonies and indeed of the whole laboring population. Hard dangerous work makes men careless of their own and other people's lives.... The whole Pittsburgh zone swaras with saloons and brothels where workmen are robbed and contract diseases" (?SU 2 2 5 )What developed in Kansas * The observers from Italy as well as American slum workers were shocked by unsanitary conditions and resulting disease in the cities also (CI 92, Fr 8, VSU 238). was sometimes l i t t l e better* Kansas, however, attracted l i t t l e atten­ tion from Italian observers* V i l l a r i , writing in 1912 and Falorsi in 1921*, in listing Important Italian mining colonies f a i l to speak of those in Kan­ sas (VSU 231*, Fa 235) 5 yst the report of the 1909 Investigators shows the number was high compared with a l l states except Pennsylvania and Illinois. *6l The 1909 Investigators found that in other coal fields as well as in Kansas, North Italians were more numerous than South Italians* Some of the data from their four districts, Pennsylvania, the Middle Wist (Illinois, Ohio and Indiana), the Southwest (primarily Kansas and Oklahoma), and the South (primarily Alabama) follow. The employees giving information in a l l four districts numbered 88,368$* they were distributed as follows* Here * The general statistics furnished by the 1909 Investigators have been abstracted from the general section of «?, pp* 6 f f . absolute numbers are givenj see Section 1*9*32 for percentiles. Section 1*9*33 presents data on the ability to speak English found among Italian coal miners. Penna* Mid-West- Southwest South North Italians 3,379 1,716 1,169 1*02 South Italians 2,239 1*22 1*29 1,182 Total foreign-born 37,216 12,150 3,917 Total miners interviewed 1*9,137 18,737 7,036 13,458 la the "Southwest11 Kansana and Oklahomans each furnished about $0% of the informants. A l i t t l e more than four-fifths of both North and South Italians in the Pennsylvania coal fields had been in the United States less than ten yearsj about 3% had been in America more than twenty years. In the Middle West and Southwest i t is necessary to distinguish between North and South Italiansr Less than 10 Irs. in U.S. More than 20 Yrs* in U.S. Midwest Southwest Mid-West Southwest N. Italians 69*6% 7$.2% 7.2% S* Italians 83.5% 76*1% k.3% 5M 82*62g The tables in Section k9.33 show that there was no significant dif­ ference in the rate of acquiring English between North and South Italians* But, while the total number of North Italians was only about half again as great as that of South Italians, the number of North Italians who had been in the United States ten years or more was over twice as large, and there were over twice as many of these more experienced men versed in Eng­ lish to guide later comers* The fact that only 2/5 of the males in the South Italian households spoke English while 3/5 of the North Italian em­ ployees did, indicates either that South Italians in families as opposed to young men had arrived only recently or that the proportion of children between the ages of six and the earliest employable age were numerous among them and were not learning English because they were not being sent to school. Witnesses of the period affirm the latter (for example, f9 106; see also Fr 81.). The fact that North and South Italian employees (men) who had been in the United States 5 * 9 years showed approximately the same ability to speak English indicates that the former statement was also true* Wiile 79$ of the married North Italians in the coal fields had their families in America, this was true of only 63$ of the South Italians (*9-688 and 691)• The f i r s t stay of the South Italians in the United States was often quite short. Among the Illinois and Indiana miners, proportionately almost three and a half times as many South Italians as North Italians had already made visits home before they had been in America five years (21.8$ and 6*3$)• Repeatedly in describing conditions in specific places the Inves tigators heard assertions that the South Italians were "floating? that i s , came to the camp to take temporary work and then moved on* The 1909 Invest! gators of the "Southwest" commented thus: "A great number of the South Italians locating in the coal districts seem to come only with the idea of remaining a few years, and in that time expect to save enough money to re­ turn to Italy.. •. Single men or [those] who have families in Italy begin to send [money home} as soon as possible" ( f9 108)* Speaking specifically of Oklahoma the 1909 Investigators say: "The Italians coming [now] are mostly direct from Europe, while those [earlier] were from other states*... Many leave each year.... Prom information secured from steamship agents i t is estimated that [in] 1908 about 458 went to Italy; $0% returned... bringing their friends and families; ... 800 [arrived}, making a gain of 57511 ( f9 17)* In earlier paragraphs (81.5 and 81.9) we have seen that, from other occupations in the United States too, many South Italians re­ turned home. The tendency to seek out only tenderary status in the United States was obviously related to the expectation of early departure, and the linguistic effect was conservative. In the coal fields, in Kansas as well as elsewhere, the tendency to collect together according to onefs -791- village of origin did not have free play because of the rental policies ap­ plied in company housing. But campanilismo played its part. Contractors said that unless a l l laborers on an Italian gang were from the same Tillage they quarrelled frequently (W 34)* 82*70 In the coal fields of Illinois in 1899 there were 3,016 Italian minersj 1,253 iu the most northern district which included Lasalle County* In 1899 the counties of Illinois containing 50 or more Italian miners were: (*9-583) Grundy (61-134) 1,021 (southwest of Chicago some 50 miles) Lasalle (61-133) 161 (west of Chicago 60 to 80 miles) Vermilion (61-168) 102 (on Indiana line east of Springfield) Macoupin 50 (the second county above St. Louisj Staun­ ton and Mount Olive are in this county) Madison (60-100) 124 (the next county above St. Louis) Jackson (60-140) 128 (the fourth county below St. Louis) Williamson (60-141) 138 (just east of Jacksonj Marion, Herrin and Johnston are in this county) Immigration was then just getting well under way, much as in Kansas. The 1909 Investigators made remarks on several coal mining coiamuaities where Italians were important. Section 49*34 f f (see also #78*30) contains gen­ eral remarks on these communities. 82*71 The Investigators found that the North Italians in the Staunton area were "more generous and friendly" ( f9 596) to South Italians than usual. Later the South Italians remained limited in number, but the observation continued to be justified. There were marriages between North and South Italians. The Reverend Ralph Guido, who came in 1941 to be the pastor at - 7 9 2 - Benld (see also #78.30), was of Calabrian extraction born in Chicago. He found that the Italian section of his parish (15$)was Piedmontese, but he learned their dialect and was welcome. By 1961 there were only a few old ladies left who confessed to him in Italian; they had never learned English. In Staunton, where Germans were very numerous (in Benld they were few), intermarriage between them and the Italians began. In 1961 there were s t i l l old immigrants at Staunton unable to speak English, though they understood i t ; the second generation, unless they were in close contact with the old people were not active speakers of Italian, although they s t i l l understood i t . There were few children in the whole district, none proficient in Italian. 82.72g In the southern field at Marion, the South Italian center, the 1909 Investigators noted "about 35 persons including eight or ten men and seven families from Basilicata, who are unwilling to be classed as South Italians" ( f9-602). South Italians at Johnston City, six miles to the north of Marion were somewhat more numerous than men from the North of Italy (135*120), but the Southerners were "floating." Herrin, where South Italians were segre­ gated, held men principally from Piedmont and Lombardy. By 1952 there were intermarriages with other stocks, notably Lithuanians. There were industrial establishments in Herrin so that young people had not moved away as fre­ quently as elsewhere, though many of them left during the troubles of 1933* The Italians in Herrin and elsewhere had frequently entered small business. Engl-izing was generally far advanced but not uniform* Some immigrants, rather old when they had arrived, had never learned English so that their children and even their grandchildren were proficient in Italian, but many, young when they immigrated, had long ago installed English as the language of the home, and then even the second generation was often ignorant of Italian. The situation at Christopher, some ten miles to the north, was similar. The Italians, because of business interests, had remained in the area more persistently than the Poles. As long as the Poles had been numerous, the Catholic Church was theirs, but when they departed the Ital­ ians began to attend, even though the priests remained Polish until the 1950fs and then a Czecho-Slovak took over. Intermarriage began as early as the 1930fs and Engl-izing was far advanced. The situation here described was typical of other Catholic churches in the neighborhood, notably at Herrin and West Franklin. 82*8 Italians in industry in the United States were generally subject to padrone system.* In coal mining padroni were not so important as else- t * The padrone system is briefly described by the Industrial Commission (ID 1*30 ff.) in 1902, and by Glazer and Moynihan (GM 190), in 1964* V i l l a r i castigates i t unsparingly (VSU 233)* Falorsi is almost as severe (Fa 87,90); both report the evil was not as great by the time in which they wrote (1902* and 1921* )• Glazer and Moynihan quote Fenton as estimating that in 1897, "two-thirds of the Italian labor in New York was controlled by padroni" (190). Description of the system is basic to Sheridan*s bulletin (Sh)j Sheridan like others deplores the institution, but presents its more favor­ able aspects on p. 1*83• In Chicago in 1897 twenty-two per cent of the Ital­ ians questioned worked for a padrone. "The average amount paid per week to padrones for the last job at which 341 persons worked... was 42 cents each" (p. 726). The average weekly earnings of eac^2^flj. Italian males was $6*41 (as against $10*90 for most inhabitants of Chicago slums) (BL 703-4)• The commission paid by the employee was then 6 1/2$. The padrone also received a commission from the employer, and ran commissaries where his clientele bought a l l their goods. Prices in such commissaries were from $0% to 100$ higher than elsewhere (table of prices, BL 726-27)• Foerster holds that such exploitation had not its like among Scandinavians, Germans, and Irish (FI 390). The eventual result came to be that Italians distrusted fellow countrymen as much as anyone else (W 13)• where; indeed the 1909 Investigators do not mention them by name, but the inferences are that the South Italians were more or less under their domi­ nation, and the Northerners were linked to a kindred institution, since they were reported as under the guidance of a very few leaders of their own "race." Americans in their comments on padroni regularly use that word. The Italians did not always distinguish them from the prominent! "big shots" and banchisti "bankers," and particularly from the caporali. Ultimately they preferred boss, but these bosses were not foremen (except incidentally), but rather middlemen and agents usually with tyrannical power. They and the bankers* with whom they cooperated were usually Italians who had been in * Pecorini describes well what was meant by a banker. "The banker re­ ceives the mail of his clients who are usually from the same village as himself. He writes their letters, sends their money, sells them steamship and railway tickets, acts as notary public; he goes with them to the Italian consulate... he is in fact, the adviser of the ignorant Italian in a l l his business affairs. Quite a number of these bankers have absconded with the money of their patrons and the marvel i s . , , that so many of the bankers are honest*.• (though) a victimized Italian, more particularly i f he is from the South, is likely to take the law into his own hands11 (Pe 18 ) # V i l l a r i f s description is quite similar, but much less favorable (YSU kk$245 ff)« In 1911 most of these men were s t i l l "primarily steamship agents and notaries public" but they had already founded several important financial institutions. The outgrowth on the west coast is best known. America long enough to learn English. Because they were compatriots, pae- sani, the immigrants confided themselves to themi The bankers would receive proposals from American capitalists in need of manpower* He would then pass the word on to a padrone who enlisted a gang of men, usually from his own village, to do the work, stayed with them, acted as their interpreter and business agent, and charged them large commissions (FI 326). They were often accused of bringing about job separations so as to collect another com­ mission (FI 361). The system persisted doubtless because so many South Italians were temporary residents, speaking no English, and in need of help in handling their affairs (?SU 245)I linguistically i t aggravated the d i f f i ­ culties of acquiring English since the gang laborers had small, contact with Americans. "In a l l cases the railroad and contracting companies are required to provide separately for the Italian laborers" (SH 462). It also led Italians into situations which they did not understand. They became strike breakers sometimes without knowing i t — in the coal fields among other places — and the general detestation of other workers for scabs made more absolute the segregation to which South Italians were subject — thus had a conservative effect linguistically. The long-abun cure for potential scab- bing is to drive away forever the strike-breaking element (FI kOi*, note 3, also 1*02) or to unionize i t * In the coal fields Negroes received the f i r s t treatment rather generally in Illinois and Kansas and to a lesser extent South Italians, a phenomenon* which probably explains the limited numbers of the latter in coal fields west of the Alleghenies better than their distaste for mining. This method was the easier because employers often held South Italians in low regard (FI 362, 370, 1*02)* Unionization was also employed though not with ready success* Glazer and Moynihan (GM 3k0) quote Fenton in his unpublished dissertation (p. 30): "They were village-minded, fatal­ i s t i c , and self-reliant, three qualities which made them poor labor union members," and elsewhere Glazer and Moynihan say, "Italian girls scabbed in the great strike of the waist-makers in 1909-10. It took careful work by the International Ladies Garment Workers1 Union... to develop powerful Ital­ ian locals within that union" (GM 191)• The "careful work" bore results elsewhere."Strikes in which Italians participated became increasingly nu­ merous in the pre-war years, and during the war years*... Italians have taken an aggressive part in them," says Rose in 1922* A Chicago social worker told him that practically a l l Italian labor was unionized (Ro 83)* Earlier, Foerster (FI IjOl*) quotes the Immigration Commission, our 1909 Investigators, as reporting 10$ of the South Italians unionized, 1*0$ of the North Italians. In the western coal fields, however, the Italians, probably because mostly from the North, accepted unionization — apathetically (*9 - 67). •9 The Catholic church in America harbors almost a l l the Italians. The vigorous efforts of the Protestants at proselytizing among them have yielded -797- only minor successes.* To be sure, these successes have led to rapid Engl- * See Fa ll£, Pi 169. Rose, a Protestant minister with an Italian wife, cites as Protestant rural centers for the Italians seven locations, indluding Valdese, N. Car., (the Waldensian center, see next note) and Monett, Mo., 40 miles east of the southeast corner of Kansas. izing. Young Protestants did not find themselves happy among other Italians. "The new generation will grow up in the colony, but when its members have reached a marriageable age, they will almost invariably move into an Ameri­ can quarter...• The Italian work must prepare them to move into an American church." So wrote the Milanese, Enrico C. Sartorio (SA 124), in 1918. He was a member of the Episcopalian clergy.* The attitude of the immigrant * Sartorio 1s picture of the difficulties of Protestant Italian minis­ ters is temperate and well thought out. Because Italian Waldensians joined with them, Presbyterians were the most successful of the Protestant denom­ inations among Italians, though i t would seem that Presbyterianism would have less appeal to South Italians than the doctrines of almost any other Protestant sect. The Waldensians early established a successful colony at Valdese, North Carolina. Italians toward the Catholic church in the United States was during the early years much like that in Italy with tendencies augmented, including religious campanilismo (Fa 132)* These habits disturbed the clergy here. "There was much discussion from the I880fs on, of the 'Italian problem1" (GM 202). Women furnished most of the devout (Da 34). "The immigrants are almost a l l insistent that their children grow up under the influence of the Catholic religion*... On the other hand a remarkable amount of antago­ nism is expressed toward the church as an institution and toward the clergy, and there are a considerable number of immigrants who almost never go to church.11 So says Child (p. 34, see also Fa 116, Ro 105), and he finds Italians more indifferent to religion than Irish or Poles. Sartorio declared in 1918 that "sixty per cent of the Italian immigrants were entirely free from the control of the Catholic Church" and cited Monsignor Pozzi as putting the proportion "even higher" (Sa 105).* Pisani, who is pro-Cath- * Father Pozzi was in 1900 and 1915 the pastor of a rural colony founded about 1874 at Vineland in southern Mew Jersey "the most flourishing Italian colony in the United States" (Pi 73)* The settlement at Hammonton ( # 8 2 . not far off was also prosperous (CI 48-80). The Catholic church there owed its prosperity to the Irish element (CI 72). olic, said in 1957* "It has been estimated that of the Italian-American population only about one-third could properly be termed fgood Catholics 1" (Pi 69). As new generations have grown up, strictness of practice and general ardor have become greater (so in New York; GM 205)• But priests in charge of Italian parishes are s t i l l often disturbed by the casual character of the religion of their people. Immigrant priests, as remarked above, were few because the supply in Italy was short. Though there were priests from Italy "inspired by real Christian charity" (?SU 287), the quality of those who did come was in general such as to distress the hier- L archy. "At firs t many of these priests came from South Italy but**, these clerics were less acculturated to the Catholic faith as observed [here^.. North Italian priests were appointed" (W 147 )• The f i r s t priests were l i n ­ guistically conservative (¥SU 287), resisting a l l Americanization for fear of losing their flocks (Fa 139)• According to Sartorio, in 1918, "Many of them know next to nothing about America and they live a busy and isolated l i f e in the Italian quarter. The majority of them being of peasant extrac­ tion, they possess a limited mentality and have a l l the prejudices of the Italian country priests" (Sal08). Here speaks a city man (brought up in Milan) and the product of an American Protestant seminary, but one who knew the men he describes. Preparation was bettered with the rise of a new gen­ eration (Fa 126)| for sometimes young Americans of Italian origin were sent to Italy for a period of preparation in an Italian environment to supplement their training in America for the priesthood (Sa 109, Pi 166). But this measure did not increase the numbers of the properly trained relative to the number of the great masses of Italians arriving, nor later have the Italians produced priests from their own stock in the United States sufficient to cover their needs (GM 20k)i none was serving Italians in Kansas in 1948 or I960. But the people demanded national parishes (Pi 165). Without them, they were loath to attend church. S t i l l in 1900 Kansas City, Mis­ souri, with 1,034 foreign-born Italians and St. Louis with 2,227 had no national parish. Hartford with 1,952 had an Italian national parish but i t was served by an Irishman. In Boston there were 13,738 foreign-born Italians but there were only two national parishes, large ones, to be sure, served by eight Italian priests, one priest for 1,717 Italians. Chicago had three national parishes, but one of them swas served by an Irishman. The others were served by five Italian priests, one Italian priest for each 3,202 foreign-born Italians in Chicago. (For different reasons the Poles had recruitment difficulties too, but there was one Polish priest in Chicago for every 2,81*3 foreign-bora BblesX In New York the proportion of Italian priests to Italian foreign-born was 1:5,813. The situation of course did not remain static. In 1915 Kansas City had an Italian national parish with two priests and 1*00 pupils in its school; St. Louis had one also with one priest and 219 pupils. This was St. Ambrosefs which in 191*8 was no lon­ ger a national parish and was served by two Germans and an Irishman. Holy Rosary in Kansas City was then s t i l l national with three Italian priests and 337 pupils. The Catholic Church in the United States could not remain as effective a force for the conservation of Italian as i t was for preser­ ving some other languages because of the restricted number of its Italian priests. S t i l l i t was conservative. "Italian churches in which sermons and announcements are made in Italian operate in part to conserve the Italian groiq? and its customs" (Ch 1*6). So says Child for New Haven in 1938, but he says elsewhere "Many of the Italians who live outside the solidly Italian neighborhood attend churches where English i s the only modern language used" (Ch 1*3)* So i t was everywhere in Kansas Italian coimunities. .0 Special schools for Italian immigrants were indicated by their i l l i t e ­ racy. Indeed some of them were taught to read Italian i n this country (Ca 1*20), and many more attended night schools, not the truly mature, rather those who arrived late enough to escape the public school but who were s t i l l at a formative|age (Da 34, Pi 154, Ca 75)* These schools were usually set up by others than Italians (Fa 136). Such schools existed in Kansas. The 1909 Investigators and Dr. Ferreri, -who visited the United States in 190? (Fe 79), complained that South Italian miners were apt to keep their children out of school; the fact that Italian pupils in 1921 presented the highest degrees of retardation of a l l stocks (MI 60 ff.) bears this out. Parochial schools were established where there were Ital­ ian national parishes. The importance of Italian in them as the language of instruction does not even appear to have been great, less, as might be expected after the First World War (Fa 136). On this score V i l l a r i com­ plained in 1912: "There are various schools where Italian is taught more or less effectively, but the public opinion of the mass of the immigrants takes no interest in them. Parents make l i t t l e effort to make their chil­ dren study our language, some out of ignorance and unthinking neglect, others because of a shabby self-interest summed up in the phrase, Italian brings in no money. After many years... the authorities condescended to introduce instruction in our language into the public schools of New York, provided that a certain number of parents requested i t ; but i t was nearly impossible to find even a very small number to make the request; but f i n ­ ally efforts have been successful" (7SU 281). Pisani says, "When the greatest immigration was taking place, public schools [were overcrowded}.. Parochial schools stepped in to absorb the overflow. These schools im­ ported teachers who were proficient in both English and Italian... Jesuits Franciscans, Ursulines" (Pi 170). The Episcopalian Sartorio saw in the parochial schools only a means of drawing the young firmly into the Cath­ olic Church (Sa 109 )• The Congregationalist Rose saw the same aim and another which he found objectionable: "[the Franciscans'] have schools, the aim being to inculcate the Catholic faith, and to preserve fl fItalian!ta. f The teaching is partly in Italian by Italian monks or sisters. The result is to retard assimilation" (Ro 87 )• But he like other commentators found that Italian children were trained primarily in the public schools, as was true in Kansas. Rose in 1922 recorded that in 2i* cities where there were 10,61*0 Italian children, they furnished only 0.8$ of a l l pupils in parochial schools; the Irish provided 26.2$. The public school received most Italian children on Manhattan, and for a long time those in a l l mixed parishes. "Italians do not want their children to be a minority element in a school established to serve the traditions of another ethnic group" (W 133 in 1938). Thus Italian children were subject to the strongest of Engl-izing forces (the commentators so regard i t , for example, Ro 86, Ch 1*1, FI 395)• Later, after Italian had ceased to be strong among the people in America there was a change. Aslltalians move into the suburban areas, Glazer and Moynihan record, "In the heavily Italian areas of New Jersey and Long Island, the parochial school... is strongly favored" (Gm 203). The Engl-izing force was most powerful because the contempt for things Italian was usually marked in the classroom. Covello says in 1937 of Salvatore T.: "Like other Italian children he had been made to feel at school that he must try to conceal his Italian origin, that he must alter his tnam© even, to be a good American" (BR 690). But these children typically went to public schools nonetheless. Child in his study of New Haven speaks only of the public schools. He could do nothing else, for of the two Italian churches in New Haven, only Saint Anthony's had a school in 1915, with an enrollment of 71*. It and Saint Michael's had each over 300 pupils in their schools in 1948* "but the parochial schools in that city with a large Italian colony developed too late for them to have been linguistic conservators. With the coming of the First World War new foreign language schools oould not be promoted. 83#10 Societies among Italians were as strong in membership as among other immigrant groups*, but there were no societies of early origin *Fisani says one-tenth of a l l Italians were members of associations; "the percentage for heads of families was undoubtedly much higher" (Pi 126, see also GM 188-9). that aroused widespread enthusiasm for the whole of Italy like those of the various Slavic stocks or the Turnverein. In 1905 the o rder, Sons of Italy in America^ was organized. It was a mutual-aid lodge with 125,000 members in 1,000 chapters i n 1922 (lo 91)5 by 1957 i t had 3,000 chapters (Pi 126, see also FI 393)* According to Hose the predominant element i n this organization i n 1922 was said to be "the young man born in Italy, ^ut :emigrating to the United States while not yet too old to be greatly Americanized" (Ho 7 6 ) . In 1924 i t was split into two organizations, both called F i g l i d*Italia (Fa 135). The late origin of the order and the nature of i t s membership prevented i t from becoming as important a faotor linguistically as the major lodges among other stocks have been. The most potent Catholic society among the Italians was not specific­ ally Italian? i t was the Knights of Columbus. 83*11 Locally organized sooieties flourished. Pisani remarks in 1957 on the multiplicity of them (Pi 147) but says elsewhere, "Iven among the f i r s t generation, some shied away from exclusively Italian organi­ zations and joined mixed societies, such as the Foresters* Among the second generation this tendency was accentuated so that*** the impor­ tance of Italian organizations has become less and less" (Pi 128)• At Frontenac* Kansas, the Foresters were regarded as an Italian organization* The societies had less chance of winning over a l l Italians under one standard because a number of them were organized to include as members only men from one region, Piedmont, Lombardy, Abruzsi, etc*, a situation calculated to perpetuate dialects and not the standard language* "The comparative absence of federation and the multiplicity of organizations arise from that remarkable spirit of regionalism of the Italians" (FI 393) • In 1964 Glazer and Moynihan were using the same explanation* "The family and community-based Italian settlements ware incapable of creating group-wide institutions" (©£ 192). Park and Miller say, "The Italians of Chicago have 110 mutual aid societies, representing a population of about 150,000* As the names suggest, the membership i s generally from the same Italian province and frequently from the same village" (HI 129)* Davenport says, "There are over 130 mutual aid societies.inaHewBlorfcifity, most of them composed mostly of natives of a single Italian province*.* Society of the Calabrie..*, Cittadini lapoletani, Cittadini Padulesi, Cittadini Avellinesi, etc." (Da 32) . Foerster. "In 1910 an Italian census discovered 1,116 societies i n 35 states*.* but the census did not pretend to be completej i n Chicago, for instance* where two years later 400 mutual aid societies were es­ timated to exist, only 10 were reported" (FI 393) • Pisani, a native of New Haven, l i s t s eight l o c a l clubs active i n 1957 (Pi 147). ? i l l a r i f s unsympathetic description of the groups i s interesting: f ,In New York there are several hundred of these organizations, and they are also to be found i n a l l the other American c i t i e s where I t a l i a n colonies exis t , however small they may be. They are a l l more or less of the same type. In theory they are societies of mutual a i d and benefaction, but i n prac­ ti c e the aid not uncommonly i s limited to those holding offices and the restaurant owners where the banquets are given. None of these societies reaches, I believe, a thousand members, very few five hundred} the great majority have less than a hundred. They are amorphous i n s t i t u ­ tions, generally with no fixed seat and without capital} they are born, die, disappear, or s p l i t into two or three others i n accordance with the jealousies and petty ambitions of those at their head..• In the larger centers there i s a society for every town from which a certain number of immigrant!! have come11 (T7SU 239-240). Falorsi's disqu i s i t i o n on the subject, though unashamedly sentimental, reveals the forces at work: "after work hours the groups meet i n societies of mutual a i d , which i n thi s distant land substitute for the patriarchal l i f e of the home town, and take the opportunity to speak of the distant fatherland, and i n imaginations f u l l of love reappear the never forgotten lines of the mountains, the verdant meadows, the eternal forests, the ancestral homes, and the church where the union of souls was consecrated and baptism received, and the cemeteries where the dear dead sleep" (Pa 241)* 83*12g Organized social groups were l i n g u i s t i c a l l y important, as can be do- duced from th i s passage i n Child* s study of New Haven: "An I t a l i a n -806- club i s l i k e l y to be a social group i n which I t a l i a n characteristics are at a premium; to the extent that i f a member of the second genera­ tion wishes to be accepted into the group, direct or subtle pressure i s put upon him to conform to I t a l i a n norms" (Ch 47 )* Child also de­ scribes habitual informal gatherings where pressures are similar* Such occasions are noted i n the accounts of Italians at Leavenworth and Osage City. A l l these organizations were forces for l i n g u i s t i c con­ servatism, to such an extent that the young set up groups of their own to escape them (G8HL 188, MI 1 3 0 ) . p 3 . 2 The I t a l i a n press i n the United States was very active, but l i k e the societies, i t exerted no centralised influence, because, according to V i l l a r i , of the incapacity of the editors (VSU 2 0 3 ) . The high degree of i l l i t e r a c y among immigrant Italians explains i n part the lack of i n ­ fluence. The second generation learned to read English rather than I t a l i a n (Ch 4 6 ). In the c i t i e s there were various journals that reported l o c a l happenings (Pi 144)5 there were also a large number of doctrinaire editors. Pisani i n s i s t s that "The attachment to p o l i t i c a l doctrine of these men was more academic than p r a c t i c a l , and their influence with the vast majority of the I t a l i a n community..* was negligible" (Pi 195)* The only I t a l i a n newspaper i n Kansas, I I Lavoratore Italiano. had an editor of this type* The paper was able to exist from 1912 throi^gh I 9 1 8 . I t was a s o c i a l i s t journal that printed l o c a l news and regularly published advertisements from three banks* The l i n g u i s t i c influence of the I t a l i a n press was conservative, but only, i t seems, among immigrants? few of their sons read an I t a l i a n production even when i t became b i l i n - -807- gual (Pi 133; Pisani 1 s testimony i s cogent, because he was the son of an editor)* 83.3 Tendencies making for the segregation of Italians* though weakening as time has passed, have persisted over the United States as a whole more than for any other group immigrating from Europe* "Race prejudice, exclusiveness, scorn for things Italian, patronage and discourtesy*., what newcomer from Italy has not encountered some or a l l of these things11 (Ro 85) # In 1943 F u c i l l a , though citing improvement could s t i l l write as regards name Ingl- izing. "There are, of course,some who feel that an ^anglicized] name wil l remove the barriers c&'prejudice that they might have to encounter," (Fu 32). r— : I Vaughan in his f i r s t article of 1926 said a l l provincial groups were "classed as Italians and have social and economic problems in common" (Va 432). These words represent doubtless his own observation* In his second article he remarks, "That a whole race should thus better i t s social position in a new country within a generation or less i s l i t t l e less than astounding11 (Va 15). Doubtless his Italian friends had labored with him on the subject. F u c i l l a in 1943 could speak of the "cultural, p o l i t i c a l , and social rise of the J Italians" (Fu 32). While the tendency became imperceptible in Kansas as the twentieth century progressed, i t i s j s t i l l true that i t remained marked there longer than for other stocks* Exterior discrimination has been less than for Jews and no greater than for Slavs; interior isolating factors have been stronger. Self isolation was not usually the result of any conscious behavior. In 1926 Turano affirmed, "The average and typical Italian immigrant has never main­ tained any steady aloofness from the native population. This i s particularly true of his American-born children, who do not generally preserve any perma- nent attachment to l i t t l e Italy or i t s language, but prefer to identify them­ selves as early as possible both in attitude and speech with the Anglo-Ameri­ cans" (Tu 359) . But nevertheless there were potent isolating characteristics. declared proudly, "The family l i f e of the Italians like that of the Jews, may offer Americans many subjects for emulation" (CI 71) , and he commented par­ ticularly upon the careful surveillance of g i r l d * . The family i s , indeed, # V i l l a r i found "boarders" a real threat to the family, g i r l s seduced, parents indifferent because "this i s America" (VSU 238). Boarders were pre­ valent in the coal fields, but according to the 1909 Investigators less so among Italians than in other stocks. strong as among the Jews, but the Jewish family has pushed i t s younger mem­ bers out into competition with the world so that i t may glory in their triumphs. The Italians have been no less proud of those who attained public successes,* but the older generations have not in general urged the younger * Any book by an Italian American about his compatriots in this country, those of Pisano and Mariano for instance, illustrate this fact. Child, p. 44, comments impersonally. to be venturesome. The prospect of reflected glory has not been as potent among them as the fear of losing their own and skepticism as to the advan­ tages of sacrifice (GM 199) . The fears of the f i r s t generation were in this respect well founded. As long as American influences did not enter the home, fathers could have the same authority (Ch 27) , and g i r l s be sheltered (Pi 13l) . 83.4 The strength of the family i s one of the isolating factors, Coiejanni But for those who became permanent residents, the school (Ro 86) and the street became social invaders. In hard times, because of the size of the families, welfare agencies exerted very great pressure (Ro 63). The second generation rejected many of the ways of the f i r s t (MI 130) , among other things became devoted to the use of English among themselves (Sa 71, Ca 429) as a sign of liberation from old-fashioned authority. Bilingual conversations were common in the home in the mid-thirties, parents speaking in Italian, children answering in English. Parents who knew no English would be answered in Italian, but the children s t i l l talked among themselves in English, a situation, says Covello,"fraught with d i f f i c u l t i e s , misunderstandings, and conflicts" (BR 695) # The rejection of Italian i t a did not go so far for most of the young, however, as they themselves supposed* As soon as a certain freedom of decision had been established, particularly for the women in the way of liberty of movement and a voice in the choice of a husband, a suf­ ficient adjustment had been made to allow the family to become a source of supporting strength and no further abdication was necessary. Bilingualism has persisted to some extent out of deference to immigrant grandparents, particularly grandmothers. The women have remained more "sheltered" than the womSn of most stocks. Mariano in 1921 cited statistics (MI 62) showing that out of 25,460 high school students in New York City, a majority were g i r l s , but the Italian g i r l s numbered 197 as against 342 boys. No other stock even among the "new" emigration showed such a minority of g i r l s except the Czechs (31:51) and Rumanians (8:13)* In 1938 Miss Williams could say, "To remain at home from both school and work raises a gi r l * s status in I t a l ­ ian eyes" (W 131) • In 1961 Octavia Waldo1 s A Cup of the Sun depicts a g i r l -810- of Italian descent, who knows that she will never have anything to come back to i f she goes "away to school11 (GM 198). As might be expected, marriage outside the group continued to be rare among Italians longer than in other stocks. Rose commented in 1922: "There seems to be l i t t l e intermarriage of Italian g i r l s with other young men, but due perhaps to the more rigorous con­ ditions of courtship surrounding Italian g i r l s , Italian young men frequently marry g i r l s of other nationalities whom they meet in the freer contacts of American l i f e " (Ro 76). Miss Williams said in 1938, "The stigma on exogamy i s breakingcdonn among Italiansliher§, but i t has not been forgotten. Mar­ riages between people from North and South Italian stock are becoming more frequent.... The North Italian, however, has to rationalize or avoid the complicated situations that would reflect upon his status." (W 96-7). The tendency to take Catholicism more seriously brings the Italians in closer contacts with athB-irCatholic stocks and between these groups an important obstacle to exogamy, difference of religion, does not exist. Intermarriage i s late in exerting i t s linguistic effect, but the phenomenon i s occurring. 83,5 The tendency of Italian groups to remain self-sufficient economically at the level of r e t a i l trade has also contributed to Isolation and i t s linguistic effects. The Italians did not provide as many priests as they needed, but they promptly producedd grocers and restaurant keepers. I f an enterprise prospered the new personnel was chosen among those closely re­ lated to the proprietors. In industry, too, Italians tended to take over a unit once they had a foothold (Ro 62) . The phenomenon was no more fre­ quent than among the Jews, but the Italian enterprise tended to stay within bounds and not go pioneering out into strange territory. Residential seg- -811- regation was brought about by economic forces in part, but also by the habit of agglomeration described earlier* There "was the Italian history of at­ tachment to v i l l a g e . a few blocks encompassed the population of an old village" (Pi 125) . 83.6S Another isolating tendency of voluntary origin, one usually attributed to South Italians rather than to the Northerners, was the attitude toward the law. Violently to defy the law was probably no more a widespread desire among Italians than among others (see CC 424-5) ; but murder was more common among South Italians than among others (see Norton 510, Ch 31, Fa 251, Fr 135, CI 119, 135, 18 5 note) , and the guilty seem to have received more shelter from the group than was afforded by other groups in similar circumstances (see Ca 426). Loyalty to family and to the neighborhood, traitsa&fcreddy mentioned, had something to do with this (see GM 197), but the t r a i t led not to voluntary isolation but to avoidance of Italians by others. The Mafia and high-jacking bootlegger gangs have tetnded to cause the timid to wish to stay as far away from such organizations as possible. 83*70 The Mafia and i t s like used methods already developed in Italy (Ca 425, Ro 79, VSU 269, Fa 95)* Such organizations flourished most at the period when immigration from Italy was greatest* They constituted a factor affec­ ting primarily South Italians. South Italians in the Kansas coal fields in the years 1907-1910 were no exception to this fact. The general situation improved after 1910 when under the urgings of the Italian press the distaste for cooperation with the law r e l a t e d sufficiently among the Italians to per­ mit them to furnish necessary information to a police that general public indignation prevented from being too corrupt (PM 250-258*). While homicides -812- 1 * Writers defending the Italians, so Hose (Ro 37), Colajanni (CI 171), and V i l l a r i (VSU 267 ff.) , touched a very weak spot in American c i v i l i z a t i o n when speaking of police corruption of the period. In Crawford County, Kan­ sas, police laxity was not a product of corruption, but of indifference to the fate of people considered almost as animals, and of impotence in collec­ ting information* L . . by Italians were atttheir worst, the resentment that they aroused brought into action an American social institution no more praise?/orthy than the Mafia — lynch law* In the southern I l l i n o i s coal fields in 1914 "where race anti­ pathy ami.economic competition had gone before, some Italians were lynched for k i l l i n g Americans" (FI 408)* Organized crime among Italians of Southern origin was never eradicated* As long as i t operated primarily through boot­ legging at a time when a bootlegger was favorably regarded, the stigma that i t brought was minor, but the repeal of prohibition made i t necessary for former bootleggers to operate elsewhere, and some of them continued i l l e g a l operations and plagued the reputation of Neapolitan antilSicilian Americans into the nineteen s i x t i e s * 83.71 Many Italians, at least among those from the South, also suffered from discrimination for a reason similar to one affecting Mexicans and Negroes. Physically they could be rather easily identified, and since they entered society on the lowest rung of the economy the features of their face mili­ tated against their acceptance even when they changed their clothes* The linguistic effect of segregation i s conservative except among those l i f t e d by some means from the segregated group, or animated by an intense desire -813- to escape i t * Such a desire was of course common* See Child's section on rebels (Ch 76 ff.) ; also Pisani says, "The ambition of many was to break away from the closed circle and win acceptance in the world outside" (Pi 125). 83.72g The isolating forces were powerful only in the early part of this cen­ tury* When current in general society, Italians have not found serious discrimination against them as the preceding paragraphs might infer* Though aa they do not always accept the invitation, society seeks to draw them outside their own group* With the later generations there i s no isolation having linguistic effects* 83*8 Italians spoke dialects by preference on arriving in the United States* The preference for the society of those who spoke one1 s own dialect was so great that in the American cit i e s L i t t l e Italy was not a linguistic unity. As was said above (# 82.11) , Italians from a given location in Italy flocked together in American c i t i e s . "In the heart of the nearest city one can find i n the Italian colony a S i c i l i a n , a Calabrian, a Neapolitan, Aan Abruzzian village..*, each with i t s peculiar traditions, manner of li v i n g , and dialect" (Sa 18). "Working a l l day among those using their own dialect, they [the Italians] often go for years without acquiring more than a few English v/ords" (Da 34). Such was an opinion in 1903. Linguistically this devotion-to local origins helped destroy the wil l to preserve Italian, but not until the second generation. The immigrants continued to speak Italian o r V t least to speak their dialect" (VSU 280). But children became very conscious that the speech of their home was a dialect (Ko 75) , because i t was different from that learned by children not far away. The prestige of Italian was destroyed more quickly. Furthermore, as fewoof the new generation were being instructed -814- in standard Italian (Ch 21) , the use of English as a lingua franca became habitual* 83.9 The Engl-izing result among Italians did not differ greatly over two generations from the outcome in other immigrant stocks, but the strength of the various factors for both conservation and change were different from those at work in many stocks. The linguistic forces at work among immigrants were more than usually conservative. The dependence on -padroni and bankers and the strength of the family and village patriotism (on camnanilismo in this area, see inter a l i a Ho 65, VSU 291) have already been pointed out. So has the low degree of church attendance, which kept immigrants at home. Add to these hostility from outside coupled with small desire to combat i t , thus reducing contacts with Engl-isings to a minimum* S t i l l the immigrants, at least the males, usually learned English even i f they did not abandon Italian. The data from the coal fields have- already been presented. Here are additional data from Chicago for 1897. Total Interviewed No. Unable to Speak English % Unable to Speak English a l l foreign-born men 2,660 754 28 foreign-born men here 10 years or more 991 163 16 a l l foreign-born women 1,593 1,006 63 foreign-born women here 10 years or more 582 238 47 Commentators remarkkdl (EL 710; ID 431 i s in essential agreement) that North Italians acquired English faster than South Italians, Jenks and Lauck, p. 87, for instance, and the 1909 Investigators make this allegation, but the same -815- Investigators produce data showing no great rate ©indifference in acquisition among mining employees. The inference to be drawn i s that South Italians, even when they had acquired English, were loath uto use i t with strangers of whom they were suspicious. These conservative forces among immigrants were great. A lack of sense of the superiority of their own c i v i l i z a t i o n , such as existed among Germans and Scandinavians, was not enough to counterbalance them. But the rebellion of the immigrant1 s children against the conserva­ tive forces was very frequent* though usually manifested effectively only outside the precincts of the home. V i l l a r i 1 s contempt i s boundless for the • young fellows he saw on the street 11 who learn English and perhaps don't know Italian at a l l , 1 1 irhose mores are abominable, who "affect to despise every­ thing Italian" and speak an English that has "nothing to do with Shake­ speare1 s language" (VSU 291). He speaks again more calmly but s t i l l dis­ couraged: "The children born in America who attend American schools either are ignorant of Italian or know i t only slightly and poorly and prefer to express themselves in English. It i s not that they live amidst the Americans; they l i v e in the midst of other Italians, but Italians who speak English and form a society apart neither Italian nor American" (VSU 281). The quality of the Italian was poor largely through the adoption of English loan-words, one-fourth of the vocabulary, said Turano in 1926 (Tu 358). He thought the incidence was so high because the dialects had no v/ord common to a l l for many items. The members of the second generation were, however, more consistently bilingual than in many stocks. Child's description of conditions in New Haven in 1938 brings out conservatism, at this stage. "Most persons of the second generation" he says (Ch 50) speak both ItalianamdclEnglish, "though as an absolute minimum, of course, the school forces the acquisition of American language habits and knowledge ascertain traditions" (Ch 40) # As a conservative force he emphasizes the family. "The presence of elder rela­ tives who have not learned English leads to the offering to the younger gene­ ration of certain rev/ards for learning at least some of the Italian language. In general, but with limits in certain families, the more that a person be­ haves in accordance with Italian norms, the more fully and positively will the older members of the family respond to him and accept him as a worthy member of their group?1 (Ch 45(). Child divides his informants, a l l of the second generation, into three classes: rebels, in-group, andiapathetics. The rebels spoke Italian, but against their will and recognizing their imperfec­ tions. "With some who can't speak English, I have to speak Italian" (Ch lOl). Those in the in-group spoke Italian gladly, but also with a sense of their faults as speakers. "I wish I knew the real Italian" (Ch 142). Among those who were apathetic "some... have not gone to the effort of learning Italian well themselves" (Ch 177), though they had a mild desire that their children should be able to speak i t . Child was studying only the second generation, apparently among the unmarried, but i t i s evident that those rebellious and apathetic were going to make no effort to preserve Italian among their c h i l ­ dren, and $v.§nithose of the in-group would be deterred by the sense of the im­ purity cuftheir own language. In San Francisco as Radin records the situation i n 1935 i t was similar. Speaking of two Lombard immigrants, he says, "Their children know Italian but prefer English. The grandchildren know a l i t t l e Italian, I gathered, but answer i t with English" (Ra 72). The members of the second generation were then more ready to abandon Italian when they married, ationce enjoying a freedom thathad been repressed and avoiding a danger to authority in the homes that they were establishing. In any case in the United States Italian in the I9601 s i s a language for the old. -817- 84.0 Speakers of French in the United States came most frequently from French Canada, less often from France, from Switzerland and from Belgium. A l l these groups are represented in the population of Kansas. The French speakers from Europe are discussed f i r s t in the following sections. 84.1 The United States census for 1920 on pages 978 to 983, and 903 to 917 provides the following data on those of French mother tongue and those born in countries speaking French. These data are not in complete harmony with data provided on other pages nor with the data concerning French Canadians published in 1943 by !••£• Truesdell, chief st a t i s t i c i a n for Population, United States Bureau of the Census in his Canadian Born in the United States. They do, however, give an adequate idea of the relative importance in various parts of the United States of the French speaking stocks. -818- 1920 French Mother Tongue Country of Origin of a l l Persons (VoL II, pages 978-983) Born in (Vol. II, 903-917) France Fr. Canada plus their children fb. f.w.s. fb. f.w.s. fb. f.w.s. A l l U.S. 466,956 1,290,110 124,727 333,628 302,675 848,309 Kansas 3,169 11,600 1,917 6,398 533 2,992 Nebraska 1,259 5,114 704 2,786 311 1,401 Oklahoma 1,198 4,592 873 3,170 113 700 Indiana 3,742 14,806 2,571 10,052 352 1,763 Il l i n o i s 15,929 49,124 8,747 25,377 3,728 14,322 Michigan 22,798 77,572 4,107 12,092 18,024 62,206 Wisconsin 7,171 30,069 1,571 5,407 4,741 20,334 Massachusetts 116,364 303,821 6,369 11,391 107,964 287,897 New England 255,096 651,788 11,628 21,887 238,981 620,157 1920 — A l l U.S. Country of Birth of Those of French Mother Tongue plus their children (Vol. II, page 976) fb. f.w.s. French Canada 307,790 847,879 France 125,589 312,207 Switzerland 28,404 Belgium 25,155 Elsewhere 76.465 1,290,110 -819- For Kansas the 1920 census inadequately expresses the number of French Canadians because the parents of many were born in I l l i n o i s ; this third generation, then s t i l l speaking French, was counted as of English mother tongue. 84.2 Bibliography gn French from Euro£jg H - Henry, Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio* Vol. I of two volumes, Norwalk, Ohio, 1896 L6 and L8 - Lavisse, £. Histoire de France Contemporaine, Vols. VI and VIII by Ch. Seignobos, Paris, 1921 P - Pantle, Alberta, "History of the French Speaking Settlement in the Cottonwood Valley, 1 1 Kansas Historical Quarterly, XIX (1951), 12-49, 174-206. V - Viallate, Achille. L'ActivitS Sconomique en France de la f i n 1 du XVIII^ siScle & nos jours. Paris, 1937. 84.3 From 1833 to 1898 the immigration in thousands from France and Belgium to the United States was as follows; (plus or minus marks indicate deviations of more than 250 between the round thou­ sand and the immigration records) Belg. France Belg. France Belg. France Belg. Franc* 1840 7+ 1850 1 9+ 1860 4 1841 5 1851 20 1861 2+ 1842 5- 1852 7- 1862 3 1833 5- 1843 3+ 1853 11- 1863 2 1834 3 1844 3 1854 13+ 1864 3 1835 3- 1845 8- 1855 2- 6 1865 1- 4- 1836 4+ 1846 11- 1856 2 7 1866 1+ 7- 1837 5 1847 1+ 20 1857 1- 2+ 1867 1- 5 1838 4- 1848 1- 8- 1858 3 1868 2 1839 7 1849 1- 6- 1859 3- 1869 2 4 -820- 1870 1 4 1880 1 4+ 1890 3- 7- 1900 1 2- 1871 1- 4 1881 2- 5 1891 3 7 1901 2- 3 1872 1- 9+ 1882 1+ 6 1892 4 5- 1902 3 3 1873 1 15- 1883 1 + 5 1893 3+ 4- 1903 3+ 6- 1874 1 10- 1884 2- 4- 1894 2- 3 1904 4 9+ 1875 1- 8+ 1885 2- 3+ 1895 1 3- 1905+ 5+ 10 1876 1- 8 1886 1+ 3+ 1896 1+ 2+ 1906 5 9+ 1877 6 1887 3- 5 1897 1- 2 1907 6+ 10- 1878 4 1888 3 6+ 1898 1- 2 1908 4 9 1879 1- 5- 1889 3- 6 84.4g Beginning in 1899 the ImmigrateQn nnmpnqgTn^ RePert analyzed by "race", that i s , linguistic stock, the inflow of population. For the United States as a whole the Report broke down the wraces* according to countries of last residence. For the French of Europe here are the s t a t i s t i c s . -821- French speaking Immigrants from three Countries of Europe by hundreds ( a l l excess over an even hundred ignored) Year Belgium France Switzerland Year Belgium France Switzerland 1899 2 16 2 1913 6 64 5 1900 2 17 1 4 5 59 4 1 6 30 2 5 2 23 2 2 7 30 2 6 - 17 1 3 9 54 4 7 - 17 2 4 12 91 6 8 - 10 1 5 13 81 6 9 5 26 1 6 8 69 4 1920 4 64 5 7 8 70 4 1 2 58 9 8 9 66 3 2 1 29 4 9 7 49 3 3 1 29 4 1910 4 52 5 4 1 35 3 1 7 56 5 2 4 58 3 .0 No overpopulation existed in France as compared with the rest of Europe in the nineteenth century. To be sure the population increased steadily, but more and more slowly, from 35,400,000 (including Alsace-Lorraine) in 1846 to 39,600,000 in 1911, an ad­ vance of nearly 12%, but the improvement in the economy during that period was sufficient to support the larger population in better style at its end than at its beginning. Indeed, France became a -822- country receiving immigrants. The proportion of foreigners in the country rose from 1.35% of the total population in 1861 to 2.97% in 1891, that i s , 1,130,000 persons. The head count was o f f i c i a l l y the same in 1911, but i t had ceased to include children of foreign­ ers born in France (L8-402). The movement from the farms to the ci t i e s became marked early in the century and increased as time passed so that certain areas began to lose population by the mid­ dle of the century and these included areas which furnished early immigrants to Kansas. Emigration to the United States was thus a minor feature in a general tendency of exodus from what would now be called "depressed areas." .1 The p o l i t i c a l push for emigration in France largely took the form of stimulus through economic disturbances attendant upon po­ l i t i c a l upheaval. The French Revolution in i t s early stages 1789- 1790, caused the emigration not only of aristocrats, but also of those dependent upon them for patronage? "among them were not a few carvers and gilders to his majesty, coach and peruke makers, friseurs and other artistes* (H 672). Five hundred sailed from France in May, 1790, bound for Ohio. The Revolution of 1848 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 undoubtedly had their effect through the economic channel,* but not otherwise, except that Kansas re- * Ernest Ginette came to Kansas after severe losses in Paris during the 1870-1871 c r i s i s (P 177). ceived a few of the liberals who, though often influential persons -823- during the Second Republic, 1848-1851, became refugees from Na­ poleon III. The Leroux family at Neuchatel, Kansas, is an example, so also a few families connected with Francois Bernard at Cedar Point. 85.2 The Catholic Church has since the 17th century been the a l ­ most completely dominant religious organization in France. A large majority of the French have in modern times, however, been either indifferent to religion or an t i - c l e r i c a l ; most, but not a l l , of those emigrating to Kansas have had this characteristic. The f i r s t influence of French from France upon Kansas was, however, through priests from there. They came mostly from the northern and eastern fringes of France, areas more inclined to religion than many parts of the nation. The early emigrants usually originated in the same area. 85.3 Economic conditions in France furnished less of a push for emigration than in other European countries. S t i l l the emigrants became such for economic reasons. Landholdings in France were not subject to fractionating forces; the population increase was small; one heir in a family often bought out the interests of others. With the marked tendency of the period to become d&ra- cinSs (uprooted people), the population thus released departed from their native area, most often for the c i t i e s , but sometimes for foreign lands. Depopulation affected particularly areas where the s o i l was poor or thin, h i l l country, and most of the early emigrants -824- were from such areas, from the rough country of the Ardennes,the Vosges Mountains, the Jura Mountains and the Alps, and from the western and northern edge of the Plateau Central; somewhat later, that is in the 1870's, from the southern edge as well. The whole of that plateau might have furnished emigrants, but they more • usually came from land near enough to prosperous territory to create an appetite for betterment. .4 With the development of industry, the push for emigration among France 1s labor force depended on the pulsations in employment. These were in part created by the demands of labor. During periods of strikes the urge to emigrate was stronger than at other times. Labor in France was relatively unorganized; about 1910, only 15% of textile workers belonged to unions, 17% in metallurgy. The proportion rose to 40% in the coal mines, the area of the most interest to us. The union leaders were often radical in character, seeking revolution. They "maintained an agitation that was too often a r t i f i c i a l , and made immoderate use of strikes" (V 257). The disturbances occurred without resources having been accumulated to take care of the workers. The emigration from the northern French coal fields in the f i r s t decade of the twentieth century is largely to be explained by these periods of c r i s i s ; emigrants to Kansas came from this area, and from the Belgian area around Charleroi just across the border where conditions were similar. A strike in the I880fs at Bess&ges on the edge of the Al&s coal f i e l d in southern France near the Rhone accounted for part of the emigration to Osage City. -825- The financial crises that brought economic distress with them also spurred emigration. Some of the f i r s t French settlers in Kansas came to the United States as a result of the agricultural c r i s i s of 1845 and 1846 which developed into an acute business . c r i s i s of 1847. The potato disease was bad in 1845, worse in 1846? in 1846 the wheat crop was a failure. "The agricultural c r i s i s of 1847, the result of a poor harvest, was abruptly aggra­ vated by the general economic c r i s i s , brought on by the Revolution. The panic of the rich classes combined with unemployment among laboring classes diminished the consumption of farm products and made prices go down. The harvests of 1848 through 1851, a l l abun­ dant, kept prices down and made sales more d i f f i c u l t on the choked markets. The c r i s i s weighed heavily upon the peasants" (L6-356). Agriculture recovered very slowly; only toward 1860 did i t reach it s status of about 1845. Therefore through the early l850 fs the push for emigration was strong, particularly so during the p o l i t i ­ cal insecurity of 1851. The push was perhaps as great in the last years of the decade following crop failures in 1856 and 1857, but the pull relaxed because of the panic of 1857 which had i t s f i r s t manifestation in the United States. The C i v i l War also relaxed the p u l l , and the push also became weak, for with new methods the situation in France was better; emigration from France remained low u n t i l 1866. The Franco-Prussian War was not so great a dis­ aster economically as i t was p o l i t i c a l l y , and France suffered less than America and Germany through the hard year of 1873. But finan- -826- c i a l stringency — worst for producers, that is peasants as well as industrialists — existed during the middle 1870's and the push for emigration sent additional thousands overseas. France suffered along with the rest of Europe during the agricultural de­ pression brought on by cheap transport of grain from newly devel­ oped areas, particularly those in America. S t i l l people leaving rural areas seem then to have headed for the c i t i e s , though the late 18801s and the very early nineties saw more movement out of the country. The exhaustion of public lands in the U.S. and gen­ eral hard times there after 1892, while in France times were bet­ ter for French farmers, practically did away thereafter with rural emigration. .5 Taking rural and industrial emigration together throughout the period of interest the region of France that contributed most to Kansas population was near the northern frontier. The most northern d i s t r i c t even late may have had an emigrating ele­ ment that might be considered rural, for despite good lands, be­ cause of a more vigorous birth rate there than elsewhere, the out­ flow among the peasants was higher. A f i r s t displacement might carry then no further than the nearest industry; exit from the country might follow in a time of c r i s i s because their roots in industry were shallow. The region around Belfort and Rougemont in eastern France contributed much to very early emigration. Those who did not come from the northern or eastern border were usually southerners as was true at Osage City, although there were -827- Burgundians at Cedar Point, and the p o l i t i c a l l y inspired emigration was centered at Paris. 85.6 The French Swiss of Neuchatel« Kansas, came mostly from the village of Ligni&res in the Canton of Neuchatel, Switzerland. They were less than 40 miles south of Belfort, closer s t i l l to Rougemont, and were probably actuated by the same motives as the people from Belfort. They were Protestants, but religion played no part in their emigration. 85.7 The Belgian French emigration is to be explained as of indus­ t r i a l background, originating in the southern mining d i s t r i c t s . A number of early Belgian emigrants l e f t the Ardennes region of southern Belgium. Economic distress developed there when water- power was superseded by coal generated steam. The Belgians in the Kansas mining d i s t r i c t were largely from near Charleroi where coal fields were approaching exhaustion late in the nineteenth century. The population had increased from 37,600 in 1840 to 145,000 in 1913. Hence emigration. In the early days the emigrant Protes­ tants came often from the northern edge of the French speaking area, from Brussels and particularly Li&ge. The agricultural de­ pression which reached i t s peak in the early lSSG's furnished the push, i t seems, along with religious motives, since for Protestants the atmosphere was not friendly to them in Belgium. 85.80 The European French of the early nineteenth century came f i r s t to New Orleans when immigrating. This was the most usual route u n t i l after 1880, but i f they eventually came to Kansas, they left -828- New Orleans at once and settled f i r s t near St. Louis or in the valleys of the Ohio, or the Tennessee or the Cumberland. Louis­ v i l l e received a certain number. If the newcomers arrived at a northern port and sometimes too i f they debarked at New Orleans, Pennsylvania, I l l i n o i s , and Wisconsin, often Wisconsin in the case of the Belgians, sheltered them for a while. One settler in Kan­ sas of 1857 had been at P i t t s f i e l d , Massachusetts. In I l l i n o i s , the flourishing French Canadian center at Kankakee or i t s neigh­ borhood attracted some. In Missouri, near St. Louis, there was French Village. The old French settlements in St. Charles, St. Louis, and St. Genevieve were overwhelmed by Germans, but held out for some time particularly in the latter town. In Pennsylvania, some lived at Frenchville, very near the center of the state, and came out through Erie. In Ohio Gallipolis received i t s name from the French settlers of the eighteenth century (1790 - H 672-7); these people were assimilated by 1846. Another well-known French center was at Versailles in Darke County on the western edge of the state; Napoleonic soldiers were the founders. French Town near Versailles, Ohio, received a few future Kansans temporarily. The Belgian French in Wisconsin congregated near Green Bay, notably at Brussels, Wisconsin. The Belgian Calvinists at Rice, Kansas had spent some time in a colony at Braidwood, I l l i n o i s in south­ western Will County (61-135). French Swiss elements were among the early members of the Swiss settlements at Vevay, Indiana (#55.33), and opposite St. Louis at Highland, I l l i n o i s (# 55.65), founded -829- 1832. At Torrington, in western Connecticut, the French Swiss were also important. 85.8lg Engl-izing of European French outside of Kansas can be con­ sidered only for settlements of long standing; the more recently arriving French did not isolate themselves sufficiently to estab­ l i s h settlements. In 1951 at Frenchtown near Versailles, Ohio, one family was s t i l l speaking French. Those aged forty had onCe been able to speak i f not of mixed parentage, but intermarriage had become very common. At Saint Genevieve, Missouri, about 1875 French was so accepted that anyone marrying into a French family learned French. This state of affairs did not immediately change but by 1951 even the old did not converse with each other in French. The 19th century brides from other stocks learned French to commu­ nicate with their mother- and father-in-law, but their children did not. Intermarriage particularly with Germans was so common that there was no later resistance to Engl-izing. The situation among the Belgian French at Brussels in Door County, Wisconsin, was much different. The Belgians were very generally using the Walloon dialect in 1951, but, while the immigrants had known stan­ dard French, the second generation could make l i t t l e of a sermon in French. There was mingling with Flemings in the neighborhood. Everybody had become proficient in English. Bilingualism was persisting more than in many places because whole families worked together at dairying. 85.9 The French of Louisiana do not represent late immigration -830- parallel to what occurred in Kansas and have not had any direct influence on French in Kansas. Intrinsically their linguistic history is of great interest and has been treated in various stu­ dies (see inter a l i a , Haugen$ Billn^ualism in the Americas« p. 33). It has been of three varieties, the French of the educated New Or­ leans families and their economic equals on the great plantations, Negro French, the speech of the labor force on the plantations and of certain layers of the population of New Orleans, Cajun French, the language descended from that of the Acadian refugees. The f i r s t maintains i t s e l f well as a family language marking caste? a l l speakers or nearly a l l are bilingual. Negro French has been largely displaced, sometimes preliminarily by Cajun French and later by English, sometimes directly by English. Cajun French is in the l960 ,s the ordinary speech of a great many people of south­ western Louisiana, but bilingualism is nearly universal, and during the twentieth century English has been increasingly displacing French. Education in French a l l through the history of the Cajun settlement since the eighteenth century has given the language prestige and impeded deterioration among the educated. Education in English has however become so nearly universal that as a cul­ tural langauge displacement has been taking place with the effects general in areas where the for-ling speakers have been immigrants rather than original settlers like these people. Displacement has been more general on the borders of the area, but penetration has also occurred. -831- 86.0 Bibliography for French Canadians. A - Arnould, Louis. Nos Amis les Canadiens. Paris, 1913. BC - Bouchard. St. Anne Centennial. Kankakee, 111., 1952. B - Bracq, Jean C. L'Evolution du Canada francais. Paris and Montreal, 1927. (In English, New York, 1924.) Ca - Campbell, Charles B. "Bourbonnais; or The Early French set­ tlement in Kankakie Co. 111." I l l i n o i s State Historical So­ ciety. Papers in I l l i n o i s History and Transactions. Vol. VI, Pt. 2 (1906), 65-72. C - Cole, Arthur C. Centennial History of I l l i n o i s , Vol. III. Springfield, 111., 1919. De - Desrosiers et Fournet. La Race frangaise en Amfirique. Mon­ treal, 1911. DF - Dexter, Robert C. " F i f t y - f i f t y Americans." World's Work, XLVIII (Aug., 1924), 366-371. DG - Dexter, Robert C. "Gallic War in Rhode Island." The Nation, CXVI1 (Aug. 29, 1923), 215-216. DP - Dexter, Robert C. "Franco-American Patriotism." Amer. Journal of Sociology, XXVIII (1922-3), 694-710. E - E l l i o t t , A.M. "The French Language in Canada." American Journal of Philology, VI (1885), 135-150. E II E l l i o t t , A.M. "Speech Mixture in French Canada." AJP, X (1889), FL - Fishman, Joshua A. and associates. Language Loyalty in the (United States. The Hague, 1966 — Chapter on French in New England by Herve B. Lemaire. Ga - Gailly de Taurines, Ch. La Nation Canadienne. Paris, 1894. GD - Grant, M., and Davidson, C.S. The Alien in our Midst, "The French Canadian Invasion" (by R.C. Dexter). New York, 1930. HI - Hansen, M.L. The Immigrant in American History, Cambridge, Mass., 1940. HM - Hansen, M.L., and Brebner, J.B. The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples. New Haven and Toronto, 1940. -832- HS - Hughes, Everett C. ,fThe French-English Margin in Canada.w Amer. Journal of Sociology, XXXIX (1933-4), 1-11. Hu - Hughes, Everett C. French Canada in Transition. Chicago, 1943. La - Lanctot, Gustave. Les Canadiens fran^ais et leurs voisins du sud. Montreal, Toronto, New Haven, 1941. Lo - Lower, A# R. M. "New France in New England.11 New England Quarterly, II (1929), 278-295. Ma - Magnan, D. M. A. Histoire de la Race francaise aux Etats- Unis. f a r i s , 1912. Mc - Mclnnis, Edgar. Canada. A P o l i t i c a l and Social History. New York, 1959. ( f i r s t edition, 1947) Mi - Miner, Horace. St. Denis, a French-Canadian Parish. Chi­ cago, 1963 ( f i r s t edition, 1939) Mo - Moore, William. The Clash. New York, 1918. N - Nevers, Edmond de. L'Ame Am&ricaine, vol. II. Paris, 1900. P - Pease, Theo. C. Centennial History of I l l i n o i s , vol. II. Chicago, 1919. Sa - Sandwell, B. K. wThe French Canadians.11 Annals Amer. Acad. Po l i t . Soc. Sc., CCL1II (1947), 169-175. Sh - Shea, John G. History of the Catholic Church in the United States, 1843-1866. New York, 1892. S - Siegfried, Andrfi. The Race Question in Canada. London, 1907. (published in France ast Le Canada, les deux races. Paris, 1906•) Se - Sixty-first Congress. Second Session. Senate Documents Vol 92 Ta - Tass§, Joseph. Les Canadiens de ^Ouest. Vol. I, Montreal, 1878. T - Truesdell, Leon E# The Canadian Born in the United States. New Haven, Toronto, 1943. WC - Wade, Mason. "The French Parish and Survivance in the Nine­ teenth Century New England." Catholic Historical Review, XXXVI-(1950-51), 163-189. -833- WD - Wade, Mason (editor). Canadian Dualism. Toronto, 1960. WF - Wade, Mason. The French Canadians. London, 1955. WW - Wessel, Bessie Bloom. An Ethnic Survey of Woonsocket, Rhode Island. Chicago, 1931. 86.1 Statistics on French Canadian population in the United States as given by Truesdale (see 84.1) of interest to the present study ares French Canadian stock (T 77-78) U.S. New England (rounded) Massachusetts fws fb fws fb fws fb 1890 535,501 302,496 333,000 206,000 153,553 96,386 1900 850,491 394,461 519,000 275,000 250,024 134,387 1910 947,792 385,083 613,000 277,000 298,528 134,659 1920 870,146 307,786 627,000 240,000 292,109 108,691 1930 1,106,159 370,852 743,000 264,000 336,871 115,241 Kansas I l l i n o i s Nebraska 1890 4,843 1,661 13,795 5,944 1,808 838 1900 6,083 1,480 27,109 9,102 3,584 1,035 1910 5,076 1,087 24,484 7,440 2,929 674 1920 3,160 571 15,512 4,032 1,570 351 1930 3,588 569 24,250 6,189 2,591 436 -834- Family Size 1930 — Percentage of French and English Canadian Families Having 3 or More Children Fr. Eng. Fr. Eng. Fr. Eng. U.S. 11.6 5.3 Mass. 11.8 7.0 I l l i n o i s 4.8 3.2 Maine 17.4 11.1 Rhode Island 11.2 4.9 Nebraska 3.0 2.7 New Hamp. 13.3 6.5 Connecticut 11.9 7.0 Kansas 5.3 2.9 Vermont 18.8 7.9 .2 ina b i l i t y to SPeak English. 1930 — Percentages by Age and Sex for A l l the United States for French-born in Canada and Their Children (T 195) Fb Fp Both Sexes Male Female Both Sexes Male Female A l l 8.8 4.4 13.3 .5 .4 .6 10-14 3.7 3.4 4.0 .7 .8 .7 15-24 6.5 4.7 8.2 .2 .2 .3 25-44 6.5 3.0 10.0 .4 .2 .5 45-64 9.2 4.1 14.7 .8 .5 1.1 65-over 15.9 8.2 24.5 1.9 1.4 2.5 Percentages by States and Sexes for French-born in Canada (T 199) Both Sexes Male Female Both Sexes Male Female Maine 17.0 8.0 26.0 N.H. 14.5 7.1 21.8 Vermont 10.6 6.0 16.0 Mass. 8.4 4.3 12.2 R.I. 13.1 7.0 18.7 Conn. 10.8 6.1 15.7 I l l i n o i s 1.2 .5 2.0 Nebr. 1.2 2.4 Kansas 6.6 2.4 11.2 -835- .3 Year of Immigration of French Canadians Resident in the United States in 1930 U.S. Absolute Kansas % Absolute % Mass. % Vt. % 111. % Neb. % 1925-30 36,096 10.2 16 3.1 6.1 19.0 11.6 1.7 1920-24 55,352 15.6 19 3.7 14.2 20.6 12.6 3.0 1915-19 23,531 6.6 13 2.5 5.7 12.7 5.3 4.7 1911-14 16,866 4.7 7 1.4 4.2 6.1 3.3 3.9 1901-10 56,318 15.9 47 9.1 17.3 13.7 11.8 13.5 1900-aarli£^ L67,097 47.0 412 80.2 52.4 27.8 55.6 73.2 For Kansas these statistics are in harmony with those given above for Cloud and Rooks County. Of the 27 states thus analyzed by Truesdell only Wisconsin has a higher percentage than Kansas of arrivals before 1900. There i t was 84%. Minnesota (77.2), Iowa (76.8) and South Dakota (78.8) approached the Kansas percentage. For Michigan the percentage of these early comers was 44.3%; nearly as many (38.7%) had come during the I920 fs. The age of those born in French Canada and resident in Kansas in 1930 also harmonizes with the figures on year of immigration. There were more people 75 or older than there were under 40. female male female male under 40 17.5% 17.3% 60-64 12.2% 7.7% 40-44 5.2% 5.7% 65-69 11.5% 15.1% 45-49 8.5%A 6.4% 70-74 11.9% 10.4% 50-54 9.3% 8.4% 75 and over 20.7% 18.7% 55-59 8.5% 10.4% -836- 86.4 United States immi&ration statistics for French Canada are of doubtful value. ifThere are l i t e r a l l y millions of persons cros­ sing the Canadian boundary in either direction every year 1 1 (T3), making i t d i f f i c u l t to distinguish true immigrants from the others. Besides between the United States and Canada l fthere has been a considerable interchange of population from year to year. There were in Canada in 1931, for example, 55,632 . . . French, born in the United States . . . mainly children of French Canadians11 (T44). Moreover the immigration statistics for years earlier than 1899 do not distinguish between French Canadians and other Canadians. They show arrivals of less than 100 a year from 1899 to 1906 and 308 for 1907. In the years following rounded to the nearest thousand the Immigration Commissioner reported for the whole United Statest 1908 - 4,000 1914 - 10,000 1920 - 19,000 1909 - 13,000 1915 - 9,000 1921 - 16,000 1910 - 14,000 1916 - 17,000 1922 - 10.000 1911 - 10,000 1917 - 22,000 1923 - 30,000 1912 - 11,000 1918 - 5,000 1924 - 44,000 1913 - 12,000 1919 - 9,000 These figures are chiefly valuable in emphasizing the wave-like response to economic and p o l i t i c a l (war) conditions. 86.5 The cleavage between the French in Europe and the French in Canada is centuries old. The French began settling Quebec in 1608 and practically ceased to emigrate to Canada by 1700. Less than 10,000 persons had then come to New France; estimates vary (WD 130). -837- S. A* Lortie fixes the number at 4,894 (Mo 72 quoting S. A. Lortie, Orig;ine des Premiers Colons Canadiens-frangais). From these few the later millions are descended.* Provinces contributing more * Mclnnis maintains that there was "virtually no immigration after 1675," (Mc 105) but Lortie 1s tables show 1,092 between 1680 and 1700. Certain authorities fix at 60,000 the population of Canada in 1763. than 65 emigrants were according to Lortie: Picardy 96 Limousin 75 > Perche 238^ Angoumois 93 Normandy 958 Poitou 569 > 1,535 Maine 113 Aunis 524 / >1,714 Brittany 175 ' Saintonge 274/ Anjou 139 Champagne 129~^ Touraine 9y Beauce 105 > 855 l i e de France 621/ It is the custom to emphasize the large number of Normans in this immigration, (for instance, E 140-142) and to conclude that the peculiarities of Canadian speech are to be explained by this fact. It is perhaps well to point out, however, that most of the provinces in the western part of France north of Bordeaux are a l l well repre­ sented. The westerners north of the Loire furnished less than two hundred more than those south of the Loire, and in the more northern contingent, the contribution of Normandy was less than two hundred -838- greater than the sum of those from the other provinces above the Loire. The contribution of the Parisian province, the l i e de France, may be regarded as of slight importance to the multipli­ cation of the settlers because the administrators who did not become permanent residents were usually from there fand were sometimes born elsewhere. Linguistically their importance should not be minimized, for such people were among the most mobile element in the community and their linguistic influence was doubtless great. Though there exist perceptible di a l e c t i c a l differences between various areas in Quebec, even between those situated close together, no one has yet attempted to explain these differences by the dialects of the orig­ inal inhabitants of the various early settlements, and Quebecan can be regarded as a unit, quite distinguishable from Acadian.* The * E l l i o t t speaks of "speech oases consisting of southern French dialects, used in a few scattered villages of Acadians, such as St. GrSgoire, BScancourt, etc., that are situated on the south of the St. Lawrence, opposite Three Rivers" (E 142). characteristics of both these dialects are most easily explained as differentiated from each other and from the French of France through the workings of time in the areas of a l l three forms of speech. The severing of blood ties with France was followed by the severing of p o l i t i c a l and economic ties in 1760 and 1763 and of cultural ties, largely at the same time, but more markedly after -839- the French Revolution and France 1s orientation toward indifference and h o s t i l i t y to religion, particularly to the Catholic Church. (HS 5, DP 699, s 106, A 128) After the First World War Canada drew somewhat closer to France (B 220), but the relations did not become ardent. They again became warmer when, during the Second World War, Montreal became the publishing center of the exiles (Sa 173). The only t i e that remained was the language, which was the dearer because i t was different from the speech of the hostile English Canadians, and for which i t was impossible to find any standard of excellence other than that already established by the written word and the pronunciation of Paris.* This remaining * Contrast the Boers1 development of Afrikaans from Dutch. tie to France became more important in Kansas than in Canada, be­ cause Canada resisted accepting priests from France, and the f i r s t generation of settlers in Kansas were served by such men. The English on taking over Canada in 1763 perceived that i t would "ixe well to propitiate the Catholic clergy, and the conquerors gave i t special privileges and authority, so that the Church became the best a l l y of the British government for nearly two hundred years. Both these p o l i t i c a l forces were in complete sympathy with the desire of the Quebecan people to remain distinct from the "Eng­ lish* 1 Canadians, the British in application of the dictum "Divide and Rule," the Church because i t was dangerous to allow the pene- 840- tration of English Protestantism. The English agents were not always, however, s k i l l f u l , and the Canadian rebellion of 1837 had its manifestations in both Upper and Lower Canada, the Eng­ l i s h and French sections. The emigration to the United States immediately following was partly of a refugee character (Ma 249, La 293), not great in numbers but pathfinding in character. No later p o l i t i c a l event in Canadian history had any perceptible direct influence stimulating emigration, not even the recurrent talk of annexation,by the majority, particularly by French Cana­ dians and the descendants of the earliest English, regarded with dread (S 122), not even the creation of the Dominion in 1867. A semi-political factor, sending French emigrants to the U.S. rather than western Canada was dislike of "English" institutions coupled with other distaste for such people (WW 220). There were few at­ tempts to hamper emigration by p o l i t i c a l procedures in spite of anxiety over the exodus, though there was encouragement of set­ tlement in undeveloped parts of Canada, such as road construction along the margins of the St. Lawrence valley in the l860 fs and the efforts made in the early 1870*s to bring French settlers to Manitoba, but they produced small results. .6 copulation pressures with the accompanying economic phenomena provided the only important push for emigration from French Canada (DE 101, HI 170). The five to ten thousand immigrants from France were most fecund. They numbered 70,000 by 1763 (some say 60,000; A 301) and these people became "the recognized ancestors of four -841- and one-half million Canadians and perhaps one and one-half million Americans" (WD 130). The total increase during the last century for pertinent parts of Canada by thousands was 1851 - 696 1901 - 1,649 1861 - 881 1911 - 2,062 1871 - 1,083 1921 - 2,453 1881 - 1,299 1931 - 2,928 1891 - 1,405 1941 - 3,483 1951 - 4,309 In 1851 they constituted 38% of Canada1s population, in 1951, 31% (WD 135). Most of the French in Canada have been Quebecans. In 1901, the French there numbered 1,322,000; there were 326,000 "English." The French in other Canadian provinces totaled as many as the English in Quebec. Quebecans had important settlements in Ontario and in northern New Brunswick.* Except when otherwise * The Acadians elsewhere in New Brunswick and in Nova Scotia receive no separate notice in this study. They have furnished Kansas Canadians with a priest, but are otherwise not related to the present purpose. In certain parts of New England, notably in certain c i t i e s in Maine and in Hartford, Conn., Acadians have in modest numbers been nineteenth and twentieth century immigrants• Settlements older than English-speaking settlements, notably the Acadians of Louisiana and those on the American side of the St. John River in Maine are of great interest and extended considera- -842- tion of them is here rejected with regret, because Kansas has been unaffected by them and offers no parallel. In general i t may be said that u n t i l the twentieth century both these groups resisted Engl-izing as vigorously and as successfully as the Quebecans. The twentieth century has, however, seen great pene­ tration by English. The people in Maine, being the smaller groups, are in the I960fs more nearly Engl-ized, but numerically French has lost many more speakers in Louisiana. specified Quebecan and French Canadian are used interchangeably hereafter. Canadians had multiplied by 1851 more than ten-fold since 1763j emigration had already taken many French from Canada. Ag­ ricu l t u r a l methods had not greatly changed (La 295 , Lo 284); the good lands of the original area of settlement had a l l been taken up several decades before. The people were obliged to spread fur­ ther or become miserable. The landholding system, as described -843- above for France, excluded fragmentation (Hu 8). A family chose an inheriting son, and others, properly helped, sought employment elsewhere when there were enough arms to work the farm (Mi 27, 86 et passim, Hu 8). There was never the sentiment that a given bit of territory should support a l l the persons born upon i t . Depar­ ture from one's birthplace was regarded as a natural phenomenon. Reproduction was unstinted; no matter how many children in a fam­ i l y , ten, twenty or even more — many observers attest to family size (for example S 235, E 145), every Canadien was sure that a l l would find a livelihood to the glory of God and the race (S 238). Early marriage was the custom, and the older children helped bring up the younger. No more orderly system for the mass reproduction of the human species has existed. By the mid-twentieth century contrary pressures had developed (Mi 269), but earlier fecundity begat emigration. 86.70 Geographical considerations prevented much spread to the north and west of Quebec. By the time that the French f e l t the need for expansion beyond the province, British immigrants were already in possession of the best of Ontario. Not the cold, but the inhospitable and barren nature of the Laurentian Shield pre­ vented penetration of the north and of the west too, for the Shield comes down from the north to Lakes Superior and Huron and even reappears on their south side, blocking for hundreds of miles pene­ tration of the Canadian West (HM 135). Consequently, Quebecans of the mid-nineteenth century looking for homes in the West found the -844- plains and prairies of the United States much more accessible than Manitoba. But New England and New York were s t i l l easier to reach even walking there was possible, and with the open­ ing of industrial developments in New England, the French flowed in that direction from Quebec (HM 125). .7lg The most important expelling economic consideration at work in Quebec was the inability of agriculture to expand further in the Saint Lawrence Valley (WD 220, Hu 12, HM 124) and the exhaus­ tion of the important sources of lumber supply. A legislative investigation of 1849 recognized that 11 the decline in lumbering operations along the tributaries of the St. Lawrence11 was causing emigration. The surplus men were no longer able to find winter work there "and the investigators 1 concern was not only with New England factories but also the pull to the prairies of the west" (HM 126). Kankakee, I l l i n o i s , was in the prairies of the west. The largest of the tributaries whose white pine forests were ex­ hausted was the St. Maurice River (WF 334) that flowed into the St. Lawrence at Trois RiviSres, whence came settlers ultimately reaching Kansas. At the same time too there was agitation be­ cause expansion into the Eastern Townships, that i s , the country to the north of Vermont and New Hampshire, was being hampered. Here, indeed, financial .maneuvers were delaying settlement of agricultural lands. The British-American Land Company had a huge grant there, and despite high prices had succeeded in found­ ing English settlements there. The prices, however, kept out set- -845- tlers of a l l types, and i t was only l i t t l e by l i t t l e that the French took over this area adjacent to their old settlements. ••English*1 financial maneuvers caused bitterness between them and the French in the region of Montreal and Trois Rivi&res during the middle of the nineteenth century, contributing further to the push for emigration among the French (WF 339). Conditions in French Canada from 1870 to 19.10 have been described as a contin­ uous state of depression (La 241). Canadian industry did not de­ velop at a rate at a l l calculated to take care of the increased population (La 295). The push for emigration was continuously strong and as long as there were free lands in the American West, the push continued somewhat in that direction, that i s , toward Kansas for one place. The turn of the Canadian West came shortly afterward, and efforts to interest the French of Kansas in becoming Canadian citizens again drew a few of them away, but they had been too long in the south to endure the cold. They complained that there was ice in the wells in July. In the total movement of French Canadians, departures for the West played a small part. Most of the French went to New England. .80 The Catholic Church« at least since 1763, has been the most important force in the direction of French l i f e in Canada (see particularly S 11-51). In 1931, 99.4% of the French in Quebec were Catholics (T 45), and similar statements could be made for any other year (cf Mi 31). After the conquest the British allowed those who wished to do so to depart. Those who l e f t included most -846- of the seigneurs (A 301), roughly, country squires, who much more democratically than the seigneurs in France directed local Cana­ dian l i f e . The colony was l e f t "without its natural lay leaders and i t s most ardent French patriots. The religious leaders faith­ f u l to Catholic tradition, for the most part stayed with their flocks, and, unchecked by an equally competent lay group, became and have since remained the all-powerful group in the province. . . . [The French Canadian] feels, and probably correctly, that i t was possibly his race from amalgamation" (DP 700-1). It has largely been an independent force, much more respectful of Papal authority than France is (B 263) but controlled by Rome only to the extent of settling i t s internal dissensions (WF 381), tax-supported (A 104, WF 64, S 13), allowed great p o l i t i c a l ascendancy by the British government (S 12), as long as London was a potent source of authority, f u l l y productive of i t s own personnel (S 18) after the English conqtiest so that foreign influences, above a l l ideas from France (S 26, 31), were of no consequence, with respected bishops and with a parish system that made the priest a most powerful social agent in his small domain. He and his parishioners seem very seldom to have been at loggerheads. This was partly be­ cause he was recruited from among the habitants (Hu 11), was well educated for his work, though not in such a manner as to give him notions of grandeur or of other disturbing character. English the Church who saved his language from -847- and Protestant were for him and for his parishioners synonymous (S 49, 21)i he practically forbade mixed marriages (S 23). The Catholic Irish were in Ontario; the few in Quebec were absorbed into the French. The "English" spoke a heretical language (S 22, 29), and priests and people were convinced that faith would be lost i f French were lost (A 329, S 20, 47, HS 4). Not that the priests had to make any effort to preserve French in their parishes. But as soon as exportation of population began, the emigrants had the ingrained idea that they would cease to be Catholic as soon as they ceased to speak B'rench (inter a l i a A 329). This sort of sentiment has i t s parallel in every immigrant group, but i t was stronger among the French Canadians than among others because the "English" were a constant danger (A 307), a danger that had been and would continue to be successfully resisted. In the years be­ fore the middle of the nineteenth century, ecclesiastical fears of this type caused the Church to discourage emigration to New England and to promote settlement in, among other undeveloped lands, the "American Middle West" (WC 170). Later their attitude changed. The Catholic Church in Quebec was neither an uplifting nor a depressive force in the non-religious l i f e of the people, who were not priest-ridden in the sense that they were exploited (B 262, Lo 285). But the Church was a powerful directive force (E 149, S 3 et passim), the parishes were democratic theocracies, democratic because representatives of the people made many de­ cisions, theocratic because the representatives, chosen to suit -848- the clergy (S 14), yielded to superior lights as long as yielding required only modest outlays of money for non-religious purposes; they supported to the limits of their resources religious expen­ ditures, and bound religion into much that elsewhere may be slight­ ly related to i t . The priests, too, seldom differed with their bishops, and the bishops had no hesitancy in declaring sinful a l ­ most anything not to their taste. Andr§ Siegfried quotes a pas­ toral letter of the Bishop of Quebec of Sept. 22, 1875: "Not only is the Church independent of the Commonwealth -- she stands above i t . . . . It is not the Church that is comprised in the State; i t is the State that is comprised in the Church 11 (S 35 ) % Siegfried also cites the Bishop of Rimouski as claiming that the refusal of the Sacraments would not have been made unless there were those who resisted, but the frankness of statement evidently infers quite general agreement. Siegfried was no friend of the Catholic Church, but another v i s i t o r from France, a Catholic himself quite sympa­ thetic in general, L. Arnould, writing in 1913, portrays the bish­ ops as trying to control a l l conduct, not always successfully when i t was a question of amusements, but with sufficient authority to guarantee the financial failure of any hostile journal (A 133). 86.81 Direction of education in the province of Quebec was l e f t to the Church throughout the period interesting us (S 65 f f ) . A l l elementary schools were parochial, and while a board of edu­ cation passed on budgetary matters and expressed themselves on -849- sundry subjects, they were almost always receptive to pastoral suggestions as long as money outlay was modest (S 71). Education then adhered to the ideals set forth above as those of the church (S 72). Religion and language as national emblems were bound to­ gether in the child's training. And though education was free (S 65), during the period of most interest to us, education was not too much insisted upon (S 70) especially for boys. They were needed in the f i e l d s . In 1916 the literacy rate was 87% (B 287). Horace Miner in Saint Denis, data collected in 1936, relates that regularly in plowing a small boy drove the team while the farmer held the plow handles (Mi 148); the boy might be his son, but i f he had none, he hired one. Miner says further; WA generation ago many of the men in the parish could not sign their names. £ln the early nineteenth century a petition of 87,000 French Ca­ nadians bore 78,000 crosses and 9,000 signatures (B 281).J The women have always been the scribes of the families. They keep the farm accounts; and the local deputy to Ottawa says that i t is invariably the women who write, requesting positions for their men11 (Mi 36). School lent prestige, however, and the maintenance of the parochial schools was an accepted duty, a habit carried into the United States. 82g The importance of the family was very great. Marriages oc­ curred early, arranged by parents, but in accord with the desires of the contracting parties. The numerous children each acquired -850- a function in family organization recognized by the others -- the future priest and the inheriting son were known for such and their lives and the lives of others, insofar as affected, adjusted to the prospect — so for people with other functions. Obviously adjustments were necessary in the United States, but the tradi­ tions were more easily maintained, the revolution less, than in stocks -- the Italian for instance -- where the family was strong but less democratically organized. The habit of each person's accepting an assigned r&le made the shift to industrial l i f e in New England easier. But parish and family discipline made for a society less permeable to outside influences than most. The traditional gaiety of the French Canadian added to this effect? though a surface phenomenon, i t was a protection against the pres­ sures of ridicule and disdain. A t r a i t working in the opposite direction was interest in p o l i t i c s , the habit of participation to reach desired goals. 86.9 Resistance by French Canadians to absorption by the English- speaking people whether in Canada or in the United States has been a conscious state, a result of their "passionate devotion to their language, their religion and their traditions" (S 231). In Quebec no territory has been lost (A 245) even though in the c i t i e s the "English" long succeeded in maintaining almost acknowledged social superiority (S 100). Indeed, the English speakers have tended to be absorbed. French Canadians sometimes bear the names of soldiers in the troops disbanded by the English after the conquest of 1760 (Mc 136j Dt 696) or the names of British settlers in the Eastern -851- Townships. These names are almost a l l Irish or Highland Scotch. Marriage to their owners could be accomplished within the faith. Marriages to non-Catholics were rare and combatted vigorously by the Church (A 99). The Glacier-like advance of French speech into the Townships and even beyond into the northern portion of border­ ing American states has gone on without end (A 322, E 146, De 17, Lo 280, 294, Hu 19, HM 90). The superior birth rate of the French constantly increased the number of children born into French- speaking homes. The French have been quite conscious of this "revanche du berceau" (revenge through the cradle) and proud of i t (see for example A 322, DP 705, De 16), at least u n t i l recently when "revanche du cerveau" (revenge through the brain) has been invented to rhyme with and displace "revanche du berceau." Part of the resistance to Engl-izing has taken the form of efforts to improve the quality of Canadian French. Though there are i n t e l ­ lectuals who would discard the practice of Paris as a guide, the ideal usually accepted is that of Europe. The movement at once strengthens resistance to English by providing a standard, and weakens i t by leading the habitant to think his speech is inferior (Mi 33). Resistance in Canada to shift from French to English has been, however, u n t i l recently less than the resistance to shift from English to French, as statistics cited by Jacques Hen- ri p i n show. The percentages of persons of French origin reporting English as their mother tongue were: 1931 - 4.78% 1941 - 5.89% 1951 - 7.77% -852- The corresponding percentages for persons of English origin re­ porting French as mother tongue were: 1931 - 0.59% 1941 - 0.87% 1951 - 0.96%* * Data from 1931 for the Province of Quebec show the greater tendency of women to be monolingual. % of men % of women Those of Eng. mother tongue who learned French 32.7 24.8 Those of French mother tongue who learned Eng. 45.5 32.4 "We may suspect that assimilation is the more intensive in propor­ tion as the ethnic group of those assimilated is more weakly rep­ resented in the milieu in which they l i v e . Thus, in Quebec Pro­ vince, where they are relatively low numerically, 8.4% of the British have French as their mother tongue. The percentage is 6.1% for Montreal, where the British are 17.7% of the population. Let us now consider the French living outside of their "glacier": 29% have abandoned their original tongue. • . . For a given "ethnic density 1 1 the French Canadians seem to assimilate more easily than the English Canadians. That may be because of the greater d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by the French, when they are a minority group in the establishment of minimum cultural f a c i l i t i e s (schools, radio)" (WD 175). In spite of this, from 1941 to 1951 in Quebec and New Brunswick because of the birth rate the number of French speakers increased. A danger to French in Canada is the invasion of the vocabulary by English (already studied in 1889 by E l l i o t , EII 133 f f , noted by Arnould in 1894, A 248). Words -853- for new things are taken over from English (Mi 276). While a like invasion by English in the United States is always a part of the process of displacement of immigrant languages, the phenomenon in Canada has no great significance, less than the French them­ selves attribute to i t . The invasion is minor compared to the territory Romance and Latin hold in the English language. The vocabulary invasion by English (Mi 244) is slight in the country (A 247), great among the inhabitants of c i t i e s , and the movement to the c i t i e s has become increasingly marked (Mi 248, La 242), but city l i f e in the province of Quebec offers few dangers to French as compared to those the language has suffered in American c i t i e s . Like other studies of the Quebecans, this one has given l i t t l e consideration to a growth of bilingualism. Bilingual per­ sons are not rare in the c i t i e s but a good knowledge of both lan­ guages is rare except in the practice of business where i t is ad­ vantageous (Mi 32), and is sometimes lacking there when i t would be profitable. S t i l l , bilingual instruction is urged (A 325), and more or less exists (Mi 32), more in the 20th century than earlier (B 289). 87.00 New England« the destination of the great mass of French Canadian emigrants, received them, sometimes on abandoned farms but much more importantly in the m i l l towns, that i s , unequally distributed with great concentrations. The rural inhabitants of Quebec became urban masses. As such,their social development might be expected to contrast with the evolution of the rural -854- settlements in Kansas* The contrast, though important, is not so great as might be imagined or at least was not so for many, many years, largely because of the constant interchange of pop­ ulation between the country of the habitants in Canada and the new settlements, thus perpetuating in the United States certain rural characteristics, partly too because a l l French Canadians had received the same training in resistance to outside culture. As to numbers in New England, we have already seen that approxi­ mately 2/3 of the French Canadian stock in the United States — stock defined by the census as immigrants and their children — lived in New England during the f i r s t decades of the twentieth century, and the t e r r i t o r i a l distribution remained the same later. Estimates as to how many persons of French Canadian ancestry, * counting the third and later generations, there are in the United States vary. The Canadian "fws" of the census sank from over a million in 1930 to 900,000 in 1940 and 758,000 in 1950, but the stock in a broader sense has of course grown larger. Nathan Hey- f i t s quotes two estimates of 1923, one of one million and the other of one and three-fourths. Heyfits, in 1960, adds, S,0.A. Lemieux has drawn my attention to a recent ^estimate] of two and one-half million" (WD 137). Taking a l l generations into consider­ ation the high estimates seem reasonable, and we may therefore consider that New England contained 12/3 million citizens of French Canadian ancestry in the 195©'s, nearly half of them in Massachusetts.* Theriault, he also writing in 1960, considers -855- * The estimate quoted by Lanctot for 1935 (La 262) is 1,700,000 for the U.S., 876,000 for New England. It does not specify how many generations i t includes. It gives 9,000 for Kansas which is 2% times the fws of 1930 while the estimate for I l l i n o i s is 8 times higher, and that for New England is only 18% higher. estimates just below one million the best for New England. He is probably right for the number that could be affected by the s p i r i t expressed in the manifesto of 1949 made at the centennial celebration in Worcester, Mass. "Upon the spiritual plane, the Franco-Americans are Roman Catholics? upon the temporal plane they are American citizens; f i n a l l y they are by tradition, lan-. guage, and s p i r i t French" (WD 393). These words di f f e r but l i t ­ t l e from those of declarations uttered for more than half a cen­ tury previously. They were not so factually exact in 1949 as they had been earlier, but they bespeak a s p i r i t that leads to like proclamations in the I960 ,s. The term "Franco-Americans" does not apply to the French who are resident in Canada. To a Canadian, whether French or English, an American is an inhabitant of the United States. Franco-Americans do not include the French from Europe in the minds of those who use the term; at best Euro­ peans would be included only i f their Catholic faith were warm. -856- The persistence of the Franco-American ideal among the children of the 19501s is well expressed in this quotation: "My generation, too, was indoctrinated with the idea that we are Franco-Americans. We never say we are just Americans. Our language is s t i l l very dear to us — not the language of the Frenchman but the speech of the "Canadien." We don't want to lose i t because we feel that i t is a symbol and a memory of the strong faith and family ties given us by our parents and grandparents." .01 Historically there were French Canadians coming to the Uni­ ted States at least as early as the Revolutionary campaigns into Canada (La 294), but immigration of importance did not begin u n t i l the p u l l of higher wages for work in industry began to be f e l t (HM 125). The f i r s t comers to what was later an industrial cen­ ter appeared in Woonsocket, Rhode Island, in 1814 or 1815 (HM 123, WW 216, WC 164). Other m i l l towns received their f i r s t French as follows: Worcester, Mass., 1820; Manchester, N.H., 1830; Lewiston, Me., 1831; Southbridge, Mass., 1832. A l l these towns except South- bridge had over 20,000 French inhabitants in the 1950's. South- bridge's total inhabitants numbered less than 18,000 in 1950; most of them were French, but not a l l Franco-American. Theriault in 1960 published estimates as follows (WD 392-399): -857- 30,000-40,000 20,000-30,000 10,000-20,000 F a l l River, Mass. New Bedford, Mass. Biddleford, Me. Woonsocket, R.I. Lowell, Mass. Fitchburg, Mass. Manchester, N«H. Worcester, Mass. Haverhill, Mass. Lewis ton, Me. Lawrence, Mass. Nashua, N.H.1 Pawtucket, R.I. Central F a l l s , R.I.* * Hansen (HM 214) provides a map showing well distribution in New England and New York State. This l i s t i n g does not include important elements in Burlington, Vermont, and neighboring towns, nor those in the south half of Massachusetts1 Connecticut Valley, Holyoke to Springfield, nor in a great many smaller towns (Ma 254) where the French element became very strong in proportion to the total population. With Southbridge, Skowhegan, Maine, is a good example. Where the French made a less imposing proportion of the population, they were s t i l l f u l l y independent of the Americans. The dependency everywhere was primarily limited to job procurement. The early industrial comers were often the nomadic and unstable element, but the French soon gained a reputation for r e l i a b i l i t y — or doci l i t y , some said (HI 188, B 215). .02 In the main the Canadians succeeded the Irish on the lowest rung of the economic ladder (HI 201). The Irish were fewer to -858- the north of Massachusetts. Where the French preponderated, so did their churches. In 1949 three-fourths of the Catholic parishes in the diocese of Manchester were French, over 2/3 of those of the Portland diocese and 3/5 of those of the Burlington diocese. In these same dioceses, the number of French priests in 1935 was 92, 98, and 35, a total of 225, whereas in Massachusetts there were 270 (La 262). The dioceses farther south having the highest per­ centage of French churches were F a l l River, 26%, and Springfield, 33%. In other words in Massachusetts where the French were most numerous the competition from the Irish was from two to three times as great as in northern New England. The French were later in part succeeded as economic footballs by the "new11 immigrants who also were Catholic; competition and struggle has, however, been with the Irish (WC 168, La 246, Ma 266 et passim). 03g The immigration was moderate u n t i l the C i v i l War; the war stimulated i t (WW 216), and afterward i t swelled mightily (Ma 250). The "mal des Etats-Unis" had seized the country. "Whole parishes were deserted and their empty houses boarded up" (Lo 284). There was a subsidence with the panic of 1873 (HM 169), but again the in-flow was very large through the eighties (HM 211) and u n t i l the hard times of the nineties began. After that economic c r i s i s , immigration resumed as shown above to end with the great depres­ sion of the I930fs (La 297). The years in which the American economy was in poor shape were not only years of light immigration. They were years during which many returned to Canada, often to -859- come back again later. This back and forth movement was in the 19th century much more marked than for any other immigrant stock. The "new11 immigrants, especially the Italians, were almost as f l u i d in their movements, but their period of restlessness was shorter. The resulting conservative influence was of greater duration in the case of French Canadian culture, also more evi­ dent to the Yankees and the Irish and to the Canadians themselves because the Europeans of the I870fs and lSSO's behaved differently. Those French who returned to Canada had been l i t t l e affected by a stay in Mew England. At St. Denis in 1936 in a parish totaling 700 persons there were 40 adults who had "spent a few years work­ ing in New England. . . . They never learned English since they had French 'bosses.1 They never went to moving pictures or thea­ ters. They did a new kind of work but after hours the women knitted and the men smoked and talked, just as they would have done in Canada" (Mi 41-42). The influence of such a l i f e with the pros­ pect of return to Canada was considerable, but s t i l l , i t s impor­ tance has perhaps been exaggerated? the western settlements were culturally as conservative without benefit of such frequent ex­ change of population with Canada. 10 In New England the parish priests of French Canada did not accompany the f i r s t immigrants. Indeed the movement southward was abhorrent to them (WC 169, Ma 256) because i t subjected their people to many e v i l influences. But presently they perceived that they were needed, and arrived hoping not only to preserve their -860- own but also to win new territory for their faith. This mission­ ary prospect was to be accomplished not by conversions but by the fecundity of their countrymen (Lo 282). They were transplanting their organization and their practices at home (La 244) and with these features a l l the rest of their French culture, most notably and most sacredly their French language. "Faith is lost with # language," they said (Ma 320). Naturally the Irish, completely in charge of Catholic affairs in New England, did not welcome the advent of a competing clergy (WC 177, Lo 290, De 224, N 337). They saw a threat to unity and had not had the experience of shar­ ing dioceses with other stocks, as was true where the Germans were numerous beyond the Alleghenies. The French immigrants stayed away from church rather than attend the Irish parishes or else became "discontented, insubordinate, uncontrollable" (WC 186, see also N 339). They were not even content with European French pastors (N 330). .11 History of Growth of French Parishes in New England. The French themselves had to c a l l in the Canadian pastors; the hier­ archy was loath to create national parishes. To be sure the f i r s t Bishop of Burlington, in the state of Vermont, where the Irish were less numerous, was French, but from Brittany. On his arr i v a l in 1853 he tried unsuccessfully to procure Canadian clergy. He was obliged to import seven priests from his native province (WC 172, Ma 258). However, a national parish in charge of a French Canadian priest had been established in Burlington in 1850 (DE 226, -861- WC 163). Earlier Father ZSphyren LSvesque established a congre­ gation at Worcester which is regarded as having become a French national parish by 1849. The parishes became numerous after the C i v i l War. Between 1868 and 1890 sixty-three were founded (Ma 270 f f , WC 174-5)« With a very few exceptions, the founding pas­ tors bore Quebecan names: Gagnier, Dauray, BSdard, Chevalier (WC 176) to mention a few owned by remarkable men. The parishes were conducted very much as in the old province. There the Church was an established Church and money was obtained through governmental channels, but the budgeting had been determined locally, and the Canadians showed themselves as generous in New England as they had been before emigration. Though the ftunding of the parishes made permanent a floating population (WC 180), the parish became a yet firmer center of national activity than in Quebec because there was no refuge beyond i t . No very serious pressures except from Irish colleagues diverted religious behavior from the old pattern brought from Canada u n t i l the First World War. The French fought the Irish stubbornly in this matter, and their insistence on national parishes was even at times riotous (WC 184, HL 257, 263). S t i l l , at the beginning of the twentieth century there were "forebodings that the assimilative tide would sweep away the great network of Franco-American parishes" (WC 188). When the insistance upon Americanization came from a l l sides, the adjustment did not take the form of language abandonment. Then the French recognized that they were not Canadians, but Americans, and in 1931 Mrs. -862- Wessel wrote: 1 1 1 We want an American-trained French clergy, 1 said one Rhode Island priest, fa clergy that is "American-minded."1" (WW 245) Vocations to the priesthood were numerous enough to satisfy this demand, but the old priests were not anxious to be displaced, and Theriault holds iJhat the hierarchy deliberately l e f t them in charge because i t desired a French clergy lacking dynamism from age, tending to ossification in old habits, thus making the young d r i f t to other parishes. This was his view of the condition existent about 1940. Of a later period, he says in 1955, "In recent years the hierarchy of the Church has begun to exert marked pressure upon the traditional Franco-American parishes. . • A number of more or less positive steps have been taken to force changes in the direction of making these parishes conform to the basic policy of the Church. It is reasonable to assume that these steps are not taken without a careful reading of the opportunities, even the necessities, created by internal changes in the habits of language and the interests and.values of the Franco-American parishioners" (WD 408). The report in 1960 from several of these parishes was that priests, aged less than 50, spoke English with each other, French only with their seniors, so that resistance to linguistic change would be slight among them. For French Canadians of the second and third genera­ tions the national parish often lost i t s lure; 19,000 belonged to French churches in F a l l River in 1957, 11,000 to t e r r i t o r i a l parishes (HL 267). The situation in conservative Lewiston was similar. S t i l l , French churches on the average had preaching in -863- French at two-thirds of their masses. 87.l2g The early pastors did their best to discourage "mixed11 mar­ riages (Lo 288), meaning marriages with others than French. They were successful for some time. In 1909 the Senate investigators at Woonsocket interviewed 175 children under 14 years of age em­ ployed in the factories; 113 of them had both parents born in Canada; 11 had mothers but not fathers born in Canada and 4 fathers but not mothers born in Canada; the other 48 had neither parent born in Canada. (Se 64) Since men and gi r l s of the second genera­ tion of the French may account for most of the parents not born in Canada, we may assume that intermarriage was nearly non-exis­ tent. In 1960 parishes could s t i l l be found where the priests maintained the effort, but by then the battle was lost, for in most of the towns possessing large French settlements there were other Catholic stocks, and the defense was weak against them, par­ ti c u l a r l y i f they were not Irish. At Saint Anthony's in New Bed­ ford in 1955, out of 50 marriages, 27 were "mixed." In 1880 in F a l l River seven eights of the marriages involving Canadians were between "Francos," in 1937 half, in 1961 one f i f t h (FL 265). 87.2 Parochial schools were established almost immediately in French parishes, sometimes against resistance from nativists (WC 183). In 1908 they had grown to number 133 with 55,000 pupils (De 231). They tolerated very l i t t l e English until,the pressures of the Fir s t World War came to bear. The teachers were sisters -864- much oftener than in Quebec, and some of those Yankee-born, were educated in Canada (B 217). Sometimes, too, they came from France, much more frequently than the pastors. "Franco11 sisters ultimately were in the great majority. The h o s t i l i t y of 100% Americans to everything foreign during and after the Fi r s t World War led in the schools of the Quebecans to some compromise as to the language of instruction, belated as we shall see for Rhode Island, earlier in Vermont and New Hampshire, f u l l y accepted only very late in Maine (Lo 291), where in 1927 the lower grades knew l i t t l e English, arid the higher grades had a " f a i r knowledge" (Lo 291). By 1960 even in Maine where instruction in French held out long -- in the last years despite the law — French was used only in instruction in French as a foreign language and in religion, sometimes not too successfully in the latter case. One pastor said, "They spend 90% of their time explaining in English what the French means" (see also HL 269). For such instruction meaning is more impor­ tant than language; so "prayers must be learned in English as well as in French" (WD 409). In 1966 a young lady born during the Sec­ ond World War wrote of conditions in the Connecticut valley in Massachusetts. "We s t i l l have bilingual schools^ but they are weak­ ening rapidly. My own grammar school and parish church are con­ stantly being threatened by incoming families who no longer or never did speak French. More and more time is being spent teach­ ing, praying, singing and sermonizing in English. There is an undercurrent of resentment and panic in the hearts of the old -865- people who observe the rapid changes. We must give in to the demands of the Irish bishop. Even our French Catholic High School [highly rated] is being threatened. The Bishop wants to amalgamate a l l the Catholic high schools into one single school." In the days of greatest immigration the parochial schools over­ flowed, and many children attended the public schools, achieved bilingualism almost at once, and came to regard French as meant only for the home and the backward. •30 P o l i t i c a l l y the French were at f i r s t regarded as an inert group. The influence of their priests was then against naturali­ zation. But the Quebecans were accustomed to p o l i t i c a l action (Mi 245). The clergy began to see the advantages of p o l i t i c a l control, promoted naturalization, and after some years the French took their place as a group (Lo 289, HM 212, MA 296) which was very potent where their numbers were great. They used their power to conserve their ideals. "Their ambition has always been -- once naturalization in their adopted land was secured -- to con­ stitute bodies devoted to the preservation of their customs and language, as well as to safe-guarding their faith" (La 244). These words were written in 1929. A somewhat earlier example shows the application of this policy. In Rhode Island in the early 1920's when "hyphenated" Americans were anathema everywhere, Robert Dexter wrote of them, "They intend to see to i t that their young people remain French-Americans. They do not fear the hyphen; -866- they glory in i t " (DG 216). When in 1922 the Republicans with a "Franco" governor whom the French had helped put in office sought by means of the Peck B i l l to require English as the lan­ guage of instruction in a l l schools, the French, who were one- sixth of the electorate, rebelled and the next administration was Democratic, even though the Canadians were thus obliged to line up with the Irish. The compromises worked out advanced in­ struction in English, but cautiously. Another example. In cer­ tain c i t i e s of Maine Irish machines prevailed p o l i t i c a l l y . The French a l l i e d themselves with the Yankees and secured changes in state laws that allowed them to take over municipal administrations where they were strong. At Lewiston in 1960 an Irishman said b i t t e r l y , "Now that they have control of the city they don't hesi­ tate to show they are French. Most of the men on jobs in factories talk French together." He perhaps exaggerated, but Lewiston had received a later reenforcement from Canada than most c i t i e s . Af­ ter a merger, a company had closed down a plant in eastern Ontario where half of the employees were monolingual Quebecans, and moved the personnel to Lewiston. Circumstances were not always so fa­ vorable to the conservation of the French language, but the po­ l i t i c a l power of the French in New England was a definite deter­ rent to assimilation. Other ethnic groups have developed p o l i t ­ i c a l power also, but have not usually exercised i t to the same end. .31 The struggle for survivance is perhaps most dramatically i l ­ lustrated by p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , though no phase of Franco-Amer­ ican l i f e in New England can be treated without touching i t . -867- American commentators became as eloquent upon the subject as the Francos themselves. "Survivance. preservation of religion, lan­ guage, and customs had become an obsession with the French Cana­ dians as a result of more than a century's struggle to maintain their identity under British rule in Canada" (WC 183). So spoke Mason Wade in 1951. There was more heat earlier. "Schooled and encouraged by their success in preserving themselves a nation apart in Canada they [came} to the United States with the same ideals" (DF 367). "These Frenchmen have struggled to keep them­ selves a separate group, untouched by any assimilative tendency" (DG 215). These are the words of Robert Dexter in 1923 and 1924. In 1930 he spoke somewhat less harshly, but s t i l l emphatically, "The French-Canadians are in many ways the most rac i a l l y conscious- of any group which i t has been my experience in some fifteen years of social work in this country and Canada to have come across. . . . An essential a r t i c l e of faith among the French £is} that English- speaking and Protestant America is materialistic, impious and in need of regeneration [cf. La 246, Lo 292} and that possibly the French through their staunch Catholicism and unsullied tradition may act as the necessary redeemers. £A] French writer, M. Wilson . . . says that they are fighting without stop or without mercy to con­ serve their language and their dogmas • • . and that they w i l l use a l l human means to postpone the supreme hour of the agony to the race under the mortal blow of assimilation. £Such statements] are extreme but nevertheless they are their own statements and reflect their own attitude." (GD 73-75). More exactly they re- -868- fleeted the attitude of the generation of French then active, and they must not be understood to imply disloyalty to the United States. Even for the l880 fs Hansen is right in saying, " i t was a new kind of nationalism, one that was strongly tinged with Amer­ icanism" (HM 212). Leaders of the Survivance were s t i l l eloquent in the i960 1s; for example in Le Travailleur of Worcester and and L1Indgpendant of F a l l River. But even these leaders weakened in practice. Ph. A. Lajoie, editor of the Indgpendant. was also a choir director. Despite his admonitions to others he used Eng­ l i s h before his choir "so as to be understood." "He does not seem to know," remarked a priest sadly, "that we have the same need for our sermons." The Independent became a weekly in November, 1962, ceased publication the next January (PL 274). 32g The Franco-American press« as implied just above, has been p o l i t i c a l l y militant (B 247), devoted religiously (De 234), and was at one time powerful. As literacy increased, the number of readers increased, and from about 1890 to 1930 the journals ex­ pressed ideas which the numerous readers were willing to receive; a l l were ideas bound up with the survivance of French. But the number of readers has greatly fallen off. A competent authority estimated in 1960 for the Indgpendant of F a l l River that there were no more than a thousand subscribers for a population in the area of 30,000 "Francos." The decrease has not been caused en­ t i r e l y by loss of linguistic competency among readers; persons past thirty could easily establish the habit of reading the printed words. Perhaps the most important cause is that the other news -869- media supply information earlier; also the militancy has tended laterally to produce more smiles than sympathy* Few have cared to echo the Travailleur in shouting "Traitor 1 1 at those unenthus- ia s t i c in the work for survivance* •4 French Canadians organized societies of national character as early as 1834 in Canada (De 123). They began forming them in the United States in 1848 and as time went on they became more and more numerous. "These societies, without confusing their in­ dividual interests, became federated, with the goal of defending more effectively their common interests of race and religion. Such was the avowed aim of the 'Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste d'AmS- rique' founded at Woonsocket, R.I., in 1900, today counting 307 lodges and 23,400 members" (De 235). So wrote Desrosiers and Four- net in 1911 (see also Ma 291) and listed further five similar so­ cieties, but the latter never achieved a commanding position. General conventions, where a l l participated, were held repeatedly (De 237). Besides acting as insurance groups the societies pro­ moted the establishment of new parishes, promoted French Catholic interests in many ways, and acted p o l i t i c a l l y (B 217). "By their active propaganda in favor of naturalization, they helped to con­ solidate the p o l i t i c a l influence of our compatriots" (De 236). The Franco-American society that has exerted the most influence is the Union St.-Jean-Baptiste.* The Association Canado-AmSri- * Curiously, the "Francos," in speaking of this society rhyme the saint's name with 'clean, 1 which is a bit of testimony as to how strong the tendency is not to use terminology employed -870- by the Irish. caine has also been important (HI 259). Local informants feel that the Union" Persists as an insurance society primarily. The meetings were in the 1960's s t i l l conducted in French, but degenerated into English when financial matters of any importance had to be settled. Without financial agenda, only oldsters attended. .5 The family among French immigrants to New England remained a force of great importance. It made the ties with Quebec close originally (N 367, HI 188), and they weakened only when new immi­ gration became inconsiderable. An immigrant of age 3 in 1900 said in 1960 that he f e l t great need for v i s i t s to Canada while his parents lived, that such trips were very pleasant while his bro­ thers and sisters were flourishing, but that afterward they were of indifferent interest. His case seems typical, and the next generation found s t i l l fewer attractions. Visitors from Canada to families long established in New England were sometimes regarded as irksome after 1950. Canada by 1960 had become simply the goal of tourism, an important goal because of religious pilgrimages. These later tourists, even when competent, sometimes pretended to be unable to speak French at their stops in Canada. The fre­ quency of employment of mothers of families in New England exerted both disintegrating and conservative influence on language usage. The children played more often on the streets in such cases and learned English, sometimes with an Irish accent. Sometimes though they were under the care of their grandmothers with whom they -871- could use only French* On the whole the family was a conserva­ tive force, for while i t was a close unit .stratification of autho­ r i t y was not overemphasized and the generations mingled with some­ thing nearer harmony than in many stocks. Thus the linguistic habits of the old could not be too greatly disregarded. The fam­ i l y , as the seat of reproduction, was of great conservative impor­ tance. Fecundity among the Canadians held up well, and was once the basis of great hopes. Gailly de Taurines wrote in 1894, "The Canadian population w i l l hold fast and increase in the United States. Its movement of expansion is but at i t s beginning. What pressure w i l l this American France exert, alive and vigorous as i t i s , upon an Anglo-Saxon population in process of decay" (GA 214). .6 French among the Franco-Americans resisted displacement longer than immigrant languages brought into New England by other stocks. This phenomenon is to be explained partly tt>r the ease of communi­ cation because i t was "the transfer en masse of a civilizations schools, churches, journals, and professions, a l l complete" (Lo 286). In 1900 Nevers could say, "The Anglicization movement has been definitively contained" (N 367). But, already in 1906, Siegfried was writing, "These emigrants . . . seem to have abso­ lutely severed from the bulk of their race • • •; they continue to speak the language and cluster about their parish priests. .., but, [though} you may row up against the stream of British c i v i l i ­ zation, the stream of American c i v i l i z a t i o n submerges you every -872- time" (S 125). However, in 1912 Father Magnan boasted, "Subjected for years to a systematic pressure exerted almost everywhere, at school, during catechism, at church, in the factories, in social relationships and calculated to achieve nothing less than the ih- hoculation w i l l y - n i l l y with the Hibernian virus bearing an Ameri­ can label, we find them s t i l l Canadians at heart, their speech a l i t t l e the worse for wear but s t i l l French, absolutely as i f they had l e f t only .yesterday the banks of the St. Lawrence where, how­ ever, they were not born11 (Ma 306; also 296). He also boasted that they were bilingual (MA 298). in 1929 Lower recorded that rural French south of the settlements near the border had been yielding to English, but he goes on, "Those communities where they settled in compact blocks, as in Nashua, F a l l River, Woon- socket, and so: on . . • maintain that no impression is being made upon them and French is being spoken even unto the third and fourth generation, a contention the force of which is not lessened by a s t r o l l about the streets of such c i t i e s . Many minor centers seem also to be holding out" (Lo 293). Mrs. Wessel in 1931 modi­ fies their claims somewhat; "The French .Canadians insist and our data would corroborate the assertion that their adherence to the French language is not inconsistent with the use of English. • . . We have here a people that remains not only bi-lingual, but b i - cultural . • . Franco-American not French Canadian" (WW 245). A few years later Theriault had less confidence, and in 1955 he wrote, "Outside of the churches and schools in the everyday l i f e , -873- of Franco-Americans, habits of li v i n g give every appearance of being in a highly unstable state • . • do not present a hopeful prospect for the future of French as a language of everyday use. . . . It is s t i l l possible for members of the older gene­ ration to transact business, pray, read newspapers, and converse with their neighbors exclusively in French" (WD 409). There were s t i l l some who had been in New England f o r t y years unable to speak English. The middle-aged shifted back and forth from one language to the other. "Among the young English tends to be the language in use. French may be understood, and frequently i s , but i t is much less frequently used. Very often one finds a marked reluc­ tance to speak French" (WD 410). On a walk through a ffete cham- £§tre, presumably at Nashua, the town with which he was intimately acquainted, "French was heard only occasionally and very rarely indeed from children and young people talking among themselves." The report from Manchester for similar occasions for the last half of the I950fs was that men in their f i f t i e s "would start off talking French together but pretty soon i t was English." Such behavior was not what was meant when a Frenchman from there said in 1929 that i t was "more bi-lingual than the capital of Canada" (Lo 281). In 1947 Sandwell found Franco-Americans hardly dis­ tinguishable from the older population elements (Sa 170). As at Lewiston, there were s t i l l in 1960 settlements or sections of settlements where small children played habitually in French, where people in early manhood shifted from one language to the other hardly aware of the change, but by that time there were many settlements too where there were children like a certain nine- -874- year old g i r l in eastern Massachusetts. Questioned by her pas­ tor as to why she answered him only with nods and head-shakings, she f i n a l l y explained, "Sister says that we must talk French when we talk to Monsignor and I don't know any French." Irreverent small boys settled the matter by crossing the street as Monsignor approached, and from that vantage point shouting "Hi, Father." In communities in western Massachusetts where children were pro­ ficient in 1960, by 1965 those of the same age had abandoned the use of French though they understood i t s t i l l . H.B. Lemaire con­ cluded his chapter on French in New England in Language Loyalty in the United States (preliminary edition 1964, printed edition 1966) by saying "Generally speaking, one must conclude that the present generation is forsaking the French language. . . . It seems {however} to have taken on a new aspect and to be proceeding in an unexpectedly hopeful direction" (PL 278). He has developed the point that the hope is based on an S l i t e group which is "study­ ing the French language," in other words learning i t like any stu­ dent of French anywhere.* * Lemaire's chapter alternates in tone from its f i r s t page where i t begins, "Over a million people in the United States speak French natively," and adds in the next paragraph, "In some ci t i e s French continues to be spoken in the home, at work, and at play. However, in many other areas Franco-Americans are abandoning the daily use of French" (FL 253). Almost a l l the data and facts cited in the chapter support the prospect of -875- abandonment. The tone is apparently influenced by moods varying between nostalgia and se l f - j u s t i f i c a t i o n , which may be summed up in the phrase, fiToo bad, but i t can't be any other way,11 .7 West of New England and New York (27,000 fb in 1900) the French Canadians in the United States have been most numerous (HI 187, Ta-xvi) in Michigan (30,000 fb in 1900), Wisconsin (10,000), Minnesota (12,000), and slightly less so but more sig­ nificantly for Kansas, in I l l i n o i s (9,000), Let us neglect the story of the missionaries and the coureurs de bois. Desrosiers and Fournet describe the later movement thus: 11 In 20 years, from 1850 to 1870, thousands of French Canadians spread through :the Ontario region of Essex and Kent [in Michigan, the counties near­ est Detroit}, penetrated the forests of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, became miners on the shores of Lake Superior, lumber cutters elsewhere. The discovery of new mines, the fortunes of the lumber industry, the financial crises cause the multitude of these improvident workers to shift about. They were always search­ ing for a new job 1 1 (De 252). To near Detroit the French came in colonial days; the Detroit neighborhood was the center of d i s t r i ­ bution (HM 131, 152; De 248). The uncomplimentary terms employed by Desrosiers and Fournet seem mostly to have been provoked be­ cause these immigrants were sometimes bad Catholics (see also MA 276), but Mone thing singularly facilitated [Faith 1sj victory, i t was the pious and constant use of the French language. . . . This population did not cast off i t s traditions, i t s language, -876- its family customs" (De 252, see also Ma 253, Ta-xxvii). And a number of national parishes were established; in Michigan the dio­ cese of Grand Rapids contained six in 1909 (19 French priests), that of Marquette seven (20 French priests). There were also two in the diocese of Duluth in 1908. The diocese of Saint Paul had four French national parishes in 1908 and contained 12 French priests in 1909. And parochial schools teaching French were founded, and the Union St.-Jean-Baptiste came west. But in 1941 the maintenance of French was written off there by Lanctot, "The French element in the west is melting into the American mass" (La 298, see also N 368). Except in I l l i n o i s we shall not follow the later fortunes of these settlements. 80 The I l l i n o i s French Canadian settlements of some importance in the latter half of the nineteenth century (Ta-xvi) were those at Chicago (HM 128) and, thirty miles south, at Kankakee and in its neighborhood.* The early French settlements in the area near * In Aurora just west of Chicago, there was a French National parish, Sacred Heart, with 115 pupils in it s school. In 1915 the number of pupils had sunk to 85, but the priest was s t i l l French. In 1960, while Sacred Heart was s t i l l labeled French, i t s priest was an Italian; in 1948 his name was German. St. Louis -- Kaskaskia, Cahokia, etc. -- had lost importance. The beginnings at Chicago antedated the foundation of the city (P 422). Ouilmettfe and Beaubien were among the pioneers who settled there a number of years prior to 1821. French priests preponderated -877- there u n t i l the diocese was established in 1844, The f i r s t perma­ nent French church was Notre Dame de Chicago, founded in 1866. Practically in downtown Chicago, i t has maintained i t s e l f as a French church of the type needed in a great metropolis; i t is in charge of personnel furnished by the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. The French became localized in what was then the sub­ urb of Brighton Park to the southwest of the city, and St. John the Baptist 1s and St. Joseph's Church, later St. Joseph's and St. Ann's, were founded nearer to them. In 1951 the neighborhood of St. Joseph's was 90% Polish, but i t was s t i l l labeled "French*' in 1960 without a Frenchman among the four priests serving i t . A French pastor was, however, in charge t i l l 1950; by that time St. John's had no French personnel, though in 1960 i t s t i l l bore the label "French and English." By then St. Louis of France, lo­ cated far to the south on 111th Street, had lost its national label, but i t s t i l l had a pastor named Dionne. Saint Joseph's remained JPrench in language u n t i l the First World War, although a novena in Polish was established in 1914. The French clung to i t because a shrine to Saint Ann — with relics -- was established in 1900. The Union Saint-Jean-Baptiste, which had come west by 1878 (Ta-xxxiii), established organizations both in Chicago and Kankakee; at least the latter endured into the 1960's. 81 The Kankakee area had i t s f i r s t settlement in Bourbonnais, for the town of Kankakee did not come into being u n t i l 1855 after the I l l i n o i s Central had been built through. Bourbonnais was -878- named for Francois Bourbonnais who was a trader in the area at least by 1825. Bourbonnais, probably belonging to a family that had settled at Kaskaskia (Ca 67), had a Pottawatomie wife and : through her gained 640 .acres, part of which was on the later site of Kankakee. He appears to have had no dealings in real estate, leaving that activity to Noel LeVasseur, who was in the neighbor­ hood by 1822, trading with the Indians on the Pottawatomie Reserve (HM 129). Le Vasseur (1799-1879) was born at St. Michel de Yamas- ka in Quebec; in 1817 he began his trading with the western Indians, and settled definitely at Bourbonnais in 1832. When after ceding their reservation in 1832, the Pottawatomies of this area were moved out to Iowa in 1836, LeVasseur acquired considerable amounts of their lands. Some of this he sold to speakers of English, but he had French neighbors by 1839, and Antoine Marcotte who had been in Chicago for three years came on to Bourbonnais in that year. But immigration of importance began somewhat later. In 1840 Le Vasseur returned home to the Yamaska area which lies some thirty miles upstream toward Montreal from Trois Rivi&res. After his departure for the west again, lfthe stories he had told to his Ca­ nadian countrymen, of how fortune smiled on the frugal and in­ dustrious in his adopted home, illustrated and corroborated by his own success, kindled their imaginations. His reports were published far and wide. . . • 'They caused a great sensation. In some localities people became greatly excited and prepared to s e l l their farms and holdings forthwith in order to go at once to -879- the new country. 1 But i t is said that immigration did not com­ mence un t i l 184411 (Ga 71). The names of the arrivals of that year appear sometimes in Kansas. The immigration continued, in­ creased by a new wave of LeVasseur propaganda and the reports of scouts sent out in 1847. "The French immigration [to BourbonnaisJ practically ceased with the years 1850, 1851, and f52. . . . For years a l l immigrants from Canada, whatever their ultimate objec­ tive, came primarily to Bourbonnais and made this the base of their f i r s t plans and operations. Many of them settled afterwards in other portions of the county or in neighboring counties. . .. From old Bourbonnais and these, her nearby childrenj sprang a l l the French Canadian colonies of Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota and the Dakotas" (Ca 71-72). At least for Minnesota this last statement is an exaggeration, but for Kansas i t is true. In 1847 the French group was strong enough to receive i t s f i r s t resident pas­ tor, Father Courgeault. The French settlement was then growing rapidly. St. George, a few miles to the east had a chapel in 1848 and a resident priest in 1854. The hamlet was named for St. Georges d'Henriville in Canada. In general, the Canadians seem to have come from Trois Rivi&res or near i t or from the Eastern Townships not far from this d i s t r i c t . Kankakee received a r e s i ­ dent priest at St. Rose's as soon as the town was founded. .82 Growth of the Kankakee Settlement. The most remarkable of the settlements was St. Anne, twelve miles farther south, which was the scene of an almost unheard-of phenomenon among French -880- Canadians, a heresy. It is usually stated that the village was founded in 1852 by Father Chiniquy, but St. Anne's Centennial His­ tory maintains that St. Mary, now Beaverville, and L'Erable, sev­ eral miles farther south had then already s p l i t off from St. Anne's parish. In any case the two villages had priests with French names as late as 1915. The southern edge of these parishes marks the utmost limit of the French settlements. The western was not far beyond St. Anne's, but stretched out farther near Kankakee. To the east the French have been an important element in Momence twelve miles from Kankakee (De 263). To the north in Manteno 10 miles from Kankakee, St. Joseph's parish was s t i l l labeled "French and English" in 1960 though the pastor's name was Lavery; i t was Lareau in 1949. St. Anne and St. George, similarly labeled, also had shifted from French to Irish pastors by 1960, St. Anne before 1949.* In 1960 St. Rose in Kankakee was qualified simply as French * TassS (Ta-xvi) also mentions Les Petites lies as one of the villages in the Kankakee group of settlements. but of the four serving priests, only the Right Reverend Emile J. Cousineau (in St. George from 1937 t i l l 1949) bore a French name. From 1850 the population of the area grew rapidly. The French numbered 1,500 families in 1860 (C 17). In 1910 there were in Kankakee County 1,071 foreign-born French Canadians and 1,970 children of foreign born; in Iroquois County to the south there were 316 foreign-born and 709 of foreign parentage. These numbers -881- should be increased very materially by members of the third gene­ ration, but 7 to 8 thousand is probably the maximum number of French in the d i s t r i c t . The territory was not solidly held; Bour­ bonnais and St. Anne were focuses and the landholdings grew thinner the farther one was from the focus. The town of Kankakee, which was described by TassS in 1878 as "half French, half American" (Ta 313), attracted the Canadians. In 1910 over a third of the French in Kankakee County were in the city , but they were much less numerous in both the county and the city than the Germans. In 1930 there were three times as many foreign-born Germans as French in the county and in the city more than half again as many. Foreign-born from the British Isles were s t i l l more numerous. S t i l l the French were important enough to e l i c i t the following encomium from Campbell in 1906. These "people have been sober, industrious, energetic and progressive. . . . From among them have been chosen men who have honorably f u l f i l l e d positions of public trust; ahd there is not a legitimate industry or business, there is not a profession . . . that is not today graced by de­ scendants of the early French settlers of Bourbonnais" (Ca 72). 83 Returning to St. Anne and Father Chiniquy« we find in Shea's History the following: "A considerable settlement of French Ca­ nadians had grown up at Bourbonnais Grove, under Rev. Mr. Chini­ quy, who had incurred censure in Canada. He had been received into the diocese of Chicago, under the belief that he had thor­ oughly reformed. The hope proved delusive, and Bishop 01Reagan -882- found i t necessary to withdraw his faculties. The unfortunate man denied that he had been suspended. . . . Bishop 0'Regan in­ vited the Rev. Mr. Desaulniers from Canada, who disabused the people and brought them back to their duties . . . Chiniquy, how­ ever, continued to disturb the peace of the flock and openly apos- tasized, setting up a church which he called the Christian Cath­ o l i c , obtaining the aid of deluded Protestants. He was then ex­ communicated, and has since maintained for years scurrilous attacks on the Church" (Sh 618-19). This account was published in 1892. The facts set forth in i t , aside from emotional coloring and in­ accuracy regarding Bourbonnais Grove, are in accord with those contained in other versions. Father Chiniquy was a crusader for temperance in Canada, better known for his zeal against alcohol than for his unorthodox theology, but vocal on many subjects. "Among others, he deplored the departure of those Canadians who were going to seek among our neighbors 'bread, space and true l i ­ berty,' elements essential to the l i f e of nations occurring in abundance in the United States" (La 223). He deplored the depar­ ture of others, but when he found his own liberty hampered, he led a multitude of followers to Kankakee, and immediately after­ ward to St. Anne. The ecclesiastical tempest broke forth almost at once, and Chiniquy announced the establishment of the Christian Catholic Church in 1856; 1,000 parishioners followed him. He and Desaulniers, who was installed at Bourbonnais in 1856 and had led the orthodox, contended for the church property. The matter went -883- to court and Chiniquy won. His church in 1860 became the First Presbyterian, and the orthodox Catholics were unable to support a resident pastor before 1871. A l l was not tranquillity among the new Presbyterians, and a Second Presbyterian Church was or­ ganized in 1861. A young Protestant from Paris, France, presided over i t . Chiniquy continued to nourish his enthusiasm for temper­ ance, and became a lecturer often absent from his congregation. Placide Boudreau (1841-1921), a local convert of Chiniquy 1s, ex­ ercised pastoral functions during the lecturer's absences and taught the parochial school. In 1888 Chiniquy formally severed his connections with St. Anne and the two Presbyterian churches merged. The former pastor returned twice for v i s i t s . He died about 1896. Boudreau gave up his pastorate in 1899. His succes­ sors, Louis Giroulx and Pierre Beauchamp, preached in French in the morning and in English later in the day. Beauchamp was suc­ ceeded in 1917 by Morton Merrell who possessed Huguenot ances­ tors but knew no French. When he le f t in 1922, "the older mem­ bers of the congregation missed their French-speaking pastors. Rev. Pierre Beauchamp was contacted and said he would return i f a unanimous c a l l were extended" (BC). A p o l l revealed that a majority desired him, but not a unanimity, and French definitively disappeared from Presbyterian services. For a few years more, u n t i l about 1928, French was of advantage to the proprietors of stores. At the beginning of the century French had been the or­ dinary language at home of parents with young children. Shortly -884- before, children of non-French parents in the village had learned only French on going to school, but soon a l l schooling was in Eng­ l i s h and the children were lapsing into English at home unless discipline was strong or bribes considerable. In 1951 even peo­ ple with gray hair were using no French with each other as they l e f t the Catholic Church after an Assumption Day service. 87.84 Elsewhere in the area, linguistic developments varied some­ what. At St. George, where disruptive forces did not exist as at St. Anne, French in 1951 was not so badly off. After-church conversation was often in French even among those of the third generation, but the young were few in the community. Through the depression of the 1930's the parish had shrunk from one hun­ dred families to thirty. Kankakee, 29,500 inhabitants in 1950, as the recipient of a population reaching the age of retirement continued into the 1960's to have pastoral need for French, though from very early a German Catholic element was important in the town and later a Polish group. There were families which used exclusively French at home in the I920 fs, though in general persons born in that per­ iod were not expected by strangers among the older French to un­ derstand them. S t i l l i t was possible to trade in French u n t i l 1930. In general by 1961 only those born at the beginning of the century were proficient in French. People older than this s t i l l preferred to confess in French. Sermons in French had disappeared shortly before 1930. The situation at Bourbonnais was similar. -885- Children born as late as 1918 learned French, and in 1961 the very old conversed together in French* 87.85g The French in the whole Kankakee d i s t r i c t are quite conscious of their connection with Kansas. Some of the older people have lived in Cloud or Rooks Counties, .many more have visited there, and a great many have relatives in those settlements. Visits from Kansans have not been infrequent. On the other hand the connec­ tion with Canada has practically been broken; even by 1940 there were few who went back there to v i s i t , and no one speaks of cor­ respondence with relatives. The only French connection of impor­ tance besides that with Kansas is with Chicago. The metropolis has absorbed much of the overflow population which earlier sought new lands to the west. 87.9 The finalizing of French Canadians throughout the United States proceeded slowly for many years. In the west where set­ tlements were small i t then advanced rapidly so as to be prac­ t i c a l l y completed by 1960. In New England the resistance was s t i l l active in the 1960fs, but the younger generations were habitually using English. -886- 88.00 Speakers of Spanish in the United States have been in great measure immigrants from Mexico or their descendants, including old populations in the southwest. The Puerto Ricans who have come to play so large a part in New York and in a few other c i t i e s have not appeared in the Trans-Mississippi area. Because of their lack of significance for Kansas, only a single paragraph (88.01) is de­ voted to them. Immigrants from Spain and Central and South America have been quite limited in number in this country, negligible in Kansas. Since Mexicans are the only Spanish speaking stock sig­ nificantly represented in Kansas i t is the only one considered at length in this study. Mexicans are defined for this volume as for Volume 11 (# 45.02g), an immigrant or descendant of an immi­ grant from Mexico. For New Mexico and the San Luis Valley in Colorado this study uses the term Hispano for descendants of co­ lonial Spanish-speaking stock. 88.01 Puerto Ricans« particularly in New York, began to pre-occupy various investigating groups about 1950. By 1958 the production of studies was great. No attempt is made here to analyze this production or to make specific citations. Every author finds something to say about language, usually to express concern over the problems i t raises in dealing with the Puerto Ricans. In general the population of the city has behaved oh.-the theory that monolingualism in Spanish is something to be cured by Engl-izing the migrants. In general too the Puerto Ricans have behaved like -887- other immigrant populations, that i s , evolved toward proficiency in English. Two major factors complicated the evolution. One is skin color with the usual results of segregation and d i s c r i ­ mination. The other is rather peculiar to Puerto Ricans. They flow back and forth between their island and the continent more easily by far than any other for-ling stock except perhaps French- Canadians. No government interference hinders them at the fron­ tiers because they are already inside. The equivalent of the steamship steerage in airplane travel transports thsun back and forth cheaply and swiftly. The movement presents problems in education roughly similar to those of Mexican migrant workers. It also means that the Puerto Rican population in New York con­ tains elements with a great variety of length of residence. A factor of somewhat less importance is that some have beginnings of acquaintanceship with English gained before migration, perhaps 40% some authors estimate. Because of these special factors the Engl-izing is chaotic though existent. 88.02g Bibliography on Mexicans. A - Allen, Ruth A. ffMexican Peon Women in Texas.11 Sociology and Social Research, XVI (1931-2), 131-142. BH - Baker, James H. and Hafen, LeRoy R. - History of Colorado. 3 volumes with one pagination. Denver, 1927. Ba - Bancroft, Hubert ti. - History of Arizona and New Mexico 1530-1888 (facsimile of 1889 edition). Albuquerque, 1962. Bi - Bishop, William H. - Old Mexico and her lost Provinces. New York, 1883. BO - Bogardus - The Mexican in the United States. Los Angeles, 1934. -888- BC - Brown, Malcolm, and Cassmore, Orin. Migratory Cotton Pickers in Arizona. Govt. Prtg. Office (WPA)-1939. Bu - Burma, John H. - Spanish-speaking Groups in the United States. Duke U. P., 1954. Ca - Caughey, John W. - California fa History], New York, 1940. CH - Clark, Margaret - Health in the Mexican-American Culture. U. of Ca l i f . Press, Berkeley, 1959. CI - Clark, Victor S. "Mexican Labor in the United States." Bui- - letin of the Bureau of Labor, XVII (.1908), 466-522. E, - Earle, Peter - The Mexican Population of Topeka. Unpublished typescript, 1953. EP - Espinosa, Aurelio M. -"Speech Mixture in New Mexico"in The Pacific Ocean in History by Stephens and Bolton, 1917. EH - Espinosa, Aurelio M. - "The Spanish Language in New Mexico and Southern Colorado." Historical Society of New Mexico, May, 1911. F - Fishman, Joshua A. and Associates - Language Loyalty in the United States. Mouton Co. The Hague, 1966. Fr - Franco, Hector - The Mexican People of the State of Kansas. Unpublished typed thesis of Wichita University, 1950. G - Gamio, Manuel - Mexican Immigration to the United States, Chicago, 1930. HM - Handman, Max S. - "The Mexican Immigrant in Texas." South­ western Po l i t . and Social Sciences Quarterly, VII (1926), 33-41. HT - Harby, Lee C. - "Texan Types and Contrasts," Harper's Maga­ zine, XXXI (1890) 229-246. Ha - Hatcher, Mattie Austin - The Opening of Texas to Foreign Settlement 1801-1821. U. of Texas Bulletin 2714, 1927. He - Hernandez, Octavio A. - Esquema de la Economla Mexicana hasta antes de la Revolucifin. Mexico, 1961. -889- Hu - Hughes, Anne E. - "The Beginnings of Spanish Settlement in the E l Paso D i s t r i c t . " University of California Publications, History, Vol. I, No. 3, 295-392. Hy - Humphrey, Norman D. - lfThe Cultural Background of the Mexican Immigrant," Rural Sociology, XIII (1948), 239-255. HyD- Humphrey, Norman D. - "The Changing Structure of the Detroit Mexican Family.11 American Sociological Review, IX (1944), 622-626. It - Iturriaga, JosS S. - La Estructura social y cultural de Mexico. MSxico, 1951. Ki - Kibbe, Pauline R. - Latin Americans in Texas. Albuquerque, 1946. LL - Leonard, Olen and Loomis, G.P. - Culture of a Contemporary Rural Community, E l Cerrito New Mexico. Bureau of Agricul­ tural Economics, Rural Life Studies 1, Washington, 1941. LG - i-opez Gallo, Manuel - Economla y Polltica en la Historia de MSxico. Mexico, 1965. Ma - Manuel, Herschel T. - Education of Mexican and Spanish- Speaking Children in Texas. Austin, 1930. MF - Mexicans in California. Report of Gov. Young's Mexican Fact Finding Committee, San Francisco, 1930. ML - McLean, Robert N. That Mexican1. New York, 1928. Mc - McReynolds, Edwin C. - Oklahoma, a History of the Sooner State, Okla U. P., 1954. NM - McWilliams, Carey - North from Nexico. New York, 1949. MC - Menefee, Selden C. and Orin C. Cassmore - The Pecan SheHers of San Antonio. U. S. Government, 1940. Mi - Migratory Labor, President's Commission of Migratory Labor in American Agriculture. U.S. Government, l95l. Pa - Parra, Manuel German. La Industria1izaci6n de Mexico. Me­ xico, 1954. R - Ricart, Domingo. Just Across the Tracks. Typescript, 1950. RS - Rock, James I. and W.E. Smith. Southern and Western Texas Guide. St. Louis, 1878. -890- Ro - Ross, Stanley R. - Is the Mexican Revolution Dead? New York, 1966. Rz - Ruiz, Ram6n E. - Mexico, the Challenge of Poverty and I l l i ­ teracy. San Marino, Cal., 1963. Ru - Ruth, Kent and others. Oklahoma, a Guide to the Sooner State. Norman, 1957. S - Sanchez, George I. Forgotten People. Albuquerque, 1940. Se - Sixty-first Congress. Second Session. Senate Documents Vol. 85, Part 3. SK - Sweet, Alex. £., and J. Armory Knox. On a Mexican Mustang through Texas. Chicago, 1892. T - Taylor, Paul S. - Mexican Labor in the United States, 3 vols. U. of California Publications in Economics, Vol. VI, VII, XII, 1928-1930, 1932, 1933. References to Vol. I do not specify the volume. TA - Taylor* Paul Schuster - An American Mexican Frontier, U. of N. Car. Press, Chapel H i l l , 1934. To - Topete, Jesus. - Aventuras de un Bracero. MSxico, D.F., 1949. TR - Tuck, Ruth D. Not with the F i s t . New York, 1946. Tu - Turner, John K. - Barbarous Mexico. New York, 1911. U - Ugartje, JosS Bravo. Historia de Mfixico, Tomo Tercero (2 parts, separately paginated) MSxico, 1953. V - Vasconcelos JosS. - Breve Historia de Mfixico. Madrid, 1952. WC - Webb, W.P., Carroll H. Bond and others - Handbook of Texas. 2 vols., Austin, 1952. We - Weyl, Walter L. - "Labor Conditions in Mexico,11 Bulletin of the U.S. Dept. of Labor, No. 30 (Jan., 1902) 1-94. WP - Writers 1 Program of WPA, revision by Joseph Miller. Arizona. New York, 1956 ( f i r s t edition 1940). -891- 88.10 Immigration to the United States from Mexico as o f f i c i a l l y recorded by the Commissioner of Immigration was un t i l 1908 very minor and specifically directed to California. Indeed only 2107 Mexicans were o f f i c i a l l y admitted in the six-year period from 1902 to 1907, and only 10 of these gave Texas as their destina­ tion. The states to which Mexicans might come via Texas were represented by similar figures. Clark's report of 1907 shows that numbers far superior to these were crossing the border into Texas. In August and September of 1907 11,567 laborers were ad­ mitted at E l Paso, and near Brownsville, "in the early autumn of 1907 sixty boats were said to be employed in ferrying Mexicans across to the United States" (CI 475). Beginning in 1908 the Texas-bound share of the immigrants reported by the Immigration Commissioner leaped up to be from 60 per cent to 75 per cent of the admissions. We may therefore regard the Commissioner's Report for the next twenty-five years as at least indicative of what was actually happening. Returns to Mexico have been very numerous at times. One estimate made to Clark in 1907 was that 50% remained in the United States (CI 520), but the departed often came back. Even those deported in later years often returned. American and Mexican data on the subject are at wide variance. In general un­ counted entries into the United States compensated departures except during the depression of the 1930's. -892- 88.llg Mexican Immigration Destinations in the U.S. 1908-1932 Year To To A l l Year To To A l l Kansas States of U.S. Kansas States of 1908 2 5,682 1921 129 29,603 1909 36 15,951 1922 88 18,246 1910 72 17,760 1923 389 62,709 1911 20 19,996 1924 480 87,648 1912 21 22,001 1925 155 32,378 1913 5 10,954 1926 225 42,638 1914 10 13,089 1927 336 66,766 1915 17 10,993 1928 360 57,765 1916 159; 17,198 1929 268 39,980 1917 158 16,438 1930 .90 11,915 1918 99 17,602 1931 16 2,627 1919 153 . 28,844 1932 18 1,674 1920 172 51,042 Inasmuch as Kansas received l i t t l e part of later immigration, no st a t i s t i c a l attempt is made here to follow later movement speci­ f i c a l l y . With the tightening of United States entry requirements and the ensuing return to prosperity, i l l e g a l entries made by "wetbacks" became so numerous as to render o f f i c i a l statistics more worthless than before. In 1942 during the Second World War t J t i e bracero system was instituted by negotiations between the governments of Mexico and the United States which brought for seasonal employment "Mexican nationals" into the United States. The original arrangement went on u n t i l 1947, bringing in between -893- 50,000 and 120,000 workmen (NM 267) per annum for limited and supervised employment. Renewals have not always been easy to ar­ range because of the demands for preference in employment for Amer­ ican citizens, but the employers' outcry has been more powerful. With modifications the system was s t i l l in operation in 1966. As the United States continued to be prosperous, Mexicans wished to come north for permanent residence. Sponsorship by Mexicans already here, and by employers for men who had worked for them satisfactorily as braceros allowed a considerable immigration. In 1963 the National Council for the Spanish speaking affirmed that 5,000 Mexicans per month were entering the United States and that there was a waiting l i s t of 125,000 (Ssp45). This phenomenon and the birth rate among Spanish speakers of ultimate Mexican origin has made them the most rapidly increasing ethnic element in the population (F-sp49). .20 The geography of Mexico contains one feature of primary im­ portance in considering the character of emigration from that country to the United States. Except for the lower Rio Grande Valley and to some extent the country adjoining i t toward Monte­ rrey, northern Mexico for some hundreds of miles is country of nearly the same aridity as New Mexico and Arizona. Consequently the inhabitants are few, and even i f overpopulated, the region is incapable of furnishing many emigrants. The labor force for building northern Mexico railroads came from farther south. Be- -894- yond this stretch of barren land lies the central plateau where the population has always been much heavier and whence the emi­ gration to that part of the United States beyond i t s border country originated. In 1924 57% of the emigrants to the whole U»S. came from the central Plateau, 25% from the northeastern border states which included Chihuahua, the principal outlet state from the plateau (T 22, quoting Foerste:^. The data col­ lected by Taylor for Mexicans in Chicago in 1928 (T-Il 49) are the most illuminating for the origins of Mexicans living in ti^e-United States far from the border. Of 3132 Mexicans 68.3% were from the central plateau states (Jalisco, Michoacdn, Gua­ najuato, 2&catecas, Aguas Calientes), 19.9% from non-coastal states to the north, 6% from the d i s t r i t o Federal, 5.8% from the rest of Mexico. The origins of the Mexicans in Orange » County, California were very similar (T-III, 4&),. S t a t i s t i c s on p a t r i a t e s , 1930-1932 (T XII, Urt) aj_ so support _ w . . „ * the statement, as we IT as snowing tha.tr most Mexicans in Texas and many in the border counties of California came from neigh­ boring states in Mexico. Clark said in 1907 f,The immigrant of interest is the one who has recently appeared in the f i e l d , coming from the central part of the Republic, leaving his an­ cestral home and callings, and ready to venture almost any­ where in search of work ,f (CI. 467)f Before railroads were con­ structed, the barriers to travel from the central plateau of Mexico to well watered sections of the United States were f u l l y as great as the barriers separating Croatia or Greece from the -895- same region. Even later the d i f f i c u l t y which Mexicans found in returning home persuaded workers who had at f i r s t thought of traveling back and forth that i t would be well to bring their families and live a number of years among the gringos. The control of passage of the border between Mexico and the United States is no easy matter because there is no natural obstacle (the Rio Grande River is easily passable), but i t would be much more d i f f i c u l t without the stretch or arid ter­ ritory in northern Mexico. 88.2lg The region ot* origin of Mexicans who came to Kansas^ was the same as that of the great majority of the Mexicans in the United States except those living but a short distance north of the border. The central plateau to the northwest of the cit y of Mexico was the general area of birth (particularly see R 9, Fr 34). The area in that part of the State of Jalisco to the northeast of Guadalajara furnished more emigrants than any other limited region, but the larger area of emigration extended scarcely one hundred miles to the southeast and, with decreasing frequency of departures, about 800 miles to the north. In other words many more people came from Guanajuato, Aguas Calientes and Zacatecas than from Durango and Chihuahua, few from Chihuahua except from the capital i t s e l f . The emigrants were peones and of mestizo blood, sufficiently Indian so that a few knew what their t r i b a l identity was. Local patriotism played very l i t t l e part in their behavior. As members of la raza they mingled freely with each other. -896- .30 The early history of Mexico as i t affected twentieth century emigration to Kansas is mainly the history of the linguistic con­ quest of the country. The infusion of Spanish blood was such that hardly 10 per cent of the Mexicans of 1921 as opposed to the mixed blood mestizos and the Indians could be classified as Cau­ casian. The census of 1940 recorded 2,490,909 persons as speaking Indian languages; 1,253,891 as bilingual* (It 128); there was some * Many of these people are able to speak at least some Span­ ish and have been able to do so for many years. In 1908 and 1909, J. K. Turner and L» Gutierrez de Lara, "a Mexican of distinguished family" (Tu 4) interviewed Yaquis, Fimas, Opatas, and Mayas with f a c i l i t y . Though at one point to gain an informant's confidence de Lara qualified himself as a Papago (Tu 54), i t is improbable that he could speak a l l the Indian languages, though a l l these belong to the same linguistic family (It 131). Certainly Turner's interviewing could be only in Spanish. Ruiz's Chapter DC (Rz 158- 172) is a readable account of the efforts to Hispanify monolingual Indians in Mexico. The chapter was written before publications by an American scholar who participated in the efforts, Swadesh. under-enumeration — in 1946 the non-Spanish speakers were e s t i ­ mated at 3,000,000 (Ki 68). In 1895 the census fixed the number of those with Indian mother tongue at 2,000,000 (We 7). The gene­ r a l opinion was that non-Spanish speaking Indians very commonly avoided the censustakers. i t is significant, however, that the -897,- states of l i t t l e interest to this study, those east of the city of Mexico, were those with the largest proportion of persons giving some other language than Spanish as their mother tongue. The rest are here considered habitual users of Spanish. Indeed, the mestizo population lives quite separately from the Indians, and considers i t s e l f as something different (TR 66). It is pro­ per in Mexico to proclaim your Indian blood, but just as well that a full-blood should not be your grandfather. Clearly a small ingredient persuaded most of the rest of the population to adopt the language of the conquistadores. In any case a l l emigrants to the United States have been completely Spanish-speaking. There was no state of bilingualism among them, and their Spanish shows l i t t l e dialectal variation, so that there has been no question as with German and Italian, of English displacing a standard lan­ guage that was more or less a r t i f i c i a l in the mouths of people that spoke dialect at home. The Spanish of the emigrants had some sub-standard features, but these were certainly no greater than the sub-standard characteristics in the English of the peo­ ple with whom they have habitually dealt in the United States (and those are comparatively ijpainor)• There w i l l here be no re­ port on the manner in which the Spanish language made its con­ quest in Mexico. It is sufficient to say that the shift from Indian language took place early enough so that emigrating Mexi­ cans have had as great a loyalty to Spanish as any stock immigrat­ ing into the United States has had to its ancestral tongue. -898- 88#31 Mexico (1876-1911) under Porfirio Diaz enjoyed peace, an insalubrious peace, but a peace that allowed population to in­ crease, railroads to be built, and resources to be exploited by foreigners. From 1875 to 1910 the population increased from 9,495,157 to 15,160,369 and in the decade of revolution went down to 14,334,780. The increase to 1910 was not such as ordin­ a r i l y to embarrass a growing economy, but rural conditions de­ teriorated in spite of the existence of peace. Taxation favored the rich partly because of corrupt practices. Formation of more and more great estates was encouraged. Government thus promoted distress among the lower rural classes. It also provided the means of escape through emigration by granting railroad rights to capital that found this means of exploitation profitable. 88.32g The Mexican Revolution which began in 1910 took the country through a long period of chaotic p o l i t i c a l conditions; there was frank anarchy in 1916. In 1920 a certain s t a b i l i t y of government returned which became firmer and universally accepted with the passing years. Population resumed i t s vise; in 1940 i t stood at a l i t t l e less than 20 million, in 1960 at nearly 35,000,000. It was growing at the highest rate in the world (Rz 198). In the 19301s under the left-tending Cardenas Mexico was prosperous as compared with i t s neighbor to the north, and Cfirdenas could receive back former emigrants with something like a feeling of superiority to the country so economically distressed as to eject those whom i t had earlier accepted. Mexican government later gravitated to­ ward the center and at times somewhat beyond. Cooperation between -899- the government of the United States and that of Mexico became possible in the control of labor migration. The bracero con­ tracts have had close supervision both north and south of the bor­ der. The readiness of Mexicans to become braceros* temporary ex­ patriates, is testimony to population pressures. 88.4 The p o l i t i c a l push for aemigration from Mexico was almost a l l indirect. At and near the close of the worst p o l i t i c a l trou­ bles V i l l i s t a s found i t prudent to absent themselves from Mexico, no matter what their status in V i l l a s forces. There were, there­ fore, among the laborers who came to the United States a certain number of unacknowledged p o l i t i c a l refugees -- unacknowledged be­ cause the followers of V i l l a were no more welcome to the govern­ ment of this country than to Obregon*s. But here they could not < be identified as different from any other Mexican. Otherwise po l i t i c s behaved as a push only through economic channels. The Mexican government1s o f f i c i a l h o s t i l i t y to the Catholic church made no religious refugees except among the clergy i t s e l f . 88.50 The religion of the Mexicans was universally Catholic. Once in a very great while an immigrant in s the United States can be found who was a Protestant before leaving Mexico, but they are rare. The censuses of 1895, 1900, and 1910 each reported over 99% of the Mexicans as Catholics. The census of 1940 showed 96%, but less than 1%, 177,954, were Protestant (It 142). Com­ menting on this proportion Ugarte, who is pro-Catholic, says: "The high percentage of Catholics reported by the census expresses — approximately of course— that of those baptized in the Catholic -900- church? not so well that of those who die in its bosom, and much less that of practicing Catholics, which was unfortunately much lower. Not only in the o f f i c i a l quarters, but in a great part of the population, there existed the fear of seeming to be Cath­ o l i c , and Mexican Catholicism of this epoch had a very large share of shamefacedness or of excessive prudence. There were, however, many families and individuals who were solidly Christian and who were the nucleus of the subsequent Catholic revival, provoked by persecutions " (U II, 426). The persecutions referred to are those undertaken by the l e f t i s t governments later. The republi­ cans who preceded Diaz were also hostile to the church. In fact the greatest "reform11 of the "reform" governments of the mid-nine­ teenth century was transfer of the very extensive church landhold- ings to private ownership. Diaz was tolerant to the point of not enforcing an t i - c l e r i c a l laws. The parish priests did not increase in number quite in proportion to the increase in population during his regime, but a number of monastic orders were allowed to enter the country and their work among the lower classes doubtless helps explain the faithfulness of immigrants in the United States. The character of the religion can best be judged by this passage from Ugarte* "The pontifical coronation . . . of Our Lady of Guada­ lupe (12 Oct. 1895) has been most important because of i t s f u l l y national and even international characters there were present at i t in the midst of an enormous multitude which came from every section of the Republic, 11 archbishops, 28 bishops, and 100 priests: 18 of the 39 prelates came from abroad (15 from the United States. . -901- to pay homage to the Queen of the Mexicans. . •. Her cult is the most popular in Mexico, for there are churches consecrated to her in almost a l l inhabitated places and altars to her in almost a l l churches, and her images are venerated in every Mexican home. The pilgrimages to her sanctuaries even from remote spots are famous" (U II, 428). To reconcile the two quotations from Ugarte i t is only necessary to remember the differences in piety of wo­ men as distinguished from the indifference of men. Testimony to this difference in Mexico is copious. Turner, after expressing his disapproval of the influence of the Catholic Church upon the Mexican, adds, "Yet i t must be admitted that the Church alleviates his misery somewhat by provi­ ding him with some extra holidays. And i t feeds his hunger for sights of beauty and sounds of sweetness, which for the poor Mexi­ can are usually impossible of attainment outside the church" (Tu279). .51 Education in Mexico was rudimentary during most of i t s his­ tory for a l l but a small e l i t e . The peace of Diaz did allow for the establishment of schools; there were 5194 in 1878, 12,068 in 1907. Illit e r a c y decreased during this period as follows: 1888 - 93% 1900 - 74% 1895 - 81% 1910 - 70% (U II 466)* * These are the figures furnished by Ugarte; Lopez Gallo quoting Covarrubias, fixes the proportion of i l l i t e r a t e s at 81%. Both found their assertion on the 1910 census; presumably Covarrubias was counting unschooled young children. In 1895 they -902- were 18.7% of the population (We 19). The years of chaos did not improve the situation. Progress was resumed with much greater energy after 1930, when the Revolution was firmly established, but in 1940 63% were s t i l l i l l i t e r a t e (It 165). Even in 1960 something over one-third of the Mexicans could be classed as i l l i t e r a t e , and school attendance among c h i l ­ dren did not rise as high as 60% (Ro 28). This state of affairs meant that the emigrants to the United States had in their lan­ guage a weak cultural instrument. 88.52 The family in Mexico was a strong institution. In the lower classes i t emphasized the authority of the parents, the importance of supervising daughters u n t i l marriage, the closeness of the ex­ tended family, and community control of standards by village opin­ ion. The large admixture of Indian blood did not prevent the fam­ i l y from having many resemblances as an institution to the family among Christian Mediterranean peoples. It was of a character to uphold a firm linguistic tradition. Throughout the major immigra­ tion movement commentators on Mexican family l i f e in the United States emphasized i t s strength,but under pressures in this coun­ try i t weakened. Iturriaga, speaking in 1950 of "the causes of the weakening of family bonds" (It 13), attributes the phenomenon to factors developing in Mexico similar to those that the emigrants met north of the border. 88*53 Formal Mexican social institutions beyond the family and the church were nonexistent for the Mexican peon. He was informally -903- controlled socially by his relations with his patrfln and by v i l ­ lage opinion. The dependence on the patrgn made him ready to accept similar direction in the United States. Nothing f u l l y re­ placed the village control when he .emigrated. A coIonia to the north of the border was most frequently not sufficiently static. 88.54g The peasant's l i f e in Mexico in the late nineteenth century was not migratory, though railroad construction within the nation and mining in Chihuahua drew men from their homes to act as a leavening group for similar future behavior beyond the border. The revolutionary armies later threw some men upon the roads. On the whole, however, the emigrating peon had been accustomed to a l i f e in which he did not rebel at authority, but tended to escape tyranny by lack of complete or prompt response to orders unless he was under close supervision. 88.60 The percentages of the Mexican population engaged in agri­ culture were from 1895 to 1940 as follows$ 1895 - 68% 1921 - 71% 1900 - 69.5% 1930 - 70% 1910 - 68% 1940 - 65% Two thirds lived in villages in 1960j over half of the population farmed (Rz 210). During the period of emigration to the United States the proportion increased rather than decreased. The emi­ grant had often been a farmer, at least brought up as a farmer, or son of someone who had been a farmer. -904- 88.61 Landholding in Mexico had always favored the large estate, t* i e hacienda* but u n t i l Diaz's time there had also been much com­ munal land held by the villages. Besides, each villager had had a small portion of land as his private possession. In addition there was much unoccupied land with the t i t l e held by the govern­ ment. The legal distinction between this land and communal hold­ ings was often ill-defined. In 1883 Diaz promulgated a law on vacant lands that was so administered that many villages lost their holdings to investors and speculators who acquired vast stretches of territory through the favor of the government (LG 250 f f , V 444). The lords of the haciendas were influential enough to resist such procedures. Only the small landholder suffered. He was in such straits that his indebtedness increased and .the number of persons in outright peonage was, thereby, also aug­ mented. In 1910 two per cent of the agricultural lands belonged to small proprietors; one percent was land belonging to local communes. The lands in small holdings were poor and crowded be­ tween large estates. "Finally hunger forced these small groups of farmers to abandon their small parcels or hand them over to neighboring haciendas to whose owners they went to offer their labor in exchange for a l i f e materially disgraceful, spiritually subhuman" (He 151). 88.62 Peonage was a normal state. In 1910 of the 68% of the popu­ lation engaged in agriculture, only 3% were "free rural," some­ thing like 3% were "semi-rural," and 63% were "subject to servi- -905- tude" according to Govarrubias (LG 270). "Peonage is a debt re­ lation between the employee or tenant and his employer, in which the former is to serve the latter u n t i l the debt is extinguished, receiving in the meantime subsistence and certain customary pre­ requisites. The debt is seldom paid in f u l l , because, as a rule, neither party seriously desires i t to be paid. If the employee discovered that his account with his^ employer was about even, he would, in many instances, make this an excuse for obtaining a lib e r a l cash loan from his lpatr6n l to celebrate the next 'fiesta, 1 and the *patr6nf would probably encourage this extravagance on the part of his employee. In Mexico peonage rests solely upon custom and has no specific legal sanction" (CI 469). This state­ ment of Clark's shows no distress on his part in contemplating the institution. Indignation usually seethes within the commen­ tator. Bulnes speaks thus: "There are families who have been taking more than 100 years to pay off a debt of $50, and have not succeeded in escaping from the usury of their masters" (quoted by LG 268). The push exerted by peonage for immigration was not so much because of i t s humiliating features as because i t s vic­ tims were becoming hungrier and hungrier as the years went by. Except for accidental bumper years production of food stuffs did not increase during the administration of Diaz and f e l l off not­ ably (about 15%) during the years of chaos. The part that each peon received grew less through population increase and through greater shares for the rich . The lethargy which is traditionally -906- attributed to Mexicans is largely to be explained by the fact that much of the population was undernourished. Perhaps is rather than was is the appropriate word, at least as applied to small growers, but this study does not consider conditions in Mexico posterior to the 1930*s. When Mexicans f i r s t came to the railroads of the United States, i f given subsistence money, they purchased food of the type and amount to which they were accus­ tomed. "Contractors and foremen find the efficiency of Mexican laborers so much greater when boarded that i t pays to give them regular meals instead of rations, even though higher wages must be paid to compensate them for the increased cost of l i v i n g . " (CI 480). Clark evidently bases this statement on information from management. Weyl, a predecessor of Clark's in the Bureau of Labor with similar sources, referred to undernourishment four times (We 15, 16, 18, 69). A t e l l i n g sentence is this: "Peons are caught stealing corn intended for the cattle and using i t for their own consumption" (We 18). Another example from capitalists is the quotation from F. H. Harriman published in the Los Angeles Times in March, 1909, and quoted by Turner: We have had a good deal of experience with the Mexican and we have found that after he is fed up and gets his strength he makes a very good worker" (Tu 278). Reports from social investigators are in harmony. .63 Railroads in Mexico« as was said above, were important in promoting emigration. Before Diaz there were less than four hundred miles of railway in the country. The main line of the -907- Mexican Central, which runs from the city of Mexico to £1 Paso, Texas, through the country which later furnished most emigrants, by way of Aguas Calientes, Zacatecas and Chihuahua was opened in 1884; branches were added u n t i l 1908, notably one to Guadalajara in 1888. It was a standard guage. The National Railway, a nar­ row guage line went westward from the ci t y of Mexico far enough to penetrate the emigrant country and then turned north; in 1888 i t arrived at Laredo, Texas, by way of San Luis Potosl and S a l t i l l o . These two lines were built ,fwith capital from the United States and a heavy subsidy per kilometer from the government" (U II, 444, see also LG 249), American capital also accounted for 80% of the mining investments in this period (LG 299). The acceptance by Diaz of this c a p i t a l i s t i c invasion of his country has been scath­ ingly condemned by a l l later Mexican citizens. For the present study its importance is that i t made American corporations well acquainted with the labor resources of their neighbor and as ready to exploit them as any other resources to be found south of the border. The Mexican railroads and mines were in some sort catalysts for the movement into the United States. The National Road in 1901 "had brought north about 1500 laborers ; practically a l l of them had crossed over into Texas. . • . Laborers Qon the Mexican Central Railway} in the vi c i n i t y of the city of Chihuahua brought from Aguas Calientes and farther south, were constantly leaving for the United States so that a considerable part of the force was really labor in transit. . . . The representative of -908- one group of mining properties in the State of Chihuahua said that he had brought to that v i c i n i t y approximately 8,000 laborers from Zacatecas and the older mining d i s t r i c t s of central Mexico, and that not far from 80 per cent of these had l e f t , a part going to New Mexico and the remainder to Arizona 1 1 (CI 470). 88.64 Agents recruiting for companies in the United States, despite the American law, were at work in Mexico. Most commentators speak of them (inter a l i a CI 471, Bu 39, NM 168). Their role has per­ haps been exaggerated. They were not welcome to the owners of estates, who did not re l i s h their tampering with the cheap labor supply (CI 472). Rural recruitment in the regions providing man­ power for work in the United States had therefore to be accomplished more or less secretly by merchants, government o f f i c i a l s or others for whom such acti v i t i e s did not furnish the primary means of sup­ port (cf CI 472). The agents of the Mexican railways could work more openly and brought men up close to the border; then recruiters for companies beyond i t presumably became active among these l a ­ borers who had already been broken loose from their villages. 88.65* f fIn Mexico," said Clark in 1907, "railways have given the opportunity and the inducement to emigration. Needing unskilled labor for their construction and maintenance, they drew upon the agricultural population along their lines, at f i r s t for a few days or weeks of temporary service between crops and later for more extended periods. At f i r s t the true peon was extremely averse to leaving his home . . ., but gradually he became bolder and more -909- worIdly-wise and could be prevailed upon to work for a month or so a hundred miles or more up and down the line. . . . He became attached to cash wages. . • . The railways, bringing a greater variety of wares at lower prices, have made possible the attrac­ tive shop of the railway town. . . . The peon . . • has become more of a spender and so a more persistent earner. . # . The . railways thus have attracted labor and have held i t more and more permanently from a constantly widening area along their lines" (CI 469). The emigrants have not a l l been peons. In Tecolotlan in 1948 those "who have gone to the United States appear not to have been the poorest element of the population, but on the con­ trary seem to have been drawn disproportionately from the inde­ pendent farm laborer group, and from the sons of upper class merchants" (Hy 248). 66g Mexicans living in the large towns along the railroad were among the emigrants to the United States. Books dealing with emigration and even studies of the conditions under Diaz and during the Revolution seldom analyze l i f e in these places. A jus t i f i c a t i o n l i e s in the fact that even in than many inhabitants were rural workers or, more commonly, had been reared in the v i l ­ lages. The cultural and economic state of these people was there­ fore l i t t l e different from what is described for the country. The importance of the towns for emigration lies chiefly, in the fact that they could be and definitely were centers of recruit­ ment. "In Mexico i t s e l f , " said Clark in 1907, "the enganchadores -910- work principally among the city and tramp population 1 1 (CI 476). Some of the towns were railroad centers and work in railroad maintenance in Mexico could prepare men from the back country for better paid experience in the United States. Such employment in Mexico was not like l y to be regular and employment agents worked in the towns in a less hostile environment than elsewhere. Many of those who became emigrants, as muleteers, were already accus­ tomed to a wandering l i f e . 88.70 The economic situation in Mexico became worse in the decade following the f a l l of Diaz. The railroads deteriorated rapidly and no road system had yet come into existence. Land reform, though i t was the revolutionary aim perhaps most loudly proclaimed, made no advance. Agricultural production was hampered. Education could not be improved in the chaos. Though reaching the border was more d i f f i c u l t , the economic push for emigration to the United States was increased during this period. 88.71 In the 1920's the economic position of Mexico became sta b i l ­ ized but not greatly improved. The railroads deteriorated less rapidly. There was enough land reform after 1924 so that in 1929 Frank Tannenbaum could publish a book called The Mexican Agrarian Revolution« but the t i t l e implies more progress than had been made, at least economically. Even in 1955 Tannenbcaum, while enthusiastic over the p o l i t i c a l and social outcome of the revolution, found the economic result imperfect (Ro 204). S t i l l the Mexican rural worker, the campesino, was in the late 1920's receiving attention; 4,261,191 hectares were turnedcover to communal organizations be- -911- tween 1924 and 1930 (LG 391-2). Migration within the Republic had not yet been greatly promoted by industrial development. Pressure from overpopulation in 1930 was approximately the same as in 1910 (ra 54). The push for emigration in 1930 was somewhat less than earlier because the campesino could hope. 88.72 Between 1930 and 1940 the proportion of the Mexican labor force in agriculture declined from 70% to 65%. In other words Mexico was able to take care of a larger proportion of her pop­ ulation otherwise than on the farms, but in 1960 the population was s t i l l two-thirds rural. The liquidation of the great estates in favor of the small cultivators had gone on rapidly in the 1930fs. There was less pressure to leave the farm, and Mexico was able to take care of those forced by the depression in the United States to return to their native country. Mostly they did not go back to farming, and like returning emigrants everywhere found that the old country was not ideal, but many stayed in Mexico. The years following have brought new problems to Mexico, largely be­ cause of population increase. 88.73g The i l l e g a l entries by Mexicans into the United States be­ came much more numerous when the laws grew more severe. In 1949 McWilliams said "the number of wetbacks is currently estimated at around 80,000" (NM 300). One result was many forcible re­ patriations especially after 1930. People so returned had usually been in no state of distress i f they had been long north of the border. They were therefore unlikely to find Mexico to their liking and soon became wet-backs again. -912- 88,80 The geographical linguistic uniformity of Mexico has a l ­ ready been noted. The events of the period of great emigration, 1900-1930, affected language but l i t t l e . The Mexican revolu­ tion had no planned program and no prolonged propagandists bat­ tles. The new vocabulary brought to the common man was therefore restricted in character. There was no lack of manifestos, but the revolutionary leaders themselves were, to judge by their con­ duct, often not greatly interested in the content of their own proclamations. The intellectuals who were their assistants bandied words with each other without being too much concerned about convincing the masses. The constitution of 1917, which has been generally accepted, was the work of a body not representative of a l l factions. It contains contradictions both of philosophy and of institutional arrangements. Governments with varying p o l i ­ cies have found i t convenient as justifying whatever they pro­ posed to do. If i t s phrasing had been of great interest to the people i t would never have gained acceptance. Presumably, it s phrasing was of l i t t l e interest because the words used were not those conveying meaning to the campesinos. The emigrants from Mexico to the United States arrived with a vocabulary no more "„ expression limited in power of abstract -than that of the generality of immigrants, but like others they were ready to let English f i l l the vocabulary vacuum. 88.8lg The characteristics of the Mexican emigrant most affecting his future in the United States were his mestizo physique, the behavior ingrained in him by peonage and undernourishment, his -913- concept of family structure, the nature of his Catholicism, and his affection for his language and his raza. He was more patient and less responsible than the people of most emigrant stocks. He was unaccustomed to achievement by verbal activity. Language was less important to him as a tool for advancement than as a source of pleasure and relaxation. .90 For the Mexican the Pull of the United States was almost ex­ clusively economic. The treatment that he received after his ar r i v a l here was not calculated to give him a sense of much great er freedom than he had had as a peon. Daily l i f e was not meas­ urably better. But the pay was five times as great, and the cost of living not increased in the same proportion. He came in an era when the need for unskilled labor was great. Until the First World War there was competition i f he went far east; after 1914 his services were welcome anywhere as long as the United States was prosperous, that i s , u n t i l 1930. Therefore employment agents enganchadores« came to seek him at the border. In the f i r s t decades the railroads furnished him free transportation to the scene of his labor, by intent for their own jobs, and rather of­ ten for others too, involuntarily. The Mexicans, Clark says, "are constantly lured away from the railways by farmers and ranchers. In 1907 30 per cent of those in southern Kansas are said to have deserted to work in the wheat fields. j^This was unusual; American "tramps11 usually furnished the migratory work­ ers in the wheat fields.1 Whole gangs at a time leave the Texas -914- sections to pick cotton.... The Southern Pacific Company loses to the mines a large fraction of i t s labor each year" (CI 472). Clark concludes, "Railways are the great labor feeders to other industries" (CI 474). 88.91 To come to the United States, as to take work in the c i t i e s or on the railroads of Mexico, the peons at f i r s t l e f t home only temporarily. "Many of those passing through E l Paso have made the trip from central Mexico to Arizona or to Kansas City for a second or third time, but after a number of such trips the home ti e loosens, and i t is not unusual for the family ultimately to accompany the husband" (CI 474). The pull on the female Mexican was thus exerted later than the pull on the male. But Mexican women were accustomed to work in the f i e l d s . For migrant agri­ cultural labor (which affects Kansas only in the beet fields) she soon became as important as the men. Elsewhere the pu l l continued to be largely through the men, for in the c i t i e s Mexi­ can women did not become significantly part of the labor force for a long time. 88.92g The emigrant who had returned to Mexico usually regarded l i f e in the United States as more pleasant than i t had seemed at the time of his residing there. Humphrey says of the people at Tecolotlan, in Jalisco, in 1948, "They, on the whole, manifest an amazing amount of good w i l l toward the United States. There is a great desire on the part of most young men to go to the United States" (Hy 248). The returned emigrants promoted the -915- desire because they became merchants, among the most prosperous in their village. The desire to go was the greater because en­ try to the United States was not easy. To become a bracero was d i f f i c u l t , says Humphrey, and Topete a l i t t l e earlier recounts long days of standing in line even when he had gone from Guada­ lajara to Mexico to obtain a place. 89.00 The states of our union on the Mexican border a l l have im­ portant Spanish speaking populations, part of which originated before 1848. Colorado also has some of the old stock as well as a significant Mexican population of twentieth century origin. Mexican migrants have worked in many other states and significant colonies have grown up in a number of c i t i e s . Some of them are treated later (Sections 89.80 f f . ) . The Southwest receives our f i r s t attention; conditions there are sometimes far different from those in Kansas, but a l l conditions existent in Kansas are also to be found in those states. 89.01 Census reports for those of Spanish mother tongue in 1940 are perhaps the most revealing s t a t i s t i c a l material available, though they are based upon a 5% sample. The 1940 census figures indicate some under-enumeration i f one compares them with the estimates published by Carey McWilliams in 1948, his estimates were based on numerical data from various sources, but could not yet make use of the 1940 mother-tongue statistics of the Census Bureau. -916- His estimates are i n the l e f t , .hand column; an estimate for I960 i s at the right (founded on F 290) . Texas 1 ,000,000 ' 1 ,375,000 Colorado 90,000 165,000 New Mexico 250,000 275,000 Arizona 120,000 185,000 C a l i f o r n i a 500,000 1,375,000 -917- Mother Tongue — Spanish — 19^0 1930 Total Foreign Foreign or Native Foreign Speakers Born Mixed feraitage Parentage Born Kansas 13,060 4,580 7,760 720 11,303 Kansas C i t y , born i n Mexico 947 1,517 Wichitaj born i n Mexico 543 527 Topeka born i n Mexico 649 Texas 738,440 148,140 318,280 272,080 266,924 Colorado 92,540 6,640 14 ,100 71,800 13,413 New Mexico 221,740 7,820 21,100 192,820 16,533 Arizona 101,880 24,140 50,140 27,600 49,296 C a l i f o r n i a 416,140 136,700 215,740 63,700 218,025 Oklahoma 4,220 1,020 2,300 900 3,739 I l l i n o i s 23,940 10,700 12,060 1,180 23,563 Chicago born i n 16,460 Mexico 7,400 7,132 8,220 840 16,202 14,645 Missouri 5,100 2,020 2,680 400 3,982 Kansas Ci t y born i n Mexico 1,012 1,868 Nebraska 5,500 1,840 3,200 460 3,658 Omaha born i n Mexico 383 667 89.02 Return to Mexico during the depression of the 1930 8 s was extensive, as has been inferred i n other;sections of th i s work. Bogardus, without c i t i n g his sources, gives these s t a t i s t i c s : -918- 1930 69,570 1932 80,6^7 1931 12^,991 1933 36,508 In the l a s t three months of 1931 the repatriations numbered 5 3 , 0 0 0 . The decision to leave was sometimes voluntary, sometimes semi-voluntary, sometimes p r a c t i c a l l y forced. Communities rather than to provide r e l i e f encouraged departures, sometimes providing money, sometimes using cruder s t i m u l i . 03g 19^0 Spanish speakers of native parentage i n Texas were some­ times the descendants of immigrants a r r i v i n g a f t e r 1900, but they were commonly too the descendants from Spanish c o l o n i a l stock with infused Indian blood. In New Mexico the Spanish speakers are a l ­ most a l l Hispanos born i n the state. In Colorado they are mostly of the same stock either early s e t t l e d i n Colorado or more l a t e l y arrived from New Mexico. In C a l i f o r n i a they may be of the early Spanish stock native to the state, New Mexican Hispanos (not commonly) or the descendants of early twentieth century a r r i v a l s . The case i n Arizona i s s i m i l a r to that i n C a l i f o r n i a . 10' The Hispanos of New Mexico made t h e i r f i r s t settlement near Santa Fe i n 1598, i n the town i t s e l f i n 1609» The s e t t l i n g Span­ iards were not on the leading edge of an advancing wave. They were an arrow shot from f a r to the south across the great a r i d regions to the north of Mexico fs central plateau. Even upon ar­ r i v i n g at the v a l l e y of the Rio Grande the Spanish found only a small region near E l Paso del Norte that might become f e r t i l e ; above, the desert closed i n on the r i v e r so that only on i t s -919- very banks were there prospects of developing i t f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . In modern times Spanish place names are rare from Las Cruces above E l Paso almost to Socorro; the road between the two towns i s 152 miles long. Above Socorro to Albuquerque, 71 miles, Span­ ish names pr e v a i l along the r i v e r , but i n the back country Anglo place names are mingled, with the Spanish. In the neighborhood of Albuquerque except along the road to the east Spanish place names take over a l l the way to the Colorado border and beyond for some distance. To the west they do not extend f a r i n New Mexico r a r e l y beyond the Continental Divide, that i s some f i f t y miles. To the east they stretch almost but not quite to the Texas border, though Anglo names are found along the r a i l r o a d and trade routes. The heart of the d i s t r i c t extends eastward from the Continental Divide across the Rio Grande to the further slopes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the most eastern range of the Rockies i n t h i s area, narrowing to the south so as to exclude Southeastern New Mexico, The counties within t h i s area include three fourths of the Hispanos (S 30)• To the west of Las Vegas except i n the larger towns, along roads or i n Albuquerque and certain suburbs Anglos are out of place. The s c i e n t i s t s at Los Alamos have been s o c i a l l y as well as geographically iso l a t e d . As far to the east and southeast as Tucumcari and Port Sumner, the Hispanos tend to regard Anglos as invading foreigners,but most of t h i s southeast­ ern region i s quite sparsely s e t t l e d . The North Central New Mexico area at points belongs to the Pueblo Indians rather than to the Hispanos. -920- Aside from t h i s northern area and the settlements near Las Cruces and Socorro on the Rio Grande Hispano group l i f e i s not often developed i n New Mexico, though a region to the north and northeast of Alamo Gordo (85 miles north-northeast of E l Paso) i s now shared with Apaches and Anglos and the a r i d road westward from Socorro was s e t t l e d more by Hispanos than by Anglos. Census reports i d e n t i f y the important Hispano regions described above as over 75% Spanish-speaking. .11 Indians were a problem i n Neitf Mexico for centuries. The Spaniards did not establish themselves with ease. Except f o r a very serious revolt i n 1680, they met l i t t l e opposition from the Pueblo Indians who were normally peaceful and sedentary and taught the newcomers how to l i v e i n t h i s region, though the Spaniards, coming, i n both Europe and America, from countries where r a i n f a l l was l i g h t and water precious, had less trouble, i n adapting themselves to New Mexican conditions than northern Europeans would have had. But the Pueblos and the Spaniards had common enemies who contained them both, the Navahos, the Apaches, the Utes and on the north and east other t r i b e s . In the period of prosperity a f t e r the Mexican Liberation, the Utes and northern Apaches drew back. Northern New Mexico was s e t t l e d by the Hispanos i n the 1830*s and 1840 1s. P e r i l s i n other di r e c ­ tions continued; rather they increased f o r a while. American sovereignty did not eradicate the danger from the Navahos and southern Apaches u n t i l the 1880's. The troubles of the Hispano -921- s e t t l e r s and Pueblo Indians from these marauders indeed grew greater over a long period of time, as the raiders were acquiring horses and firearms. The amalgamation of Indian and Spanish- speaking elements never became complete. Quantities of Indian blood flow i n the veins of the Hispanos, much less among the r i c h but i t usually entered the inheritance many generations ago. His panos and Indians are d i s t i n c t l y separate groups. Those Indians who continued to l i v e i n the pueblos went on using t h e i r own lan ­ guage, often acquiring Spanish as a second language, but only f o r use with outsiders. By i960 English had replaced Spanish as the a u x i l i a r y language among young Pueblos, and some of t h e i r elders might be t r i l i n g u a l . Geographically-the region of the Pueblos shrank rather than expanded, and over most of the Hispano region Spanish has no competition from Indian languages. .12 New Mexican c o l o n i a l i s o l a t i o n was almost complete during the Spanish period. The government came from outside. No trade was permitted except by means of the long, hazardous route into Mexico. Connections with Texas and with the settlements farther west did not ex i s t . The Anglos u n t i l the l a s t ten or f i f t e e n years before they conquered the area were s t i l l f a r away, never near enough so that smuggling i n defiance of Spanish law became pr o f i t a b l e . The stream of c u l t u r a l importation was almost choked off because children were seldom sent away to be educated. The r i c h seldom found i t worth while to bring i n fur n i t u r e , and the craftsmen to make i t did not a r r i v e . - 9 2 2 - 13 The Independence of Mexico changed rel a t i o n s "between the Rio Grande v a l l e y and the south lands but l i t t l e ; the distance was s t i l l great. But from 1822 on the Anglos could trade with New Mexico unhindered by the government. The Santa Pe T r a i l de­ veloped, was marked and received some protection from the Ameri­ can government. New Mexico developed an appetite f o r the wares that the Anglos brought, and could furnish i n exchange skins and c r a f t productions that were ea s i l y transportable, f a b r i c s of l o c a l design f o r instance. There was a period of modest economic prosperity during the sovereignty of the Mexica,n republic, but i t did not endure much beyond that time, at least for the Hispa­ nos. With the Anglo conquest i n 18^8, Anglo exploiters arrived. The threat from Apaches and Navahos f i n a l l y grew l e s s , but pre­ dators whose weapons were l e g a l t e c h n i c a l i t i e s became acti v e . New Mexico except perhaps at Las Cruces was now cut off from the rest of the Spanish speaking world. I t s i s o l a t i o n i n that re­ spect became greater u n t i l the Mexican immigrants of the twen- t i e t y century arrived. Anglo a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s did not be­ come numerous, but the Anglos gained t i t l e to great tracts of land; most often they were stockmen who were glad to use New Mexican labor. The t i l l e r s of the s o i l from Europe and from the eastern states f o r many years found free land much more to to t h e i r l i k i n g along the regular f r o n t i e r . The o r i g i n a l r i c h New Mexicans had the advantage over those invaders of understand­ ing the methods necessary i n the area. Some remained strong - 9 2 3 - and shared p o l i t i c a l power with the Anglos. Thus Spanish was acceptable i n the t e r r i t o r i a l l e g i s l a t u r e and the courts (FSP kl), and i n 1910 when the t e r r i t o r y became a state, the Federal s t i p u l a t i o n that a l l state o f f i c e r s should speak English was accepted with reluctance; the Hispanos succeeded i n forbidding l i n g u i s t i c or l i t e r a c y tests f or voters (FSP 5*0 • The Anglo i n ­ vasion never has become serious at the l e v e l of workers i n the Hispano d i s t r i c t s , but i n business and i n the rest of New Mexico the speakers of English have become so numerous that i n i960 of the 880,000 inhabitants i t seems that something less than a t h i r d had Spanish as t h e i r mother tongue. The proportion of His­ panos, not absolute numbers, had f a l l e n off greatly i n twenty years. S t i l l the Hispano population has increased with the pass­ ing decades. Mixed bloods and Creoles were estimated at 61,000 i n 18^6 (N M 68), Hispanos at 250,000 i n 1950. Inasmuch as the Anglos have become the dominant element i n the population, exer­ c i s i n g economic hegemony, i t i s clear that most Hispanos are poor. They are poor because at least u n t i l l a t e l y , they have been farm­ ers with i n s u f f i c i e n t holdings. The process by which t h e i r hold­ ings were reduced i s well described i n Leonard and Loomis's study of E l Cerrito (LL k). .1^ The Catholic church served a l l Christians i n New Mexico un­ t i l a f t e r the Anglo conquest, and p r a c t i c a l l y a l l Hispanos there­ a f t e r . Also i t served few but Hispanos. As an exception i n 1900 -92^- the church at Springer was for the "American settlement. 1 1 But i n Albuquerque the only church was Spanish. In New Albuquerque, however, St. Mary's was "exclusively for English speaking people and Sagrado CorazCn was " f o r the Spanish people." The clergy has not been s i g n i f i c a n t l y Hispano since 18^8. The behavior of the e a r l i e r p r i e s t s often deviated greatly from the Catholic Ideal; they had large families f o r instance. They also tolerated practices too reminiscent of Indian r e l i g i o n s and did not repress the excesses of the Penitentes when they developed. The Holy See did not turn the region over to the I r i s h or Germans from the States, but i t i s probably important that the Hispano priests were not i n c l i n e d to cooperation with the government i n Washing­ ton. The diocese of Santa Pe was erected i n 1850 — New Mexico had had no episcopal see before — and J . B. Lamy was appointed the f i r s t bishop. U n t i l 1918 the archbishops (Bishop Lamy became archbishop i n l 8 7 5 ) bore French names, though i n t h i s century there were tTro bishops with German names and i n 19^3 an Irishman, Lamy brought i n French p r i e s t s . They preponderated into the 1930 ,s. In i 9 6 0 the majority bore I r i s h names; Spanish names among them were hardly more numerous than i n 1900. S t i l l under a l l regimes the parish p r i e s t has been important, consulted upon other mat­ ters than those r e l i g i o u s . His influence has been l i m i t e d , to be sure, by the Inclusion of several v i l l a g e s i n one parish. The character of the clergy has been such that the church has t o l e r ­ ated rather than advanced Spanish and things Spanish; indeed - 9 2 5 - since 1918 i t has been a markedly Engl-izing force. 15 Education among the Hispanos i n New Mexico has been l i m i t e d , Burma wrote i n ±95^$ "Over a quarter of the population [of New Mexico} has had four years or less of schooling and one tenth have had no schooling at a l l . The Hispanos are la r g e l y respon­ s i b l e f o r t h i s poor record" (Bu 19). The explanation i s that most of the Hispanos l i v e In impoverished country d i s t r i c t s (see in t e r a l i a S32, 7 2 ) . Providing schooling (at least t i l l the I 9 6 0 1 has been a grave burden fo r the community so that short school careers, which have allowed children to go to work, , have also relieved the sc a n t i l y furnished public treasuries; therefore v i l ­ lage opinion regards absenteeism with indifference. Grants from the state were long neglected (S 33). Such a s i t u a t i o n has helped to preserve the l i n g u i s t i c status quo. Even when there were schools, the character of country education was not condu­ cive to Engl-izing. An old man at E l Gerrito speaking of a per­ iod when there were s t i l l Indian preda,tions said,"I went to school very l i t t l e . . . . The school term was short and we were taught In Spanish . . . catechism 0 . . A,B,C" (LL 1 3 ) . 'The schools were not public u n t i l I 8 9 6 . In 1910 Espinosa xfas on the st a f f of a four-weeks teachers* i n s t i t u t e i n which 21 of the 25 teachers receiving i n s t r u c t i o n were Hispanos. •'Not one hal f could carry on correctly an ordinary conversation i n the English language. They taught In d i s t r i c t s where only Spanish i s spoken -926- and gave some of the i n s t r u c t i o n i n Spanish 1 1 (EP kll note) . Espinosa then f e l t that a l l measures to repress the use of Span­ ish on school play grounds were vain, but i n 1917 he declared that Engl-izing was being accomplished through the corruption of Spanish. "The New Mexicans are educated i n English schools, and necessarily a l l possible influences are changing gradually the Spanish constructions into English constructions with Spanish words. . . . The people are beginning to think i n English and for expression seek the Spanish words which convey the English idea" (EP ^17)• In 19^0 Sanchez was p a r t i c u l a r l y exercised by the p l i g h t of the c h i l d entering school. "He cannot speak to the teacher and i s unable to understand what goes on about him.... The school program i s based upon the f a l l a c i o u s assumption that the children come from English-speaking homes" ($32). In the same year, 19^0, Leonard and Loomis reported that the people then "realized that i f the native i s to compete with the ever increasing number of Anglos, a f i r s t essential i s to speak good English. . . . Despite the desire. . ., i t i s seldom that a l o c a l boy or g i r l attains any degree of proficiency i n i t . The g i r l s usually speak i t better than the boys because of t h e i r longer and more regular attendance at school. . . . Usually natives themselves, the teach­ ers are Inadequately prepared and are often unable to speak Eng­ l i s h c o r r e c t l y . Although a state law requires that nothing but English be spoken i n the school t h i s regulation i s not adhered to. -927- Knowlege on the part of the children that the teacher under­ stands Spanish tempts them to speak I t . In case they cannot make themselves understood i n English they are l i k e l y to use t h e i r native tongue" (LL 52). The attitudes and practices of both pupils and administrators have changed i n ma'ny places since 19^0, but bilingualism, i f not complete Engl-izing, was s t i l l a goal i n the 1960«s and the obstacles In many places were un­ changed. The schools are thus a less potent force f o r Engl-izing than i n many places, but they are nevertheless a major force, and have become increasingly so, p a r t l y , because the teaching person­ nel has had greater training(S77)« In 1888 the complaint was that i n the majority of the schools i n s t r u c t i o n was i n Spanish (P-SP 72). Without resistance from the Hispanos, because of future economic advantage for the children, English has i n gene­ r a l displaced i t . S t i l l the teachers may not be too adept i n English and the administrators may be puzzled and awkward i n handling the situations that r e s u l t (P Sp 108, S 78). .16 The family among the Hispanos has enjoyed great importance, both the immediate and the extended family. At least u n t i l the time of the Second World War, age carried great prestige i n the making of decisions. Tradition thus dominated s o c i a l behavior, and language i s an important s o c i a l t r a d i t i o n . When both know- lege of the~outside_ world^.and the pressure f o r change from out­ side i n s t i t u t i o n s became greater, the prestige of the old de- - 9 2 8 - creased, and the experience of the young Ttfho had l i v e d f or a while away from the v i l l a g e gained weight, These people were usually well versed i n English (See LL 60 for the effect of a CCG camp,) However, at least as la t e as 19^0 distaste f o r l i v i n g conditions i n the outside wferld . where no one spoke Spanish kept many people i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s (LL 72)• Small wonder when a com­ mon al t e r n a t i v e was work i n the beet f i e l d s , and when the l o t of those i n the towns s e e ^ t o country people f u l l y as hard (LL 66) as t h e i r own. 17 In co l o n i a l times i n New Mexico as i n Mexico there were large land grants and v i l l a g e s organized with communal holdings. The ordinary Hispano l i v e d i n one of the l a t t e r . In the rough country north and northeast of Albuquerque the cupidity of the Anglos when they arrived l e f t the small personal holdings v i r ­ t u a l l y undisturbed. But some of the ' r i c h 1 who l i v e d i n a patriarchal manner without having acquired much education and with no leg a l finesse at a l l f e l l a prey to t i t l e - c o n t e s t i n g newcomers a f t e r the United States became the sovereign. In I967 better educated Hispanos were s t i l l t r y i n g to make recoveries. Communal lands were regarded as part of the public domain, and gave r i s e to si m i l a r a c t i v i t i e s . (On land d i s t r i b u t i o n , see S 61 f o r Taos County.) As i n Mexico under Diaz the poor be­ came poorer. Part of the " r i c h " , as said e a r l i e r , had a better fate; great Hispano families have wielded p o l i t i c a l power> and i n the better valleys Spanish landholders maintained respectable - 9 2 9 - bank accounts i n 1918. The great families gave the small His­ pano operators p o l i t i c a l candidates who i n some sort understood them, and Spanish speakers retained power i n government (see p a r t i c u l a r l y S 55) • The r i c h did not help the poor men greatly In making economic progress, but because of them the poor were l e f t more or less undisturbed i n t h e i r i s o l a t i o n . In 1907 Clark wrote: "Thirty years ago the New Mexican had no use for money. There was not even an iron hinge i n his hut. . . . Jury fees were almost the only money country men ever saw. . . . Then came the r a i l r o a d . . . Now, except i n remote l o c a l i t i e s , the adobe hut . . . usually contains an iron bed, frequently a good cooking range" (CI 501). What Clark described remained near the id e a l , at least u n t i l the welfare ideas of the New Deal began to percolate — rather i n e f f e c t i v e l y (S 6 6 ) — into remote places. The poverty of most r u r a l Hispanos was long a potent factor i n the maintenance of t h e i r Spanish speech (see i n t e r a l i a S 28 & 32)* They were generally too poor to t r a v e l , too poor to maintain e f f i c i e n t schools, too poor to provide markets that would draw many salesmen among them, and t h e i r l o t was too poor to tempt Anglos to come l i v e on farms where they might suffer the same fate; thus the b e l i e f that Anglo neighbors might improve t h e i r English ( L L 6 5 ) was unrealized. In 1911 Espinosa estimated that 80,000 persons spoke at most only a few words of English, 50,000 none at a l l (EH 1 7 ) . - 9 3 0 - But there was a factor that made th e i r poverty ultimately draw them more frequently into the outer world. Their farms did not provide enough to l i v e on and they worked f o r others, f o r the estate owners and, usually only seasonally, f o r sheep ranchers i n Wyoming and Utah, f o r beet growers i n Colorado, and less often i n Texas, Arizona, and C a l i f o r n i a at work on ranches and railroads (CI 502); the needs of the Second World War and of developing towns afterward provided work elsewhere. When they began to work i n the towns, they did not necessarily move to town; they learned to commute. At t h i s new work English was the common means of communication and more people i n the v i l l a g e s became accustomed to English. But the commuters, weary of the tr a v e l without income from t h e i r land during periods of droughts became restless and a f t e r the Second World War emigration became common, School attendance with obligatory i n s t r u c t i o n i n English, which a f t e r the Second World. War was usually cheerfully ac­ cepted because of the economic advantages of knowing English, made everyone more or less b i l i n g u a l except the old and a few born i n remote regions before 19^0. In the 1960*s however, r u r a l and v i l l a g e usage almost always adhered to Spanish for a l l purposes but intercourse with Anglos, .18 Town-dwelling 1Hispanos other than older women had almost a l l become b i l i n g u a l by 19^0. Many had not become Engl-ized. to the point of abandoning Spanish. S t i l l , Engl-izing forces -931- were at work much e a r l i e r , Espinosa i n 1911 said, "Among school children, especially i n larger c i t i e s and towns, and among those who work i n the c i t i e s as clerks, porters, laundry g i r l s , e t c , there i s to be seen not only the greatest English influence, but even astonishing speech mixture such as phrases half Spanish half English, etc., and i t i s not at a l l rare to s ee Spanish-American people i n the stores or streets, speaking Spanish and mingling here and there English words which .are not f e l t to be English" (EH 16)• He speaks also of conversations between parents speaking Spanish and children speaking English (EH 17)• Ghettoizing has made for l i n g u i s t i c conservatism; a l ­ most always the Hispanos have l i v e d i n a Spanish quarter, had t h e i r own small tradesmen, t h e i r own church, t h e i r own restaurants and beer parlors. In 1917 Espinosa mentioned as c i t i e s i n which "the Spanish element i s s t i l l the a l l important and predominant one, Santa PS, Taos, Socorro, Las Graces, TomS, West Las Vegas" (EP klO). The people i n them continued to be Hispanos a f t e r 19^0, but the habit of speaking English acquired i n the schools and also frequently exercised at work, i n certain c i r c l e s , even i n certain communities, began to establish English as the language of usual intercourse. Not always and by no means everywhere by the 1960 fs. Albuquerque as the largest town was most nearly given to the use of English i n the Hispano quarters. In general the larger the town the nearer i t approached t h i s condition, but size i s no perfect l i n g u i s t i c index, - 9 3 2 - 19 The relations between Mexicans and New Mexican Hispanos must engage us b r i e f l y . The separation between the two was so complete for half a century that whatever common id e n t i t y they had had was l o s t . When Mexicans began to appear i n New Mexico about 1900 i t was usually as elsewhere as r a i l r o a d laborers. When they spread into other work i t was not usually where there were Hispanos, .but i f both elements were present, they were i n economic competition, and relations were strained. There were mutual feelings of supe r i o r i t y , greater on the part of the His­ panos, for they were at home and knew what was rig h t and proper. They held the ground that had been t h e i r s , but the competitors from the south usually won elsewhere, as i n the beet f i e l d s and more or less the mines of Colorado 0 When both elements together form a group regarded by Anglos as a un i t , the h o s t i l i t y tends to disappear so as to face a common cause. The h o s t i l i t y has not i n southern New Mexico prevented some inter-marriage, The people from the south are then absorbed into Hispano culture, A s i m i l a r phenomenon i s not uncommon when Anglos, usually immigrants from Europe, have married Hispanos. The Spanish of the Mexicans and New Mexicans i s noticeably d i f f e r e n t though mutual i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i s unhampered. The Mexicans tend to reproach the Hispanos f o r not speaking as they do, and the New Mexicans answer that they are not Mexicans, 20 In examining the l i n g u i s t i c state of Hispanos i n New Mexico the eastern and southern borders of the main region w i l l f i r s t - 9 3 3 - be considered, then the main region i t s e l f , Albuquerque and the country adjoining i t and an axis running northeast to Colorado and f i n a l l y the south part of the state, beginning a few miles below Albuquerque, The method of presentation w i l l f o r t h i s state be a summary of observations made during a two-week survey i n 1962, This method of approach has been chosen because other more thorough studies have been made and are being made and th i s report gains i n value i f i t s impressionistic character i s frank­ l y recognized. Remarks preceded by an underlined i n i t i a l are information gained through interview. Ages noted i n parenthesis are approximate except for those below 20 and over 70, For i n ­ formants of high school age or less male or female indicates sex. Question marks indicate doubt as to correctness of i n f o r ­ mation. •21 Tucumcari and southwest. TUCUMCARI (la t i t u d e of Albuquerque, ^0 miles from Texas, population 1950, about 8500, about k0% Hispano) long a quiet county seat with a f t e r 1901 some r a i l r o a d importance — popula­ t i o n then about 3f000 — became more Important because i t i s below the s i t e of the Conchas Dam (construction employment, then I r r i g a t i o n of the Canadian River valley) — growth brought i n both Hispanos and Anglos, the former from surrounding areas. Informants, I f Hispano, except M. spoke English with ac­ cent. Three groups of children playing In neighborhood of St. Ann 1s church (2 groups, boys average 17 and 12, one group g i r l s , 10) a l l using Spanish. Hospital signs to guide patients and v i s i t o r s - b i l i n g u a l . - 9 3 ^ - Mr, A (^7), 3 grandparents born Spain, one Indian, At Santa Rosa t i l l 19^5 • Knew only Spanish t i l l school, Boys and g i r l s 16 or 17 t a l k English mostly (? above). Young parents speak English at home ( ? ) , Some mostly old confess i n Spanish, E (female 1^ ) Parents use -| English | Spanish. (Proportions?) . She talks whatever handy. No Spanish allowed at St. Ann's school. Addressed small s i s t e r i n Spanish. Mr. S (1889, Anglo minister of Protestant Hispano Church) — 50 or 60 poor attenders l e f t i n his congregation, another Protestant Church more pros­ perous. Here 12 In high-school age group, mix up t h e i r language, t h e i r Spanish bad, vocabulary l i m i t e d , Preaches pa r t l y i n Span­ i s h , 10 or 12 prefer English; 2 old ladies know no English. A time coming when no Spanish w i l l be needed here. Some Hispanos own farms. F i r s t National Bank has .Hispano vice-president; t e l l e r s are Anglo women, bookkeepers i n part Hispano. M (male 17) son of grocery store owners near St. Ann's Church. Mother born 75 miles west speaks l i t t l e English, same for others i n that neighborhood. Father speaks more because he buys fo r store. His nephews and nieces and a l l children i n neighborhood speak Spanish constantly; learn l i t t l e English before going to school. A l l trading i n store Is i n Spanish, Parents i l l i t e r a t e i n both languages. He plans going to college. Dr. G (^5) he couldn't practice without Spanish. CUERVO (^ J4 miles west i n ranch country, 15 east of Santa Rosa, i n 1950, pop. 250) Mr. V (Hispano 1+0) and son 12, Son works regularly, but i n school too, 20 pupils, Hispano teacher - 9 3 5 - from Santa Rosa allows Spanish on playground. Sisters i n high school at Santa Rosa use English half time. Mr. V fs grand­ parents l i v e d here too; he learned to read English not Spanish. Not much more English now than In 1930. SANTA ROSA (59 miles west by south from Tucumcari, i n 1950 population 2200, 85$ Hispano) A group aged k to 6 playing In Spanish, others 10 to Ik using English, Two well-dressed women if-5 speaking Spanish. R (male 16) Hispano himself, spoke English with an Anglo f r i e n d his age, used whichever was handiest with other friends. Father P (Hispano 38) St. Rose of Lima Church had a l l notices i n English. 709 contributors i n 1 9 6 l , a dozen with names not Spanish, 8 o'clock Mass In English f o r children, other Masses Spanish and English, He brought up elsewhere, knew l i t t l e English on s t a r t i n g to school. At Santa Rosa people older than 55 know l i t t l e English; those his age speak Spanish at home except with l i t t l e ones to give them a sta r t at school, A l l teachers here i n s i s t on English, Children i n town know English on s t a r t i n g , but not those from country. The difference between town and country i s general. The Spanish here i s not so good, better to north where people don't accept strangers. Here tour­ i s t trade i s important. Miss G (Hispano 18, on a lonely ranch ca. 20 miles west of Santa Rosa near Milagro) attends high school at Santa Rosa — at school English mostly, on bus to and from mostly Spanish. Mostly Spanish at home. Learned to read and write Spanish i n high school. Parents born southeast of Santa Rosa. -936- PASTUBA (19 miles southwest of Santa Rosa, population 12 f a m i l i e s , a run down place) Mr. M (Hispano 66, storekeeper, his English correct f o r short phrases, but elements l e f t out of longer sentences) On ranch 3 miles west 1922-1956 ~ now store and school bus d r i v i n g . Learned English at school — almost every­ body learns English. P r i e s t comes once a month, preaches i n Spanish, part of the announcements i n English, People who l e f t went to Clovis (a r a i l r o a d section had been at Pastura), to other New Mexico c i t i e s , to Texas and to Los Angeles, In small ceme­ tery no stones l a t e r than 1951t only two with English i n s c r i p t i o n s , 1933 and 1951. FT. SUMNER (55 a i r miles south-southwest of Tucumcari, 35 south-southeast of Santa Rosa, i n 1950, population 2000) A (male IS, Hispano) Town half Hispano. Boys mix English and Spanish. G i r l s speak more English, more w i l l i n g to do what they are t o l d to. An Anglo f r i e n d has picked up Spanish. At home i t ' s Spanish, His s i s t e r ' s husband an Anglo, won't allow her to speak Spanish to children. Young husbands and wives use l i t t l e Spanish, YESO (22 miles west of Ft, Sumner, founded 1906, population 350) Mr. 0 (Anglo, 60, merchant) Here 28 years. Most customers Hispano. Twenty years ago many couldn't speak English almost a l l can now. Hispano-Anglo proportions unchanged. When he came from Tennessee Hispanos were same as niggers; now O.K. I f educated. Intermarriages. People took claims during depression; then f a i l e d . Rich men buy when poor have to leave. Hispanos gradually coming -937- down from north. Most teachers are Hispano and now they have a Hispano county superintendent. Machinery has cut down section gangs; trade l o s t . VAUGHN( 56 miles west of Ft. Sumner, population 1360) Town i s less Hispano, r a i l r o a d background. In restaurant one waitress out of 5 Hispano. Cemetery has a Catholic Hispano section and a general section mostly Anglo. In Hispano section, nearly equal number of in s c r i p t i o n s i n Spanish and English i n 19^0*s; almost a l l English later? S h i f t i n one family5 19^2 Spanish 1956 English. Mr. X (Anglo, 23* f i l l i n g station) Born here; never learned Spanish; the Hispanos h i s age don't speak i t with each other. .22 ALBUQUERQUE (founded 1706, population i960 185,000) A l l agree that c i t y i s a center of Eng l - i z i n g , even i n 1917 Espinosa speaks of Albuquerque as dominated by English (EP ^10-^11). But i n the 1960*s there were important l i m i t a t i o n s . There i s an Old Town near the r i v e r and a New Town mainly to the east. The Old Town i s nearly a l l Hispano; the New Town large l y Anglo, .especially i n northeast. Comments here concern the Old Town, except f o r remarks on the University of New Mexico. There half of students from the county, 15$ or 20$ of enrollment, was Hispano. Casual speech of Hispano students on campus increasingly English but one heard Spanish. In the c i t y there i s also College of St. Joseph with 75$ to 90$ Hispano enrollment. Prof. R (55, Anglo, native of state) Hispano students have small Spanish vocabulary, - 9 3 8 - read poorly u n t i l i t i s extended. Janitors hard to understand when t a l k i n g to each.other; rather good Spanish when speaking formally. Intermarriages becoming more common; they mean de­ sertion of Spanish. More Spanish heard i n business section than on campus. Mr. M (19i Hispano student) I f you speak Spanish to some one i n Albuquerque they think you are crazy. Father R (Hispano, 40) His nephews i n Albuquerque laugh at the qu a l i t y of his English. He t e l l s them that he i s better off than they; at lea s t he knows two languages. Informants i n sur­ rounding v i l l a g e s except on the main highways, f e l t that there i s more English i n Albuquerque. On highways about the same pro­ portion. Investigator's observation i n Old Town showed Hispanos i n south west part of town using English to each other including s i x 4-year-old g i r l s . In a workman's neighborhood a block or so from San Felipe de Neri English prevailed. A father of 40 chided i n English his 10-year-old son on a b i c y c l e . A l i t t l e g i r l teasing her teen-age s i s t e r was answered, "Oh, shut up." Before church at 7:30 change of Masses much English but some Spanish, once from 8-year-olds alone together. Some women about 30 talked Spanish u n t i l one of t h e i r number l e f t ; then shifted to English. At the 9*00 change, there was more Spanish, includ­ ing t a l k by teen-age boys. 23 Country to southeast of Albuquerque. Aft e r Moriarty the v i l l a g e s considered are those south of Tijeras (16 miles from Albuquerque) on New Mexico Highway 10 as f a r as Mountain A i r . - 9 3 9 - They l i e i n a v a l l e y on the mesa east of the Manzano Mountains, a d i s t r i c t of small ranches at one time r e l a t i v e l y prosperous. Prolonged drought had been p a r t i c u l a r l y bad here In 1962. M0RIARTY(40 miles east of Albuquerque, population 500) Mrs. C (37, restaurant proprietor, mostly Hispano but a quarter I r i s h , born to the north i n a purely Hispano area, married to an Anglo) Anglo children here know no Spanish. Hispano c h i l ­ dren play b i l i n g u a l l y ; i t i s common now f o r them to learn Eng­ l i s h and Spanish together. L i t t l e ranchers largely squeezed out and moved to C a l i f o r n i a but returning. TIJERAS (16 miles east of Albuquerque, has a cement plant) Mrs. R (50, Anglo, merchant) The plant hires mostly Anglos, but the neighborhood i s half Hispano. Some picknickers because of woods. A l l Hispanos her age know English (so did a Hispano customer i n his 70 fs who came i n ) . CHILILI (ca. 15 miles south of Tijeras, early a pueblo tor­ mented by Apaches, now nearly deserted). In cemetery many graves without i n s c r i p t i o n s , four have them. Two are f o r I r i s h who died In I873 and I883 ( i n same family), the others i n Spanish fo r two Hispanos who died i n 1900 and 1909. T0BRE0N (15 a i r miles north of Mountain A i r , population ca. 150) The cemetery has many more graves than i n s c r i p t i o n s , none i n English except some English names of months and English date order. So, the stone f o r JosS J . Sanchez I913-I958, but a metal plate has l e t t e r s brazed on saying "R.I.P. Jos6 Sanchez - 9 4 0 - quien fue 'Catfilico Ejempiar' Arch. Byrne." £Church programs i n English.]| J (male, 5» Hispano, an enthusiast for T.V. programs, speaks excellent English) His father works on rock crusher. MANZANO (5 ..miles south of Torreon, founded as a town 1829, i n 1950 pop. 434) Church had i n Spanish a l i s t of ushers and another of women to clean pri e s t ' s house. A l l names were Span­ ish except Frank Lajuenesse. The s p e l l i n g of th i s French name seems in d i c a t i v e of i t s l o c a l pronunciation i n Spanish. In the cemetery the e a r l i e s t English i n s c r i p t i o n was of 1937. One Spanish i n s c r i p t i o n read "A$ Deda" instead of "Aftos de Edad." E (male Hispano, 5) playing i n the road, knew but l i t t l e English, but was quite w i l l i n g to t a l k i n Spanish, so was his brother aged 3« PUNTA ( i . e . Punta de Agua, 5 miles north of Mountain A i r , 20 houses, mostly empty) In cemetery a l l i n s c r i p t i o n s but two of 1905 i n Spanish; the oldest l e g i b l e was of I 8 9 6 . Mrs. B (28, Hispano housewife) She didn't speak English before she went to school, but now the children learn i t . Everybody who i s l e f t here i s b i l i n g u a l and goes away to i^ork somewhere i n town, MOUNTAIN AIR (45 a i r miles southeast by south from Albuquer­ que, In 1950 population 1500) 30 cars arrived for 7 o'clock Mass — a l l held Hispanos, The l i g h t e s t people arrived i n the best cars, Those who seemed most Indian arrived on foot. The .Hispanos l i v e i n the south part of toxm; they are about half of the population, Mr. G (45* born here i n 1917t Anglo, operates f i l l i n g station) A l l younger Hispanos know English but use Spanish to each other. -941- He speaks enough Spanish to trade and get by. He has talked to people who know no English along the Rio Grande 30 miles west. School was too f a r away from them. The schools have spread English within his time. He played with Hispanos when-,a boy; no segregation, though they; l i v e apart. His father and grand­ father homesteaded i n 1916 and bought four relinquishments be­ sides. Most ranches are large now and use Anglo help. Anglo proportion has increased some. .24 West and northwest of Albuquerque. GRANTS (70 miles west of Albuquerque, l a s t 55 through Pueblo Indian reservations — some of the older Indians speak Spanish as ,a second language; a uranium town, r a i l r o a d background from 1881, founded 1872, popu­ l a t i o n i n 1950 2250) Mr. ¥ (Anglo, 60, v i s i t i n g at St. Theresa rectory) 3/4 of the population Hispano (true f or Catholics at least) many born here, many have come i n . I t i s a l l Spanish country. Preaching only i n English here but In Mission at San Rafael (near to south) and San Mateo (more distant to north) there Is preaching i n Spanish. CUBA (65 a i r miles north-northwest of Albuquerque, i n 1950, pop. 841) A (18 Anglo, working i n f i l l i n g station) here s i x years, l i v e d before at Albuquerque, l i n g u i s t i c conditions very s i m i l a r here as there — 70$ Hispano — most but not a l l can speak English. Thinks more highly of Hispanos here than at Albuquerque — Very few of Navahos on reservation just to north know Spanish, -942- ,25 RIO GRANDE VALLEY near Albuquerque BELEN (30 miles south of Albuquerque on r i v e r , founded i n 17th century, i n 1950 population 4500; business was thriving) In drug store two highway patrolmen talked to each other and to the sales personnel i n Spanish, So did other customers. There were Anglos i n supermarket near by, proportion 75$ Hispano. A l l Hispanos spoke Spanish together but addressed Anglos i n English. Mr. G (Hispano, 32, farmer from 15 miles south) and son ( 1 0 ) . Everybody i n t h e i r neighborhood Hispano. Boy plays i n English or Spanish depending on who his companions are. Early Mass i s English, rest Spanish. Mr. T (36, drugstore owner) Learned Spanish before English, but his children know only English, oldest aged 3» He uses Spanish i n directions on prescriptions f o r Hispanos, translates doctor's orders; uses dictionary to be sure of current terms. Spanish decreasing here as at Albuquer­ que. His sales g i r l s mix i n English when t a l k i n g to customers; gives prestige. They f e e l f l a t t e r e d i f addressed i n English but are more at home i n Spanish. He helps Anglos attempting to use Spanish. BERNALILLO (17 miles north of Albuquerque, s e t t l e d 1698, i n 1950, population 2000) i n cemetery many graves without stones especially f o r children. Inscriptions for children from 1923 to 1932 were 5 i n Spanish, 5 i n English. Language of in s c r i p t i o n s f or adults: English Spanish % of Spanish 1910-9 1^ + 78% 1920-9 22 7 2k% 1930-9 25 12 33% 19^0-6 20 5 20% (no count f o r 1947-9) 1950-9 30 1 3% In post o f f i c e X (Hispano, 30) talked Spanish to Y (48) an Anglo (the only one seen), and joked with a Hispano g i r l Z (17) i n English, He addressed ZZ (40) i n English and continued conversation i n Spanish, Mr, M (50) has two small children who speak English more frequently than Spanish, The town i s com­ pl e t e l y b i l i n g u a l . .26 Santa Fe, Taos and north. In 1917 Espinosa said, "Some of the very isolated places l i k e Taos and Santa Fe are yet thoroughly Spanish and w i l l continue so, perhaps f o r more than a century*(EP 410). SANTA FE (founded I 6 0 9 , i n i960 population 34,000, t o u r i s t oriented, half Hispano) Mr. G (501 curio merchant) His sales s t a f f furnish the interpreters for him with Indians xfho come i n from the pueblos and want to use Spanish i n s e l l i n g t h e i r wares. Otherwise he doesn 1t need Spanish, though the town i s 70$ His­ pano. Mr. R (48, r a i l r o a d agent) Yes 3/4 Hispano, but 99$ can speak English. Children t a l k i n g together use Spanish u n t i l they have been i n school a while; then they take to using English. - 9 4 4 - The s h i f t has "been gradual, but i t has been too fast to sui t the a r t i s t s and old timers. Personal observation at hotels the b e l l boy greeted the f l o o r scrubber i n English; both were Hispano. A Hispano t a x i driver struck up a conversation In Spanish. On street a couple (50) talked i n Spanish. Before cathedral women were using Spanish. RINC0NAD0 (20 miles southwest of Taos, population scattered) Mr. M (46, mission wofeker fo r a Protestant church, son of an Im­ migrant from over-seas) serves several mission stations i n area; people In them almost a l l b i l i n g u a l Hispano. The Hispanos hang on to t h e i r language, not l i k e immigrant stocks; only a few t r y to get away from i t . The brother of a Hispano f r i e n d was r i d i ­ culed on returning to community for not speaking Spanish. Mis­ sion schools have been decreased as public schools Improved. Missions near Dixon, Truchas (high a l t i t u d e ) . TAOS (69 road miles NNE from S anta Fe, f i r s t mission 1617, permanent settlement 1696, pop. nearly 2000, t o u r i s t and a r t i s t oriented) Town 85$, Hispano. In 1940 96$ of school population was Hispano. Business service personnel Hispano, dealing with customers i n Spanish. Mr. G (Hispano, 45, operates f i l l i n g sta­ tion) Learned English at school; l i v e d with great grandmother who spoke no English. They have seen to i t that t h e i r children knew English on going to school; handicapped otherwise. The children use English a l l the time. Has r e l a t i v e s who won*t speak Spanish. At court house much o f f i c i a l work i n Spanish, deeds are i n Spanish. There are people i n back country who know no English. - 9 4 5 - Language of in s c r i p t i o n s at p r i n c i p a l cemetery: English Spanish % of Spanish 1910-19 4 2 33$ 1920-29 11 9 ^5% 1930-39 16 4 20%* 1940-49 20 4 17$ 1950-59 21 1 5% Many unmarked graves, itfhich explains e a r l i e s t language proportions QUESTA (20 a i r miles n, of Taos, as many miles south of Colo, town half on h i l l , h alf i n charming v a l l e y , i n 1950 pop, 700, . large majority Hispano) Mr. 0 (Hisp. 73, exact. Storekeeper) Here a l l his l i f e . People of his generation don't speak English. He i s an exception, because he herded sheep i n Wyoming. [This exception i s not uncommon) Don't do that now; people stay i n val l e y (farms, c a t t l e , sheep, lumber). At school children must play i n Eng. He thinks they should be alloiAred to speak both languages. I t ' s Spanish once out of the school house. But they have become r e a l l y b i l i n g u a l . People ought to know both languages; at Hot Springs Hospital, where he was with a c h i l d , they wanted him to stay as interpreter; the st a f f should have known Spanish. His grandparents came here about 1845$ from Santa Fe, he thinks. [This was probably the time of f i r s t settlement. See San Luis , Colorado .J 27 Northwest of Santa Fe ESPAfOLA (24 miles nnw. of Santa Fe. pop. 1500) On street a Hispano man addressed two women 45 and 30 i n Spanish, so for -946- others, Mr. R (32, runs machine shop, Hispano) Does business usually i n English, sometimes has to, passes time of day i n Spanish. Children play i n English (a woman companion agreed.) More Spanish here somewhat than i n Albuquerque, but less than In Hernandez (see below). There are some Anglos here, (The English of these two was very nearly perfect.) HERNANDEZ (4 miles nw. of EspaHola, small) The small holders here seem to have been r e l a t i v e l y prosperous, since there are i n the cemetery here fewer unmarked graves. The proportion of i n s c r i p t i o n s i s as follows: English Spanish $ of Spanish 1900-09 0 k 100$ 1910-19 2 10 83$ 1920-29 2 8 80$ 1930-39 6 19 76$ 19^0-^9 10 14 58$ 1950-59 12 14 5 ¥ 1960-61 1 1 50$ An example: Carla A Senna, Nasio (for nacifl) Aug. 22, I 8 9 2 . died Jan. 29, 1941. En pas (for paz) gode. This i s the most l i n g u i s t i c a l l y conservative cemetery recorded. S ( 9 i Hispano, chicken r a i s e r despite his years) His grandfathers are dead, his great grand-mother speaks no English, but his grandmother can; sometimes his parents t a l k together i n English. He spoke English before going to school; he has older brothers and s i s t e r s , Everybody here speaks Spanish. -947- CE30LLA (70 a i r miles nnw. of Santa Fe, small) There are two small cemeteries, one with f i v e l e g i b l e i n s c r i p t i o n s , the other more recent with two i n s c r i p t i o n s , i n which the other 16 graves unmarked /except with undertaker's labels; the two are i n Spanish and of 1956 and 1959• The other cemetery has two i n s c r i p t i o n s i n English, both 1911 $ three i n Spanish 1910, 1912, 1942, One commemorates a man born i n I838 at 0jo Caliente, 38 a i r miles to the southeast demonstrating further the spread of settlement i n the mid 19th-century, Mrs. F (Anglo, 65» operator of f i l l i n g station a.nd store, also ranch owner with husband, 640 acres. Homestead had burned down.) Here since 1948 l i t t l e change i n language since then, though a few have learned English. 90^ Hispanos here. At C a n j i l l o n , som* 8 miles southeast, only the children who are learning i n school speak English. Two cus­ tomers arrived who spoke English badly. She succeeds i n trading with a woman who knows only three English words. She understands some Spanish, but hasn't the nerve to speak i t . In high school they make the Hispanos take Spanish; f o r many i t i s the hardest subject. Most Hispanos have small places here, 20 to 40 acres and have permits to pasture i n forest. P r a c t i c a l l y a l l work out, some at Los Alamos, some sheepherding up north or i n saw m i l l s . One family who held an old Spanish grant divided i t up Into 40 acre l o t s for the children. Some of them teach. (The community organization which Mrs. P has described i s t y p i c a l . Not mentioned elsewhere i s the fragmentation of larger holdings -948- through inheritance and the transformation of communal holdings into government land for the exploitation of which certain grants are made.) A few Anglos have moved i n recently who look down on the Spanish and c a l l them Mexicans; she finds the Hispanos love l y friends. (Events surrounding the burning of the ranch house had been a test.) TIERBA AMARILLA (13 miles farther on, county seat, i n 1950 pop. 500, q u a l i f i e d i n 1917 hy Espinosa as thoroughly Spanish — EP 411; scene i n 1967 of a small r i o t caused by Hispanos seeking to recover 2,500 sq. miles due them, they contended, by Spanish grant.) A score of boys and g i r l s , 12 or 13t leaving school spoke Spanish. In restaurant waitress 20, spoke English with an older woman employee; they were Hispanos. Two g i r l s 16, one Hispano, one Anglo, were using English. Mjss C (Hispano, 20, employee i n o f f i c e of County Supervisor of Schools) In her of­ f i c e they do most of t h e i r business i n English, but elsewhere i n courthouse much Spanish. In assessor 1s o f f i c e f or instance many come i n unable to speak English. Only at Chama (see below) are there many Anglos i n the county. The vocational t r a i n i n g teacher was the only Anglo teacher i n the county, a l l teaching i n English and English i s to be used on the playground. When she started to school many did not know English, fewer ignorant now. Hispanos here about four generations. CHAM (further north, 8 miles from Colo, l i n e , pop. 1000) Children leaving school spoke English; one out of 5 was Anglo. - 9 4 9 - Assembly of God has two churches here one Spanish, one English, Lumber center; loggers are Anglos mostly, Miss M (Hisp. 2 1 , lawyer's secretary) Almost a l l speak Spanish. Because her young­ er brothers and s i s t e r s are i n school, the family mixes the lan­ guages at home. Spanish on playground was permitted when she was i n school. She learned English before s t a r t i n g school — that i s usual. Mr. Q ( 7 2 , clerked at Parkview, just north of Tierra Amarilla 1 9 1 4 - 3 1 i employee of Highway Dept. 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 5 5 $ Hispano) The loggers don't lea,rn Spanish. There are three Anglo merchants i n town (two with I r i s h names, one with an Eng­ l i s h name). One of the I r i s h families knows Spanish w e l l , the other pretty w e l l , the t h i r d merchant knows some. He can read and write Spanish as well as speak; his wife can read i t ; younger people can't. He had to make reports to Highway Dept. i n English. The children who go by from parochial school are speaking both Spanish and English; the children i n neighborhood, though Spanish, play i n English, Some here look down on the people i n the county south of Chama. At Brazos (nearer Tierra Amarilla than Chama) he knew a clan that xfas smart without ed­ ucation. His grandfather came to the Parkview neighborhood about i 8 6 0 . The towns described i n t h i s section ( 8 9 . 2 5 ) are a l l i n the eastern half of Rio Arriba County ("Upriver County"). Rio Arriba has been i n some sort a synonym for pure Hispano country with small land-holders. I t , l i k e Questa near Colorado farther - 9 5 0 - east (see preceding section 89.24), i s t e r r i t o r y s e t t l e d l a t e but without Anglo competition and the old c i v i l i z a t i o n here has, with something of the vigor that accompanies youthful settlement, as many p r i s t i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as the country to the east of Santa Fe. The l a t t e r d i s t r i c t , which occupies our attention next, has a greater complication of economic d i f f i c u l t i e s , and greater contrasts between town and country, .28 Santa Fe to Las Vegas and beyond GALISTEO (20 a i r miles s. of Santa Fe, few inhabitants) A Hispano v i l l a g e was i n s t a l l e d i n a ruined pueblo, d i f f i c u l t to say what are pueblo ruins arid what are abandoned Hispano construe tions. Church had L a t i n responses f o r Mass translated i n print both into Spanish and English, Notices b i l i n g u a l . A box e v i ­ dently intended for t o u r i s t contributions was accompanied with thi s notice: "Help us up-keep our church." F i r s t names on honor l i s t s f o r boys and men are usually i n the English form i f there i s one? P h i l l i p , Frank, but Ernesto. Some use nicknames, that are English, D an, Joe, Tony, Rudy. Mr. S ( 5 5 * store and bar proprietor, Hispano) Everybody here speaks Spanish except a few Anglos who have moved i n . (An anglo f i l l i n g s tation pro­ priet o r half way to Santa Fe had been here 4 years and knew no Spanish; but some of his best customers were Hispano.) This used to be a good l i t t l e town, but the droughtlhas made a l l l i t t l e ranchers s e l l to the big and get jobs i n town. Now most have moved to Santa Fe, Albuquerque, Colorado, Los Angeles, everywhere -951- They got the jobs f i r s t , and then t i r e d of commuting. The kids now know English before they go to school, learn from parents. He learned at school. A l l Hispano families here time out of mind 0 WHITE LAKES (27 miles sse. of Santa Pe, 2 houses) Mr. & Mrs, H (Anglos, 64, have store and f i l l i n g station) Here since 1947. He used to speak Spanish when a boy near Ruidoso [between Capitan and Tularosa, see section 89t29J, Here almost a l l can speak Eng­ l i s h , so he has forgotten Spanish. There used to be a l o t of people up on the mesa> driven out by drought... . Ranches here : mostly middle-sized with both Anglo and Hispano owners. The Hispano children speak Spanish to each other. £ln the store t h e i r parents would usually be with them.J E l Cerrito described by Leonard and Loomis i s i n the area 30 miles southwest of Las Vegas. I t was founded i n 1844 (LL 10); the date indicates the period of a g r i c u l t u r a l settlement of the whole region, LAS VEGAS (40 a i r miles e. of Santa Fe, founded 1831, New Town, pop. 75005 Old Town 6 3 O O . ) The Old Town i s also ca l l e d Las Vegas Town and West Las Vegas. I t i s the county seat. I t i s a separate p o l i t i c a l corporation with a w i l l to remain so; 99$ Hispano. The Hispano element i n the New Town i s not small; the two together have 65% Hispano population. As the name im­ p l i e s , the Old Town was the f i r s t established, but i t did not incorporate u n t i l the New Town had done so. iand appropriated the name Las Vegas. There i s h o s t i l i t y between Old Tom and New Town, i n part r a c i a l , though the Hispanos of the New Tom are - 9 5 2 - partisans for t h e i r section and not for the Old Town. P o l i t i c a l manipulations perpetuate these atti t u d e s . The effect i s to make the Old Town p a r t i c u l a r l y conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y . Teen­ agers, whenever possible, speak Spanish. Almost no Hispanos i n the New Town have abandoned Spanish, but they are more cheer­ f u l l y b i l i n g u a l . Except for more bilingual!sm achieved through schooling the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n has changed l i t t l e i n 50 yrs. Some of the well-to-do ranch owners In the trade t e r r i t o r y are Hispanos, and through them i n part the s o c i a l prestige of t h e i r language i s maintained. The merchants also have Hispanos among them; the mayor i n 1962 bore an Anglo name but was said to be more than half Hispano, comfortably b i l i n g u a l . The region served by Las Vegas has, however, long been a d i s t r i b u t i o n point for emigration elsewhere i n the United States. In 1907 Clark said "A Las Vegas (N.Mex.) merchant received answers to an ad­ vertisement i n a l o c a l Spanish paper from Texas, Arizona, C a l i ­ f o r n i a , Wyoming and Colorado" (CI 5 0 2 ) . Mr. T (39$ merchant, Anglo) When he went to school, there were separate second grades f o r Anglos and Hispanos; that was changed i n the 1940 ,s. The school system i n the Old Town was put In i n the 19^0*s. When he went to school there x^ere no Hispano teachers, file probably meant, i n his segregated classes^ Now many teachers are Hispanos, even some' administrators. He understands Spanish, but speaks only a l i t t l e , though born here. Picked i t up i n business. In business he hires Hispano g i r l s f o r the Spanish - 9 5 3 - trade especially i n dealing with the students from Montezuma Seminary whose Spanish i s hard for him to understand. |jThe semi­ nary i s to prepare candidates for the priesthood of Mexico, where seminaries are not allowed.^) He often fishes i n the back country, and there are many there who can't speak English, even people i n th e i r early twenties i n some v i l l a g e s where kids don't go to school. The braceros who are sent through are not even allowed to get off t h e i r buses i n Las Vegas. The Hispanos don't leave here because of the welfare s i t u a t i o n . ^He was doubtless r i g h t f o r those beyond a certain age. The s i t u a t i o n seems the same as i n other areas where many are poor. Similar statements were made i n other places, always by Anglos J) P o l i t i c s i s rough here. At Mora [see below] there are p o l i t i c a l employees i n the court house without much education. On election day they take ambulances over there and park them beforehand; they know t h e y ' l l need 'em. Mr. L (Hispano, 38, operates f i l l i n g station) Kids i n New Town play i n English except at parochial school. He does business i n Spanish, but that i s exceptional £probably because of his station's l o c a t i o n ] . There are a bunch of rough necks over i n Old Town. SAPELLO (12 miles n. of Las Vegas, fex*r inhabitants.) Monu­ ments and structures indicate that the Gokes were lords of the manor. Henry Goke (1843-1911) married a Hispano, Gumecinda R. de Goke (1851-1923). They had a son Henry (1870-1915)• The other Inscriptions i n the small cemetery d i s t r i b u t e as follows« -95^- English Spanish % of Spanish 1919-1929 1 3 75% 1930-1939 0 0 1940-1949 1950-1959 2 1 2 50% 20% Manor (unoccupied) and church located i n i s o l a t i o n east of town. La Cueva cemetery farther north, town abandoned, showed Spanish in s c r i p t i o n s 1900 's, 75% 1910's, 75%% 1920's, 50$; none l a t e r . MORA ( 40 a i r miles ne, of S anta Pe, 30 n. of Las Vegas, county seat, population 3 0 0 ) . The v a l l e y was se t t l e d i n 1835« Utes and Apaches t i l l then. The p r i n c i p a l merchants are the Hanoshes, Lebanese. Their children speak English, Spanish, and Arabic. The s o c i a l structures here and i n a Lebanese v i l l a g e are s i m i l a r . The church Is important; with i t s two missions i t has 2500 parishioners, of whom 11 including the Hanoshes are not Hispanos. There i s preaching In English at early Mass at Mora's Church? other Masses are a l l i n Spanish. There i s a Presbyterian c l i n i c near by. No professional people otherwise. There are 2 families with French names and 3 with German, the descendants of soldiers from Fort Union who married into the community. Father H (39, Anglo) Here since 195**• More Spanish than i n Santa Fe. The children through teenagers think i n Spanish. I t ' s Spanish as soon as they leave the>.\ classroom, except that they usually ad­ dress Father i n English. £This was demonstrated. A teenage group waiting f o r him during the interview sent i n a representative. He asked Father H. for directions i n English and shouted them -955- back to the others i n Spanish , J No l o c a l r u l e against Spanish on the playground; i t would be unenforceable, English here should be, and Isn't, taught as a foreign language. The 5 and 6 year olds know none and are retarded thereby. Very few teachers i n public schools speak English w e l l ; some with doctor's degrees have weaknesses i n vocabulary and grammar. There are few now who do not know English, though some of the old understand only. Nobody objects to law that i n s t r u c t i o n should be i n English In schools; the l i t e r a t e r e a l i z e what an advantage i t i s to know i t . There are a few well-to-do Hispanos. Many leave and do not re­ turn — from t h i s v a l l e y to Cheyenne and Rawlins for r a i l r o a d work and seasonally for sheep herding. Many to Denver, Pueblo and to ^ C a l i f o r n i a especially Redondo Beach. They move out as clans. The si t u a t i o n as i t exists here general through north­ eastern New Mexico. WAGON MOUND (41 miles ne. of Las Vegas, founded 1850, pop. 1200) In Santa Clara cemetery, the Insc r i p t i o n to Charles L. Praker (1841-1922) speaks of him as "Vanguard of the Plains — Santa Pe T r a i l 1855-1868." The cemetery i s rather populous with many graves unmarked or without i n s c r i p t i o n . The in s c r i p t i o n s between 1900 and 1909 are 2 Span,, 1 Eng. proportion of Span. 67$, between 1910 and 1919> ^ of each, 50$; f o r the next three decades there are 2 each i n Spanish; a f t e r 1950 the only one i n Spanish i s f o r 1953• Mr. M. (Hispano, 53t exact, the police force) Brought up east of here; didn't get past t h i r d grade, i r r e g u l a r attendance. Knew no English at 18. Then fo r f i v e summers i n -956- Wyoming he needed i t . Supplemented conversation with a d i c t i o n ­ ary i n working on English, £ Now speaks f l u e n t l y with heavy ac­ cent His children do better, Worked mostly on ranches i n neighborhood with non-Spanish-speaking Anglo employers for nearly 20 years. Then here as night watchman and l a t e r as daytime po­ l i c e force, There have been f i v e churches i n town, but the Metho­ d i s t s have given up, The church of Christ i s Spanish with a few Anglos, Santa Clara church holds about 4 0 0 . The p r i e s t l i v e s i n a former store that he has taken over f o r a parish h a l l , Span­ ish here about as at Mora, [He was wrong, f o r there are many more Anglos here. Song sheets at Santa Clara are bilingual,- the sta­ tions of the Cross are labeled i n English, J SPRINGER (67 miles nne. of Las "Vegas, i n 1950 pop. 1600) Names i n Catholic church are one t h i r d Anglo. Parochial school children i n same proportion; a l l using English as t h e y l l e f t . Hispano boy to three Hispano g i r l s , "Hello, boys." G i r l , "Aw, shut up." Mr. J . (Anglo, 50, barber) here two years. D i s t r i c t more than half Spanish. Kids t a l k English mostly, almost a l l Hispanos speak English. Some Hispanos own land. CIMARRON (20 a i r miles nw. of Springer, 40 ene. of Taos, founded 1841 f pop. 900) Mrs. S.L, (Anglo, 50, postal employee and former teacher). Three-fourths Hispanos here. Just a few pre-school children' know English. Pupils keep on using. Pew speak Spanish i n post o f f i c e . Big ranches have bought out small. Lumber m i l l s employ many from here and from outside. Many move to Albuquerque and C a l i f o r n i a , fprobably a very r e l i a b l e state- -957- ment on ultimate destinations of those departing because founded on postal experience,] For lack of Spanish she was once stuck i n the Rio Arriba country ^see Tierra Amarilla, etc, abovej but that iAxas some years ago. RATON (north of Springer, 8 miles from Colo, pop, 8200, not v i s i t e d i n 1962, but former v i s i t s and information gained else­ where show:) A mining and r a i l r o a d town In marked decline, His­ pano population important, but proportionately more so during period of prosperity, Spanish y i e l d i n g among those born a f t e r 1920 through economic and s o c i a l pressures. (for s i m i l a r notes on southern Colorado see Sections 89,70 f f . ) 29 New Mexico south of the Albuquerque Region. SOCORRO (71 miles s, of Albuquerque, f i r s t mission 1598, permanent settlement 1817, i n 1950 pop, 4400) An old world town, but i n 1962 no notices i n church, store windows, or court house were i n Spanish. Plaque at courthouse names o f f i c i a l s i n 1940, Spanish names f o r the mayor of the town, a l l three county com­ missioners, f i v e other o f f i c i a l s out of nine, At ten o'clock Mass, a l l Hispanos a r r i v i n g , A woman addressing her c h i l d , 4 , said, 11 Don't you get up there." So, others with small children. Three teen-age boys that stayed outside were speaking Spanish. A l i t t l e l a t e r another group of nearly the same age In park were using Spanish. Mr. Q (57 > Anglo soft drink wholesaler) came here from E l Paso i n 1937. Had had to use Spanish there, but doesn't need i t more than twice a year here, but his drivers are Hispanos and need i t . Here even the Hispanos are getting oiit of the habit -958- of using Spanish, There i s much less than when he came. The change has been gradual, The population i s 65% Hispano; used to be Q0% to 90%. Anglos have come i n and Hispanos have gone to C a l i f o r n i a and elsewhere, Mr, N (83, born near Guadalajara, Mexi­ co, came U.S. 19191 speaks no English) Has seven children, some i n C a l i f o r n i a , some at Las Cruces. His grandchildren i n . C a l i f o r ­ n i a know almost no Spanish; those at Las Cruces speak i t . He tal k s Spanish wiltth Anglos here, sometimes with small boys who have learned from playmates. The Anglos speak f l u e n t l y , but rather badly. Mr. C (Anglo, 20, f i l l i n g s t a t i o n attendant, son of teacher) They came when he was a baby? he has learned l i t t l e Spanish. His father at f i r s t had d i f f i c u l t i e s xfith children who knew no English; now almost a l l s t a r t i n g school know English, Mr. G (5 9i see Da t i l ) There are :kids at Socorro that don't speak Spanish, At Socorro they are t e r r i b l e ; nobody uses i t . MAGDALENA (2? road miles w. of Socorro, i n 1950 pop, 1300). A zinc mining town that has run down, Exists now on ranching and r e l i e f , Mrs. H (39$ Hispano postal employee) She and two si s t e r s a l l married Anglos; t h a t f s common. Everybody speaks Spanish except a few of the Anglos who arrived recently, but t h e i r children pick up Spanish from schoolmates. The Navahos here often speak Spanish and no English; others English and no Spanish, The priest who was here t i l l l a s t year preached i n Spanish; the new one w i l l not do so, but he does pastoral work and casual conversations i n Spanish, - 9 5 9 - DATIL (67 miles w. of Socorro, pop, 213. f o r t 1888, town i s of recent o r i g i n , mostly 1933 on) Mr. G (Anglo, 59$ postmaster) came i n 1915. He and 3 others only Anglos i n school, 11 others. Speaks Spanish? but not so well as he used to. Wife's grandfather In 1882 was a pioneer here? Hispano families from Belen and So­ corro came immediately afterward. His wife reads and writes Spanish, QUEMADA (112 miles w. of Socorro, pop. 284) Mr. G (see Datil) came here a f t e r f i r s t year at D a t i l . His younger brother learned English from parents, Spanish from playmates and i s f u l l y b i l i n g u a l . Studied, has a large vocabulary, and can outspeak some Hispanos. Mr. L (40, f i l l i n g s tation opera-tor) Many His­ panos .without accent'and use'no Spanish. -Some old ones have ac­ cent. JHe evidently wished nothing to get back to offend customers CARRIZOSO (73 miles se. of Socorro, In 1950 pop. 1400, a d i ­ v i s i o n point on Southern Pacif i c ? r a i l r o a d came I899? they were i n 1962 t a l k i n g of eliminating the .division point) Mr. R (52, r a i l r o a d employee, Anglo ) Came i n 1928, not many Hispanos could speak English then? now they a l l can. The generation born i n 1910 began going to school, CAPITAN (19 miles se. of Carrizoso, pop, 600, e a r l i e r coal mining) Mrs. E (52, postal employee) Almost everybody here now works at Marine h o s p i t a l , but 600 have l e f t , Hispanos went to C a l i f o r n i a or wherever they could get jobs. The older generation didn't go to school. Now they trade i n English, but t a l k together - 9 6 0 - i n Spanish, The children mix languages i n play, but the Hispanos use Spanish when playing alone, [This was also demonstrated by groups playing. Some mixed families seen,J TULAROSA (49 miles s, of Carrizoso, In 1950 pop 1700) Mr, D (40 Hispano, incapacitated veteran). The Hispanos learn Apache, but the Apaches don't learn Spanish, [other informants said e a r l i e r Apaches had learned Spanish!) He knows three Anglos who can't speak Spanish, The Anglo children learn i t , ALAM0G0RD0 (14 miles s. of Tularosa, 87 miles nne, of E l Paso, founded 1898, pop. 18,000 i n i960) Two women, 35 meeting on street, spoke Spanish to each other, but one of them addressed a Hispano merchant (52) i n English. Mr. T (60, car salesman) Town J Hispano, but u n t i l the m i s s i l e project i n f l u x the propor­ t i o n had been higher. A l l t a l k English. Mr. Ch (45, laborer, i l l i t e r a t e , poor English,) His children read and write English and play In English, I t ' s Spanish at homec ORG GRANDE (45 miles nne, of E l Paso, on F t , B l i s s reser­ vation) Mrs, R (48, Anglo) Brought up here, learned Spanish before English. Most Anglos do. Many soldiers marry Hispano; many of these marriages f a i l . LAS CRUCES (40 miles nw of E l Paso, founded 1848, i n i960 pop. 21,000) In a drugstore frequented by many teen agers three-fourths were Hispano and a l l were t a l k i n g English; also 2 i s o l a t e d teen-age boys. In a s o l i d l y Hispano d i s t r i c t a father, 45$ was c a l l i n g to his son i n English. Small children -961- were using Spanish to each other. Mr. M. (40, Hispano) uses English and Spanish about equally with his boys, 5 and 3 but not according to a schedule jsee also E (18) below]. MESILLA (3 miles sw of Las Cruces, pop. 1300, onion and cotton country) Mexicans took refuge here i n 1848 to remain on Mexican t e r r i t o r y , but the Gadsden purchase brought them back Into the United States. Seems as though i n a foreign land. At church 7:30 Mass Spanish; 11:00 English; 9:30 not specified. In store p r a c t i c a l l y mono-lingual Hispano proprietress dealt with f i v e c h i l d customers, ages 12 down, i n Spanish. E (18, seen and reared i n M e s i l l a , wholesale deliveryman from Las Cruces) In grades,' though they used English i n c l a s s , on playground I t was Spanish, there were only three Anglos. Las Cruces Is d i f f e r e n t . In the v i l l a g e s near i t varies. M e s i l l a , Tortugas, Dona Ana, and Anthony emphasize Spanish; East and West Picacho and M e s i l l a Park, English. At junior high school at Las Cruces everybody used Eng­ l i s h ; the Anglos were i n the majority; the pupils came also from the v i l l a g e s . Those from places where English was used outside the classroom had no trouble, f o r those from the more Spanish v i l l a g e s there were d i f f i c u l t i e s . The Anglos knew Spanish, but didn't want to use i t . SANTO TOMS (10 miles s. of Las Cruces, few i n the agglomer­ ation, but populous country) Pecan farms, largely owned by Stah- mann Farms. Their store contained a l l l o c a l notices i n Spanish. This was one notice ( i t had no d i a c r i t i c a l markings): Manana se - 9 6 2 - i n i c i a l a temporada en 11 La Taza" a los 2?30 P.m. Stahman vs. Vets ... Abrira "Roque" y en e l plato tendremos a l "Chimuelo" Munoz, en las bases Reyes, Moreno, y Pacio, en e l short a "Buth" (et c . ) . Pour Hispano employees and many children-of school age as customers; everybody kidding i n Spanish. Pour miles further, four small boys were waiting f o r a school bus; three were from Juarez and one from C a l i f o r n i a . A l l spoke English f l u e n t l y with accent, but evidently used Spanish ha b i t u a l l y . Their attitudes were as cheerful as those i n the store. MESQUITE (13 miles se. of Las Cruces, a shipping point rather than v i l l a g e , on east side of r i v e r and here the desert i s close. A g r i c u l t u r a l products has a plant) Mr. 0 (50, post­ master, Anglo) Here 20 years. 60% of mail boxes i n o f f i c e rented to Hispanos; Q0% of the children i n school are Hispanos. He speaks l i t t l e Spanish, just enough to do business; most His­ panos speak English now. A p r i n c i p a l who did not allow Spanish on school grounds showed good r e s u l t s ; a l a t e r man who i s more lax also shows r e s u l t s . Younger parents who speak good English are careless about teaching the young; t h e i r f a u l t when children begin school without knowing English. Downstream i t ' s cotton. Negroes brought i n during war as pickers have i n part remained. [During t h i s interview, three customers, 2 Anglos and a Hispano woman. She said nothing, showed a piece of paper bearing her name HATCH (35 miles upstream from Las Cruces. pop. 1100) Cotton -963- near r i v e r , but mostly a r i d land. Tom founded by an Anglo family with a d i f f e r e n t name. They learned Spanish and were, i t seems, fo r many -..years feudal lords i n effect. Soutti of Hatch are several cotton ranches, at perhaps 10 miles the Hay- ner ranch. Less prosperous there than i n boom times, four out of eight good but run-do™ houses unoccupied, a number of shades empty, but s t i l l 4 families or regular employees and 19 braceros at planting time. At ranch, C (Hispano f. 16, mono-lingual mother i n house i n t e r i o r ) Mother born here, father from Mexico. She no longer i n school, has a brother and s i s t e r i n 9 t h and 1 0 t h grades. The Hayners speak Spanish (Her English was pretty; she relayed Spanish questions to her unseen mother.) In town, at restaurant many high school students. Hispanos and Anglos i n t e r ­ mingled; of two buddies, often one of each; they spoke English. Older Hispanos and two Anglos .were speaking Spanish together. An Anglo ( 5 2 ) addressed by waitress i n Spanish. Mr. B ( 6 2 , Anglo, merchant) Here 20 years and speaks l i t t l e Spanish; i t would be of some advantage. The younger Hispanos speak English frequently, but at home i t ' s Spanish. High school groups i n drugstore switch back and f o r t h . Some Anglos know Spanish. DEMING ( 6 l miles w of Las Cruces, pop. 5 7 0 0 ) Church o f f i c e bore sign part i n English, mostly i n Spanish, saying not to d i s ­ turb e l parroco between 1 2 and 2 . At 2 i 2 0 his mono-lingual His­ pano house-keeper feared to disturb him. Father X. was reported to know l i t t l e Spanish, though sometimes, with obvious e f f o r t , - 9 6 4 - he preached i n Spanish. Mr. & Mrs. F (55$ Hispanos, though his paternal and her maternal grandfathers were German, and her maiden name was Wood) They use Spanish with each other, though her father i n Las Cruces spoke English to his children. He brought up 35 miles north. Neither of them l i t e r a t e i n Spanish, only i n English. There i s cotton country to the south and south­ west. Machines are just displacing two or three hundred braceros brought i n f o r the picking. Children i n school play i n English. High school students pretty much mix together and so use E n g l Mi. Their son speaks English to his children, 1 0 , 7$ 3$ 2 . I t ' s funny when they t r y to speak Spanish; the 1 0-year-old doesn ft know trece, .. catorce (13* 14). LORDSBURG ( 1 2 1 miles w. of Las Cruces, i n 1 9 5 0 pop. 3 5 0 0 ) Mr. B. (3 4 , Anglo, temporary f i l l i n g s t a c t i o n attendant) In Hatch through grade school. Learned to understand Spanish well only when he was i n high school here and the Hispanos talked Spanish f o r secrecy before him. Now the high school kids t a l k with each other i n English. Before Anglos at l e a s t . (Three ea.rly teenagers passed speaking Spanish) Talking i n Spanish at high school age i s kind of bad. There are some Hispanos past 60 whose English i s imp.erfect, but mostly they are b i l i n g u a l . Tom i s one t h i r d Hispano — a l l native. Braceros are used 30 miles south i n cotton f i e l d s . - 9 6 5 - 30 S p a n i s h a c t i v i t y I n Texas began e a r l y i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , but a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h i l e t h e S p a n i a r d s had a f i r m m i s s i o n a t Nacogdoches i n e a s t e r n Texas, the o n l y s e t t l e m e n t s i n what S p a i n c a l l e d Texas w i t h s t e a d y and d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Mexico were a t Bexar o r San A n t o n i o and a t L a B a h i a M i s s i o n , now G o l i a d • But S p a i n d i d n o t denominate as Texas a l l t h e t e r r i t o r y t h a t t he R e p u b l i c c l a i m e d as such i n I836, much l e s s what the t r e a t y of Guadalupe- H i d a l g o brought t o i t i n 18^8. South of the Nueces R i v e r , t h a t i s v e r y r o u g h l y , s o u t h o f a l i n e somewhat t o the n o r t h o f one wh i c h would connect Laredo and Corpus C h r i s t ! , the c o u n t r y was i n t h e p r o v i n c e of Nuevo Sant a n d e r . The s t a t e o f Tamaulipas w h i c h took o v e r from Nuevo San t a n d e r s t i l l has a narrow panhandle e x t e n d i n g a l o n g t he R i o Grande from above Laredo downstream. There were towns on t h e r i g h t bank of t h e r i v e r and ranches on th e o t h e r s i d e as the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y opened. Upstream f o r many m i l e s t h e c o u n t r y between the R i o Grande and t h e Nueces where the l a t t e r r i v e r f l o w s southward was p a r t o f t h e s t a t e o f C o a h u i l a i n which t h e r e were b r i d g e h e a d s a t what a r e now E a g l e Pass and D e l R i o , Beyond i n c o u n t r y t h a t was p a r t o f New Mexico and of Chihuahua t h e r e was a l s o a b r i d g e h e a d a t P r e s i d i o and f i n a l l y t h e s e t t l e m e n t a t E l Paso d e l N o r t e . A l l i n a l l we may say t h a t i n the i n t e r i o r o f t h e p r e s e n t Texas the o n l y S p a n i s h s e t t l e m e n t o f importance was a t San A n t o n i o , f o r L a B a h i a was s m a l l and n o t p r o s p e r o u s . However, a l o n g the R i o Grande, t h e - 9 6 6 - present border, there were settlements extending across i t that help explain the present majorities of Mexican population i n the neighborhood of the r i v e r , Within the present Texas there were probably about 5$000 speakers of Spanish i n 18^8 (N,M 52)*, • 31 San Antonio or San Fernando de Bexar was founded i n 1718, though the mission complex i n the neighborhood had been i n exis­ tence f o r a few years before. I t became the c a p i t a l of the pro­ vince which had been constituted i n 1691 and remained the c a p i t a l u n t i l Mexican independence was won. Then Texas was combined with Coahuila i n one state with i t s c a p i t a l f a r to the south at S a l - t i l l o . While Louisiana was Sganish (1763-1803), San Antonio had l e g a l communication with the east over a long road, but no flow of settlement was allowed to reach i t from that d i r e c t i o n . The Spanish kings r i g i d l y enforced the decrees of no trade or com­ munication except through Vera Cruz. There were no ports along the Texas coast. San Antonio was as i s o l a t e d from the world as Santa Pe. The road to the Rio Grande crossing at what i s now Eagle Pass was i t s only path to c i v i l i z a t i o n . The >Apaches har- rassed the s e t t l e r s and the Indians i n the missions, which grew slowly. The whole Bexar area i n 1803 contained 2500 inhabitants including the garrison but excluding 362 on the other side of the r i v e r (Ha 303)* In 1850 i t s population was 3500; i n I856 10,000 (wc, 11 5 ^ 0 ) . In IS90 Lee C. Harby portrayed the Mexicans at San Antonio - 9 6 7 - as peddlers of c h i l i , tamales and nueces dulces and as pecan shellers (HT 2 2 9 ) . During the 1930 fs 8,000 wretchedly paid Mexicans worked with the pecans. What Harby fs comment t r u l y r e f l e c t s i s that the Mexicans at S an Antonio had been driven from any more important commercial f i e l d than that of peddling. Ear­ l i e r when the Mexican l i b e r a t i o n opened up commerce, the Mexicans had developed a p r o f i t a b l e trade with S a l t i l l o , but the Mexicans appear to have been ruined by banditry and raids on the wagon tra i n s more often ca r r i e d out by lawless Americans than by In­ dians or Mexican outlaws. The Mexican trade was l a t e r revived with the Anglos as c a p i t a l i s t s . They "secured the large Mexican evading the Union Blockade i n 1861-5 was to ship cotton to Mexi­ co from San Antonio. The Tejanos — t h i s name for people of Mexican stock that arrived i n Texas before 1900 i s sometimes useful — c e r t a i n l y continued to be a numerically important element i n the population of San Antonio. In I892 Sweet and Knox are r e f e r r i n g primarily to that c i t y when they say wThe Mexican element i s a large feature i n the population of Western Texas. . . • The majority of those i n San Antonio l i v e by hauling wood, prairie-hay, bones and other country produce into town11 (SK 310) • These gentlemen, unlike Harby who patronized the railways, were trav e l i n g Mon a Mexican Mustang11. Their report on Mexican occupations, probably picked up at the l i v e r y stables, shows that the teamster t r a d i t i o n re- trade which they r e t a i n today (ES I 6 3 ). A means of - 9 6 8 - mained a l i v e among the San Antonio Tejanos though they no longer took wagon trains to S a l t i l l o . The size of the Mexican element then i n the c i t y i s suggested by the l i s t of marriage licenses f o r one week which Sweet and Knox copied from a newspaper. There were nine licenses; four were between persons bearing Spanish names (at l e a s t Spanish f i r s t names; one groom had an English surname, one bride a German). Of the other f i v e couples, 2 bore English names, two German. In the case remaining i t seems that a Jew and a Lebanese were being united (SK 2 9 9 )• The importance of the various l i n g u i s t i c stocks was also indicated by a sign on a bridge with English, Spanish, and German versions. Sweet and Knox describe r u r a l Mexicans as "shepherds, teamsters and cattleherders. Very few c u l t i v a t e the s o i l " (SK 3 1 0 ) . They de­ c l a r e , "Many of the Mexicans residing i n Texas can speak English* but they often deny that they can" (SK 3 1 3 ) . They r e l a t e , how­ ever, that a Mexican ignorant of English was sentenced to f i v e years i n prison because he did not understand the interrogation (SK 3 2 3 )• Immigration from Mexico to San Antonio continued. In 1926 landman counted as Tejanos people of the 2 d , 3 d , and kth generations as well as the descendants of c i t i z e n s of c o l o n i a l times. Only 17% of the pecan workers questioned i n 1938 had been born i n San Antonio (MC k). 32 The people i n the lower Rio Grande v a l l e y were during the nineteenth century Mexican on both sides of the r i v e r except f o r many of the large landholders and these, i f Anglo and resident, were more l i k e l y to be Hispanized than the Mexicans were to be -969- Americanized. As f a r north as Corpus C h r i s t i the r u r a l popu­ l a t i o n was Mexican, Paul Schuster Taylor appropriately names his book on Nueces County, i n which Corpus C h r i s t i i s located, An American-Mexican Frontier. JosS de Escandon, named i n 17^8 f i r s t governor of newly-created Nuevo Santandei^ established twenty towns and eleven missions i n his province. Five of the towns were founded along the Rio Grande between 17^9 and 1753* Two of these, Dolores and R e v i l l a , were on the north side of the r i v e r j they were never important. The most important of the other three as a focus of colonization i n what was to become Texas was Camargo. Laredo was founded i n 1755• I t s e a r l i e s t c i t i z e n s regarded themselves as i n Coahuila rather than Nuevo Santander, but the town was, however, a f t e r the l i b e r a t i o n , as­ signed to the coastal state of Tamaulipas, almost at the t i p of i t s panhandle. By 1766 there was settlement near the lower Nueces at Petronella (TA 10) . Spanish grants were made for most of the land i n Nuevo Santander between the two ri v e r s and occu­ pation by Mexican c a t t l e ranchers took place. Settlement was not without interruption, f o r the Indians made numerous destructive raids — indeed Indian troubles at least upstream went on u n t i l 1880 (TA 27) , but Anglos were no factor ii^bccupation of the d i s ­ t r i c t u n t i l 1846, though during the War of Texas Liberation and afterward they provided the same sort of threat as the Indians. The owners of back country ranches usually dwelt on the Rio Grande, leaving actual occupation to t h e i r vaqueros (TA 11) . In - 9 7 0 - 1839 the Americans did obtain a foothold i n the farthest corner of the area at Corpus C h r i s t i where unincorporated Mexicans had dwelt since the l a t e l820 fs. The l a t t e r had packed southward goods landed among them to the towns on the Rio Grande u n t i l the Texan War s t i f l e d the trade. In 18^5 Corpus C h r i s t i was made up of " some t h i r t y houses and f i f t e e n or twenty Mexican huts 1 1 (TA 2 3 ) . The town became the point of assembly f o r Taylor 1s army of invasion, 33 Bad f e e l i n g between Mexicans and early coming Anglos (except for those who were Hispanized) was the normal condition from the time of the Texas War on. The h o s t i l i t y was p a r t i c u l a r l y strong i n the ranch country between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. The Mexicans sold t h e i r lands to Anglos very frequently because the courts gave them no protection i n case of l e g a l actions. Cattle raids i n both directions were repeated. Mexico was so ready to receive runaway slaves that slave holding i n western and southern Texas was not p r o f i t a b l e . Broadly speaking, the Mexican and Negro sections of Texas are s t i l l d i s t i n c t . I f slaves escaped south, peons escaped north, and the h o s t i l i t i e s of the elements i n power on both sides of the Rio Grande were increased by t h i s involuntary exchange of the oppressed. The early Tejanos, drawn usually from the peons, suffered from the same contemptuous An­ glo attitudes as w i l l be b r i e f l y described l a t e r f o r the twentieth century Mexicans. The primary difference was that i n the nine - r teenth century the Mexican was generally accepted as a permanent -971- and necessary part of a hierarchy, and h i s usefulness had nothing to do with the seasons. C a t t l e , unlike vegetables, f r u i t s , and cotton, required attention the year round, 3^ In the Rio Grande River towns and cl o s e l y adjacent t e r r i ­ tory the nineteenth century s i t u a t i o n was dif f e r e n t from that i n the ranch country farther east. In them the Spanish culture was l i t t l e touched by the Anglo invaders, who were at f i r s t ab­ sorbed; old Spanish-speaking fa m i l i e s sometimes bear French, German or English names (NM 8 6 , quoting J o v i t a Gonzales). The motive f o r the Anglos taking Spanish wives was, i t seems, eco­ nomic. At le a s t as l a t e as 1930 i n these r i v e r counties 60% of the property owners were descendants of the o r i g i n a l Mexican grantees (NM 8 5 ). General f r i e n d l i n e s s came to p r e v a i l as long as the economy was stable, and new elements did not enter the population. Harby i n I89O describes Laredo and the neighborhood! "This i s l i k e being i n a foreign country. . . . Spanish i s spoken everywhere and even on the t r a i n one sees the signs i n that language.. . . Along the streets [of Laredo] everything i s Spanish, the signs, the language, the people. . . . Americans are there of course — many of them — but they are l o s t i n the general foreign a i r . . .. The residences of the wealthy Span­ iards are low, broad, and cover much space11 (Ha 2*1-2-3) • As he saw i t , the Mexicans of Texas were not immigrantst "They are Texans by b i r t h and t h e i r fathers before them, but they are of the Mexican race and have kept t h e i r blood, language, and manners d i s t i n c t from the Americans" (Ha 2 ^ 3 ) . - 9 7 2 - 35 Eagle Pass, Del Rio, and Presidio are the only towns of more than s i x or seven hundred population on the Rio Grande River be­ tween Laredo and E l Paso. There are long stretches of desert, and the mountains leave l i t t l e room f o r i r r i g a t i o n . Eagle Pass i s opposite Piedras Negras on the Mexican side of the r i v e r , and the Mexican town with i t s antecedent settlements served a l l ur­ ban purposes t i l l 1850. Monclova Viejo just above Piedras Negias was the base from which the f i r s t governor of Texas departed i n I 6 9 I to take possession of his new province inhabited only by Indians, and a mission to San Juan Bautista was founded on the l e f t bank of the Rio Grande. The governor 1s route eastward be­ came a camino r e a l (King fs Highway) which l e d to San Antonio and on beyond. Commerce between S a l t i l l o and San Antonio followed i t . With American sovereignty came a need f o r a f r o n t i e r post on the l e f t bank, and the town of Eagle Pass was founded. I t did not grow ra p i d l y , but *gradually American traders came there from San Antonio and Goliad,' 1 says Harby (HT 235) • He v i s i t e d the town and did f i n d Anglos there, but i n the quotation above he meant Americans by n a t i o n a l i t y , rather than Anglos. He des­ cribes the town as Spanish. Del Rio, which has outgrown Eagle Pass, i s opposite V i l l a Acuna. The town i n Mexico i s at the head of no important road and no r e a l urban developments came into being on either side of the r i v e r . Del Rio i s shortened from San Felipe del Rio, the name of a mission that f a i l e d , es­ tablished i n 1808. Other and l a t e r settlements also f a i l e d - 9 7 3 - u n t i l the Indian menace was conquered. In 1880 Del Rio had 50 inhabitants; and i n 1 8 9 0 , 1 , 9 8 0 . Presidfe can claim 1759 as i t s date of settlement. A presidio, a m i l i t a r y post, was established Jxhere i n that year, but Apache raids a f t e r 1800 made most of the s e t t l e r s move back across the r i v e r to Ojinago. The Spanish place names along the r i v e r on the American side indicate that the reoccupation was a l l by Mexicans. The town i s i n the midst of w i l d and lonesome country. 36 E l Paso i s the oldest settlement i n the Texas of today. I t i s on the road selected a f t e r some he s i t a t i o n from Durango on the Mexican plateau to Santa Pe, that i s , on the l i f e l i n e from New Mexico to Spanish c i v i l i z a t i o n . A mission was established there i n 1659 and around i t Spaniards s e t t l e d (Hu 311 ). Refugees from the Pueblo revolt of 1680 took t h e i r stand there a f t e r re­ treat. A f t e r l o c a l Indian troubles the settlement was wel l es­ tablished i n I 6 8 3 . There was competition f o r possession of the new town between the provinces of New Mexico and Chihuahuai but i n 1685 i t became part of New Mexico and so remained u n t i l a f t e r the treaty of Guaialupe Hidalgo. In 1884 E l Paso became the terminus of the Mexican Central Railway (See Section 8 8 . 6 3 ) $ where the Southern P a c i f i c had a l ­ ready arrived. The importance of t h i s event was at f i r s t greater because of increased commercial rather than of immigrant a c t i v i t y . E l Paso became the exchange point f o r goods a r r i v i n g from the exploitations i n Mexico and f o r manufactured items coming from - 9 7 4 - th e north. I t s interests lay primarily neither i n Texas nor i n New Mexico but i n Chihuahua and the Mexican plateau, i n Chicago and points east. 37 Western Texas, inland from the Rio Grande, waited u n t i l a f­ ter the C i v i l War to receive any s i g n i f i c a n t population. Ameri* can ranchmen, employing Mexican vaqueros, usually ar r i v e d f i r s t . In the beginning some of these ranches were not large and t h e i r herds fed on the open range. Fencing here did not herald the a r r i v a l of the t i l l e r s of the s o i l , but of men who bought up great stretches of the range, and fenced out the small holders 1 c a t t l e . Hence originated wire-cutting wars, not struggles of Anglos against Mexicans, but of feudal lords against rabble. The proportion of Mexicans who were retainers of the victorious varied with the distance from Mexico. At Carrizo Springs, founded i n 1865 t h i r t y a i r miles back from the great r i v e r i n the neighborhood of Eagle Pass, escaped peons joined other vaqueros to form much of the population. In 1890 artesian wells brought truck gardening and Mexican seasonal workers to the area. Marfa (see further # 8 9 . 4 4 ) , founded when the r a i l r o a d want through i n 1881 s i x t y miles inland from Presidio, some 350 miles north­ west of Eagle PassJ gained a Methodist church i n 1886, a Catholic i n 1895# Odessa, some f o r t y miles southeast of the southeast corner of New Mexico, was founded i n 1886. Alcoholic beverages were forbidden there to favor German Methodists; pr o h i b i t i o n was obli t e r a t e d by the ranchers and cowhands i n 1 9 0 0 . (See WC - 9 7 5 - f o r these l a s t three towns). An e a r l i e r settlement was Castro*s Colony. I t s p r i n c i p a l town, C a s t r o v i l l e (see further 89#45)t was founded i n 1844 twenty-seven miles west of San Antonio. The colony contained 2134 s e t t l e r s at the end of i t s f i r s t year. These were almost a l l Alsatians who remained farmers (crop growers). They employed Mexicans as hired men, but did not become dependent on such labor as the cattlemen did on vaqueros. At the time of i t s foundation t h i s settlement was the most western i n Texas (WC) except as noted f o r the r i v e r towns. 38 The Mexican population of Eastern Texas before 1900 i s n e g l i g i b l e , at l e a s t beyond the Colorado River which flows through Austin southeastward to the sea. Along or near the Gua­ dalupe, the next r i v e r to the west; Spanish names mark the larger towns, San Marcos, Gonzales, Cuero, Port Lavaca. Forty-five a i r miles west of Port Lavaca i s the early Mission of La Bahia at Goliad. But i n t e r e s t i n g early settlements of other stocks are farther west. The Polish settlement at Panna Marya between San Antonio and La Bahia was founded i n 1 8 5 5 • 39 The twentieth century immigration from Mexico raised the number of Mexicans from 7 0 , 9 8 1 i n 1900 to 6 8 3 , 6 8 1 i n 1930 (NM 1 7 8 ) . I t was under way but had not reached large proportions i n 1 9 1 0 . The fact that newly a r r i v i n g immigrants tended to congregate i n d i s t r i c t s where the Tejanos had already established themselves comes out c l e a r l y i n the census of that year. Though there were some cases i n which the older and the more recent stocks remained - 9 7 6 - d i s t i n c t , i n general they assimilated to each other (T 410 f f #X The counties containing over 1000 foreign born Mexicans i n 1910 i n are nearly all^those regions. Every county fronting the Rio Grande except two of the most l i g h t l y populated held over 1000 of the immigrants j so did most of the counties along the lower Nueces. Bexar County with San Antonio was the center of a d i s ­ t r i c t where the counties with over 1000 extended westward on the road to Eagle Pass; to the northeast and east a r i g h t t r i a n g l e of counties with a hypotenuse running from San Antonio to Austin were i n the category. Travis County where Austin i s located held 1 , 9 5 4 ; 516 of these were i n Austin — the immigrants were numerous i n r u r a l communities. Certain c i t i e s were also supporting large settlements. The colony i n Austin was comparable i n size to those i n the largest Kansas c i t i e s i n 1925 and so were those i n Port Worth and Houston (406 and 476 inhabitants born i n Mexico). The old Mexican centers contained imposing numbers of foreign- born Mexicans: San Antonio 9 * 9 0 6 , more than 10$ of the t o t a l popu­ l a t i o n , Laredo 7 i 0 8 l almost half of i t s people, Brownsville 3 , 2 2 7 (over 3 0 $ ) ; E l Paso 1 2 , 2 9 7 (also over 30%). "Roughly speaking [jLn 19493 t there are ten counties i n southern Texas i n which so- c a l l e d t f L a t i n Americans 1 constitute 70% or more of the youngsters of school age; 25 counties i n which they constitute from $0% to 75% of the scholastics; and 19 counties i n which the percentage ranges from 25% to 50%n (NM 5 6 ) . - 9 7 7 - 40 Mexicans were drawn to Texas i n the early twentieth century by two economic developments: the growing of cotton i n western Texas and the c i t r u s and vegetable farming along the Rio Grande. Cotton picking p a r t i c u l a r l y ;demanded great forces of seasonal labor. The c i t y settlements became i n great part peopled by r u r a l workers during the off-seasons. Handman reported i n 1926 that the government labor agent i n San Antonio estimated that he had shipped out over 200,000 Mexicans i n one year (HM 35)• The c i t i e s were winter quarters not only f o r the Mexican cotton pickers but also f o r many of the beet workers i n northern states. Texans found the presence of migratory workers p r o f i t a b l e as long as t h e i r wage scale was s u f f i c i e n t l y low. 41 The d i s t r i b u t i o n of Mexicans i n Texas i n 1930 and 1940 s t i l l followed the pattern that had been set i n the 1 9 t h century. In 1954 Burna stated: "Approximately h a l f the Mexicans i n the United States, over 1,000,000 of them l i v e i n Texas" (Bu 3 6 ) . In 1940 the proportion of foreign born had greatly decreased over 1930, but i t remained highest i n the areas i n which/.it had e a r l i e r been highest. Statements such as the following are supporting t e s t i ­ mony. In 1942-3 "the percentage of Mexican scholastics i n Laredo was 95*7%$ i n E l Paso 68.2$, i n San Antonio 58.6$, i n Corpus C h r i s t i 42.7%$ and i n Houston 10.3$ (Bu 36 quoting Wilson L i t t l e ) . The census data presented below also show t h i s f a c t . The reports come from western counties and c i t i e s , and, outside the Tejano d i s t r i c t , from certain c i t i e s where the proportion of Mexican population was high r e l a t i v e to surrounding t e r r i t o r y , but, as - 9 7 8 - w i l l be seen, low compared with that i n the d i s t r i c t of early- Mexican occupation. ( I t should be remembered that these data probably represent underenumerations, i n 1930 because speakers of Spanish were not classed i n the "Mexican race" unless foreign bom or t h e i r children, i n 1930 and 19^0 because i l l e g a l residents escaped the census.) - 9 7 9 - 1930 W O % of Inhabitants % of Inhabitants of t o t a l born i n t o t a l "Mexican Race" population Mexico population Counties on the Rio Grande: Cameron 3 8 , 3 4 3 50% 9 , 2 7 5 11% Hidalgo 41 ,522 54£ 14,939 15% Maverick 4 , 7 2 1 77% 2 , 3 7 3 23% Presidio • 6 , 7 7 4 67% .1,261 12% Val Verde 9 , 5 4 2 6k% 2 , 7 9 7 1Q% Counties i n southwest not on the River Pecos 2 , 4 3 9 31% 713 9% Reeves 2 , 5 6 9 40# 274 3M C i t i e s i n Tejano area Brownsville ( i n Cameron Co.) 8 , 4 0 7 38% 2 , 8 6 6 13% Del Rio ( i n Val Verde Co.) 7,828 67% 2 , 5 0 6 19% Laredo ( i n Webb Co.) 1 5 , 4 5 8 66% 1 0 , 3 4 0 26% Eagle Pass ( i n Maverick Co.) 3 , 9 4 0 70% 1 ,742* 27% Corpus C h r i s t i 1 1 , 3 7 7 kl% 2 , 2 5 7 4# San Antonio 82 ,373 36% 2 2 , 5 3 0 8% E l Paso 5 8 , 2 9 1 57% 2 0 , 1 9 7 23% Other C i t i e s Dallas 5 , 9 0 1 2% 2 , 1 9 2 0.7% F t . Worth 31955 2% 1 , 2 7 4 0.7% Houston 14,149 5% 5 , 0 3 5 1.3% * Total foreign born white i n c i t y 1801 le s s 2/3 of other foreign born i n county who numbered 59 • - 9 8 0 - The number of the Spanish-speaking foreign-born to be found i n the r i v e r towns i s not adequately represented even by an accurate census because of large numbers who reside i n the paired Mexican c i t i e s ; but work i n the United States* .42 Along the Rio Grande during the twentieth century the use of Spanish did not decrease. In most towns and counties among permanent residents there were more Anglos than there had beei^ but there were also more Mexicans. Mexicans of higher status continued to be numerous. Clark wrote i n 190?: MThe gradation; from those who associate on terms of equality with Americans to the peon, i s so gradual that a race d i s t i n c t i o n as such hardly exi s t s " (CI 51$ • Burma i n 195^ described conditions i n Laredo, Eio Grande C i t y , and Brownsville. MHere there i s considerable prejudice but l i t t l e overt discrimination. The c i t y commissioners and law o f f i c e r s are as l i k e l y to be Mexican as not. Mexicans . l i v e anywhere i n the c i t y , have no separate schools and have t h e i r businesses on the main streets" (Bu 167)* In Browns­ v i l l e i n 1930 Manuel reported that of 168 children i n grades 6,7*8 (median age 15.2 years) 86% were born i n the United States. Both parents were born i n the United States i n 36% of the cases/ both i n Mexico 30$; 88$ of the parents used l i t t l e but Spanish to t h e i r children; W% were b i l i n g u a l with them (Ma 7)• Non- permanent residents, that i s | seasonal workers i n the counties on the border/ were almost a l l from Mexico and Spanish was t h e i r only language. There was a great leap i n the need f o r such labor - 9 8 1 - i n the l a t e 1 9 4 0 fs. "In the Lower Rio Grande Valley there was less than 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 acres of cotton i n 19^5 hut cotton acreage had expanded to over 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n 19^9 " (Mi 13)#, Intensive f r u i t and vegetable farming also employed many. Eventually i n t h i s region i n the I 9 6 0 1 s , as i n C a l i f o r n i a e a r l i e r , the Mexicans be­ came r e s t i v e under explo i t a t i o n and attempted labor organization, r e s i s t e d by the Anglos. In t h i s s t r i p of t e r r i t o r y i n the 1960f's there were probably more people who spoke only Spanish than there were who spoke only English. But there were more bilingual Mexicans than there were b i l i n g u a l Anglos. The cause was p a r t l y that resident Mexicans very often became seasonal workers i n other parts of the United States driven out of the area at times by wages acceptable only to wetbacks from Mexico (Mi 80)^ Ef­ f o r t s to solve the problem by labor organization did not develop s i g n i f i c a n t l y u n t i l the 1960*s when outside of t h i s area t h e i r motivation f o r using English was greater. The superiority i n numbers of b i l i n g u a l Mexicans over b i l i n g u a l Anglos also occurs because schooling i s .largely i n English 9 and because the Mexi­ cans know that the use of acceptable English may lead to economic or s o c i a l advancement. On the other hand most Anglos learn Spanish only to d i r e c t laborers or to s e l l merchandise. In the r i v e r towns r e l a t i v e proximity to the border i s a factor i n determining the choice of language. In Eagle Pass f o r instance few of the signs i n the part of the business d i s t r i c t farthest from the border are i n Spanish; near the border they a l l are. - 9 8 2 - The b i l i n g u a l Mexican i s here; so seldom c a l l e d upon to use h i s English that he would rather l i s t e n to quite imperfect Spanish than to make the e f f o r t to converse i n English, On the other hand Anglos who speak Spanish poorly employ i t with confidence, even gusto sometimes. Anglo ranchers (that i s , stock raisers) are usually quite p r o f i c i e n t i n l Spanish; the Spanish of farmers (crop raisers) i s frequently bad. The ranch owners and t h e i r f a milies are frequently well versed i n Spanish while t h e i r em­ ployees may know no English at a l l . E l Paso i s of especial interest among the Rio Grande towns because i t was the entrance through which most "Mexicans came to Kansas and the north, and because Anglos and Mexicans confront each other more sharply there than elsewhere; outside forces push more heavily upon a c t i v i t i e s within the c i t y . E l Paso was the port of entry not only f o r Mexican immigrants to the north­ east with Kansas C i t y as an early d i s t r i b u t i n g point (CI 4 7 5 ) t but also f o r most of those going to New Mexico, Arizona and even C a l i f o r n i a . The only Mexican r a i l r o a d running to the border west of the Mexican Central with i t s terminus at E l Paso was the l i n e from Guaymas to Nogales. Ciudad Juarez, opposite E l Paso, grew to be by f a r the largest border c i t y i n Mexico, nearly 1 2 5 i 0 0 0 inhabitants i n 1 9 5 1 i h a l f as large as E l Paso, of nearly the same size a decade l a t e r . Of these twin c i t i e s E l Paso i s the economic center. A large proportion of the labor force of E l Pasp dwells i n Juarez, because liv i ? * g there i ' s l e s ^ f expensive - 9 8 3 - and r e l a t i v e l y free of the pressures of the American system. Be­ cause people from Juarez work cheaply the labor unions do t h e i r best to oppose residence south of the border. The Catholic dio­ cesan au t h o r i t i e s ( E l Paso became a see i n 1914) also t r y to keep the Mexicans within t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . Though s i x of the thirte e n churches had priests with Spanish names i n I 9 6 0 , none of the o f f i c i a l s of the diocese did. The Bishops had been Brown, Schuler and Metzger. The l i n g u i s t i c r e s u l t of border crossing to work i s that at l e a s t during the day time many more people i n E l Paso are habitual speakers of Spanish than of Eng­ l i s h . They are keenly aware, however; of the economic advantages of knowing English and schools i n s t r u c t i n g Mexicans i n English have large enrollments. The high schools of E l Paso forbade Spanish on school premises, but the r u l e could not be completely enforced. However, there were i n the 1950 fs g i r l s of Mexican o r i g i n who refused to speak Spanish i n spite of others who thought i t inappropriate to be using English to those whose background was Spanish. This at t i t u d e favoring Spanish was that of most b i l i n g u a l Mexicans of a l l ages. Among Anglos anti-Mexi­ can prejudice e x i s t s , but the p o l i t i c a l power of the Spanish- speaking i s such that Anglos recognize that cooperation i s neces­ sary. Those to whose evident advantage i t i s to learn Spanish do so, though they expect English from a l l capable of speaking i t . 43 The relat i o n s between Mexicans and Anglos i n the twentieth century are much worse away from the border than they are close - 9 8 4 - to i t . Even at the f r o n t i e r the coming of Anglo farmers to replace ranchers i n the i r r i g a t e d d i s t r i c t increased bad f e e l i n g . Carey McWilliams quotes J o v i t a Gonzales as wr i t i n g i n 19301 "The f r i e n d l y f e e l i n g which had slowly developed between American and Mexican families has been replaced by a f e e l i n g of hate, d i s t r u s t , and jealousy on the part of the Mexicans11 (NM 87). This s e n t i ­ ment was aroused not only by displacement and exp l o i t a t i o n , but quite often by Anglo contempt f o r Mexicans, which has been great­ er among those newly put i n contact with Mexicans than among those who had f o r generations looked down on t h e i r Tejano neigh­ bors. In the neighborhood of C#rrizo Springs, the onion growers have been Anglos, and there and i n neighboring areas the f i e l d hands have been Mexicans who became permanent residents because onions offered work i n winter and early spring (T 323)• The Mexicans could winter here and go into the cotton f i e l d s l a t e r . The growers were l a t e comers and contemptuous of Mexicans. The scorn f o r Mexicans i s l a r g e l y based upon economic inequality? at l e a s t i n areas where there i s a Mexican element that i s w e l l - to-do, the status of a l l Mexicans i s l i k e l y to be higher i n Anglo eyes. The complexion and physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Mexican also give r i s e to low opinions? the l i g h t e r the skin or the less Indian the features, the readier an Anglo i s to accept a Mexican as an i n t e l l i g e n t being. But there i s also a l i n g u i s ­ t i c element i n the Anglo a t t i t u d e . Contempt f o r those unable to speak English, and there have been many Mexicans born i n Texas -985- i n t h i s condition (T 378), also cases of Mexicans hesitant to exercise t h e i r English (T 442), has played as large a part i n Anglo attitudes i n relat i o n s with Mexicans as i n dealings with immigrants from Europe. The attitudes described above are by no means l i m i t e d to Texas, and we have to consider them i n tr e a t i n g Mexicans i n Kansas, but i n Texas they are of more im­ portance, both because the Mexican population of west Texas i s so numerous and because most Anglos i n Texas are southerners who transfer to Mexicans a great many of the t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i ­ tudes toward negroes. Paul Schuster Taylor dwells at length on the Anglo concept of the merits of Mexicans and Negroes ( p a r t i c u l a r l y TA 255t T 421). Repeatedly informants made i t evident that i n t h e i r opinion Mexicans were not as good as they though somewhat better than negroes. Segregation of Mexi­ cans i n schools was not so complete as f o r negroes, but the general opinion d e f i n i t e l y favored such a practice and i t often became an accomplished f a c t . The f a c i l i t i e s were usually i n ­ f e r i o r ; and the teachers usually (T 453), "but not always (T 439); knew no Spanish. O f f i c i a l s were very frequently i n d i f f e r e n t i f not h o s t i l e to the enforcement of school attendance laws among Mexicans (for instance T 372 f f ) . The r e s u l t of these tendencies i s to diminish Engl-izing of Mexicans ( f o r instance T 388). .44 Ranching i n western Texas, even quite remotely from the border, employs a great many Mexican vaqueros. Their status i s about that of cowhands or sheepherders of any extraction. The -986- land owners are i n some instances Mexican and they too are on a s o c i a l l e v e l with Anglos possessing comparable holdings. As among ranchmen on the border, Spanish enjoys good standing, and Anglo cowhands are l i k e l y to be quite p r o f i c i e n t i n i t s use. In the towns of t h i s area merchants who deal d i r e c t l y with the ranch hands or with the large f r a c t i o n of the towns 1 inhabitants who are Mexican know Spanish rather w e l l . Other Anglos, includ­ ing a l l Anglo children, are usually quite r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r knowledge of Spanish. Hondo and Uvalde, respectively 38 and 79 miles west of San A n t o n i o , both county seats, population i n 1950 — 4200 and 87OO, may serve as examples f o r the more eastern area. In Hondo i n I96I two-thirds of the inhabitants were Mexican. The Anglos l i v e d on the east side, the Mexicans on the west. Approx­ imately half of the businessmen were p r a c t i c a l l y ignorant of Spanish. A f i l l i n g s t a t i o n operator, f o r instance, had i n I96I two Mexican employees who had been with him f o r over ten years. The two Mexicans spoke Spanish constantly together, but the Anglo employer had never learned t h e i r language. The Mexicans were usually b i l i n g u a l to some extent t r i l i n g u a l f o r there are enough Germans i n the neighborhood to allow them to acquire a few phrases. At Uvalde, also i n 1961, conditions seemed to be more democratic ( e a r l i e r reports concur). Although a wedding celebration i n an Anglo family used only English, and a church picnic i n the public park was made* up exclusively of Anglos, groups of children i n the park of d i f f e r e n t ages had components -987- both Mexican and Anglo and were s h i f t i n g back and f o r t h between Spanish and English. A Tejano laborer who had l i v e d a l l h i s l i f e i n the neighborhood said that he was normally t o l d what to do i n English, but that some of those who s t i l l spoke German had learned Spanish and were t r i l i n g u a l . Uvalde, founded i n I853t i s some­ what older than Hondo. For the country farther west l e t us con­ sider conditions i n 1961 i n Marfa and Pecos, some 150 miles southeast and east of E l Paso and 95 road miles apart, population i n 1950 3i600 and 8,000 respectively. At Marfa (see # 89.37) p r a c t i c a l l y everybody was b i l i n g u a l , though there were a few Mexicans who claimed not to understand English to save themselves the trouble of having to answer i n that language, and there were Anglos whose English had none of the velvety q u a l i t y that those who speak Spanish h a b i t u a l l y transfer to t h e i r English. In the cemetery a l l the Wilcox graves bore Spanish i n s c r i p t i o n s . In­ scriptions i n English appeared by 1932 but became numerous only i n the 1940fs. Pecos also founded i n 1881 i s farther inland than Marfa. The town iB k9% Mexican. The older Mexicans are i n much the same state l i n g u i s t i c a l l y as that described at Marfa, but the children have thought so much i n English, they forget Spanish words or do not know them. High school students have some d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding sermons i n Spanish. Mexican parents were making an e f f o r t to bring up t h e i r children b i l i n - gually. -988- .45 ¥est Texas grain and produce farmers and towns serving them are less numerous than the ranchers and t h e i r towns. They pros­ per l i t t l e unless there i s a water supply f o r i r r i g a t i o n . As remarked of the farm owners i n the Rio Grande v a l l e y , they are usually Anglos with only a l i m i t e d knowledge of Spanish. In the back country they are i n some places not so extensively dependent as the people i n the Rio Grande v a l l e y upon seasonal labor, f o r there i s more d i v e r s i t y of crops, l a r g e l y because a c c e s s i b i l i t y to markets f o r perishable produce i s l i m i t e d . In the Pecos v a l ­ l e y , however, wherever there are farms, cotton i s a common crop; and the seasonal laborers there are i n conditions s i m i l a r to those i n cotton country elsewhere. As examples of communities l a r g e l y dependent upon farmers; l e t us consider C a s t r o v i l l e and Balmorhea i n I96I. C a s t r o v i l l e , as said above (# 89 . 3 7 ) , i s a town founded by Al s a t i a n s . The A l s a t i a n d i a l e c t had not been abandoned i n 1961? persons older than twenty-five years were able to speak i t . In the cemetery i n s c r i p t i o n s f o r Anglos i n English begin to appear about 1910; German i s no longer found a f t e r 1918 i n the Catholic section; i t persists into the 1920 fs i n the Lutheran section. Inscriptions i n Spanish were s t i l l be­ ing i n s t a l l e d i n I96I, though English had appeared by 1955* The persistence of Spanish did not mean that i t enjoyed high pres­ t i g e . The Catholic cemetery f o r Anglos was surrounded by a s o l i d stone w a l l , the Lutheran cemetery by a barbed wire fence, also a new Lutheran cemetery had been begun i n the most modern - 9 8 9 - cemetery fashion. The Spanish cemetery had been surrounded by a wire fence, but i t was broken down at several points. The state of monuments corresponded. At the Catholic church a l l the servers were Ariglos — with A l s a t i a n names except f o r two that were I r i s h , In the week of June 5 to 11 out of ten "Mass intentions" only one was sponsored by a person with a Spanish name, though that one was at a favored time, 9*30 on Sunday, Anglos of high school age had learned neither Spanish nor German, but t h e i r fathers i n business were t r i l i n g u a l . The German farm­ ers i n the v a l l e y seldom knew much Spanish because they made l i t t l e use of Mexican help, but a considerable number had become ranchers on the lands beyond and were well acquainted with Span­ i s h , C a s t r o v i l l e i s 24 miles west of San Antonio? Balmorhea i s between Marfa and Pecos (see # 8 9 , 4 4 ) , that i s , farther west than New Mexico 1s eastern boundary. I t represents l a t e development, for the town was founded i n 1 9 0 6 . I r r i g a t i o n was f i r s t under­ taken i n 1 9 1 2 , but the water resources were not f u l l y u t i l i z e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n u n t i l the 1 9 3 0 fs. The population of the town f e l l from 1220 to 800 between 1930 and 1 9 4 0 j i t spread out i n small holdings beyond the corporate l i m i t s . A number of Mexi­ cans had become landholders while the ground was considered of l i t t l e value and with i r r i g a t i o n they became prosperous. About 70$ of the population i s Mexican, and Spanish enjoys some pres­ t i g e . A l l the Anglos know enough of i t to communicate adequately. - 9 9 0 - .46 The cotton growing regions of western Texas, i n addition to those near Brownsville and E l Paso on the Rio Grande and of the weaker one on the Pecos River near Pecos, are those surrounding Corpus C h r i s t i and Lubbock and that i n a s t r i p of counties run­ ning south from the lower southwest corner of Oklahoma to the neighborhood of San Angelo. A d i s t r i c t heaviest around George­ town north of Austin may also be included. In these centers there are permanently resident Mexicans, very numerous i n the area of Corpus C h r i s t i , s u r p r i s i n g l y few i n the Lubbock region considering the importance of cotton, moderate i n number else­ where, but before the introduction of machinery into the cotton f i e l d s the i n f l u x of Mexicans f o r picking and chopping made the s i t u a t i o n that concerned them d i f f e r e n t from that found elsewhere. Seasonal workers everywhere are seldom regarded as r e s p o n s i b i l i ­ t i e s either of the communities where they work i n the growing season or of the towns i n which they winter. Their nomadic existence interferes with the school attendance of t h e i r c h i l ­ dren, and they are usually w i l l i n g to accept the most rudimen­ tary housing while working i n the f i e l d s , also the poorest when they have no work i n winter. Thereby they become the concern of s o c i a l investigators, and numerous studies .have treated of Mexican cotton pickers i n Texas. 46a Taylor's study of Nueces County near Corpus C h r i s t i y i e l d s the following d e t a i l s of d i r e c t or i n d i r e c t l i n g u i s t i c i n t e r e s t . The population i n 1929 was at census time about 45$ Mexican. - 9 9 1 - " I f a census were taken i n August . . . i t would indicate the presence of probably from 1 0 , 0 0 0 to as many as 15 t000 more Mexi­ cans i n a cotton season l i k e 1929 or 1 9 3 0 . • • . The majority of the Mexican residents of the Nueces County area have come from . • . p a r t i c u l a r l y the northeastern Mexican border states. Others, p a r t i c u l a r l y since the extensive development of a g r i c u l ­ ture i n 1 9 0 8 - 1 0 , have come from the central plateau states'* (TA 9 4 . 9 5 ) • v^?ew/5f th#se Mejeicans had fami l i e s ^ sou^h of /the bo^de^; yssygX mgney o^yders.xlssued Jio Mexipans wpd*e p4nt Mexic l l y §#>outj£o% erf the crises ( TA / ^ 4 . 9 ^ . Pew of these Mexicans had families south of the border; postal money orders issued to Mexicans were sent to Mexico i n only about 10$ of the cases (TA 104). A number of them had worked i n distant parts of the United States, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Alaska. There was no d i s p o s i t i o n on the part of the Anglos to do away with the presence of the Mexicans; the cheap labor was too advantageous to them. The An­ glos tended to make no d i s t i n c t i o n between Tejanos and more re­ cently ar r i v e d Mexicans (TA 245). I t was considered the r i g h t thing, a sort of badge or means of ordained subjugation, f o r Mexi­ cans to speak only Spanish. A town school authority said, M 0 n the large farms they make the Mexicans speak Spanish. The boss won ft answer them i n English because the Mexicans who can 1t speak English w i l l then think you are making fun of them and leave 1 1 (TA 3 0 7 ) * A large landowner l a i d the blame f o r the s i t u a t i o n upon the Mexicans, "We t r y to teach them English but they don ft learn" (TA 2 8 7 ) . - 9 9 2 - The permanently resident Mexicans might become clerks i n r e t a i l business, most usually g i r l s . In the cotton picking sea­ son when migrants were numerous they were found i n a l l e s t a b l i s h ­ ments to deal with mono-lingual Spanish customers. But Anglo h o s t i l i t y was present. 11 Some people, especially newcomers, don• t l i k e to be waited on by Mexicans1* (TA 176, quoting a chain store manager). These employees were of course b i l i n g u a l . The schools were often segregated i f the community was able to support two schools. The Mexican schools might be sub-standard. No attempt would usually be made to enforce school attendance because the tax payers did not wish i t . "Why educate the Mexicans?** The Mexicans were not always resigned to t h i s s i t u a t i o n , but Mexican school attenders themselves were often unhappy i n American schools because they were subject to hazing. Families ambitious for t h e i r children sometimes moved to Laredo where s o c i a l ostra­ cism of Mexicans did not e x i s t . There were others who f e l t the clan i n s t i n c t . "We1re Mexicans and they're Americans. I l i k e to be with my own people. Yes, I learn more English here, but I wish we had a Mexican high school. Then we could speak Spanish on the playground'* (TA 221) . Those who found themselves i n "Mexican" high schools were not of the same opinion? "Separate, we never learn to t a l k English well" (TA 2 2 3 ) . Housing location was r e s t r i c t e d by public opinion, and the basis was not wholly a matter of complexion. A few Mexicans were accepted i n Anglo neighborhoods. "These a l l speak good English" (TA 227) . The Anglos said the Mexicans wished t h e i r housing segregation, but -993- a Mexican said, "The Mexicans do not prefer complete separation.. •. The American people impose the separation. The Mexicans would learn English and the American ways more" (TA 228). .46b Mrs. Kibbe presents data (Ki 87) f o r 1942-43 which shows that the school attendance and achievement of Mexicans i n Texas west of a l i n e from Ft. Worth to Galveston was everywhere bad. The data are f o r counties, those containing c i t i e s , some of those along the Bio Grande and a few others that are cotton counties though not the most important. Only i n E l Paso County and i n neighboring Hudspeth County were the Mexican children attending school more than 79% of the Mexican scholastics; that i s , persons recorded by the census as of school age. In M i t c h e l l County, where cotton i s a usual crop but where only 227 Mexican scholas­ t i c s were enumerated the percentage f e l l to 3^%* The normal range was between 60% and 75%• The percentage of Mexican children ac­ t u a l l y enrolled who did not make a grade per year ranged between 73% and 87% except i n Bexar County (San Antonio) where only 54$ were behind schedule; 70% of the Mexican scholastics were en­ r o l l e d there. The c i t i e s may be regarded as r e f l e c t i n g conditions among cotton pickers because most cotton pickers wintered i n them. Nueces County which contains both Corpus C h r i s t i and many cotton f i e l d s i s t y p i c a l . There 65% of the Mexican scholastics were enrolled, and 79% of those enrolled were retarded academically. I t i s evident that the opportunity f o r Mexican children to learn acceptable English was quite l i m i t e d . The greater part of Mrs. -994- Kibbe fs book deals with the prejudice e x i s t i n g against Mexicans i n Texas, In schools the r e s u l t s were much the same as those described by Taylor, Elsewhere there was discrimination which i t was Mrs, Kibbe 1 s duty to investigate. Of the complaints with which she dealt , fa very n e g l i g i b l e number were noted along the border, where there i s the heaviest concentration of L a t i n American population, and the greatest number were reported from EtheJ Plains section of West Texas, . , , the most important cotton growing area of the state 1 1 (Ki 209) • •46c The Presidents Commission on Migratory Labor that reported i n 1951 the r e s u l t s of i t s investigations of the year before studied in t e n s i v e l y the r o l e of the wetback i n the cotton f i e l d s . The wetback speaks only Spanish and the degree of h i s penetration into the i n t e r i o r can be judged by the wage scales i n the various sections of the Texas cotton region, "In 194?, when d a i l y wages for chopping cotton (thinning,,,) i n the Lower Eio Grande Valley were |2,25 (10 hours), wages were continuously higher at points northward from the border* i n the Sandy Lands of Texas, #3,00? i n the Corpus C h r i s t i and Coast P r a i r i e areas, | 4 . 0 0 ; i n the R o l l i n g P l a i n s , $5t00j i n the High P l a i n s , #5.25. . . f i n 195oJ the Lower Rio Grande Valley cotton growers got t h e i r cotton picked f o r approximately one half the wages paid by the average cotton grower of Texas" (Mi 78-79)• The commission also remarked that "when the work i s done neither the farmer nor the community wants the wetback around" (Mi 78). No community wants migratory -995- workers of any sort around a f t e r they have f u l f i l l e d t h e i r fun­ c t i o n , but the means by which they may be ejected are more ef­ f e c t i v e i f t h e i r presence i s i l l e g a l as i t has been with the wetbacks. The effectiveness i s less but s t i l l great i f the community looks upon these people as belonging to a d i f f e r e n t species which does not merit any h e l p f u l e f f o r t . The r e s u l t f o r Mexicans i n the cotton area i s that fewer of them s e t t l e down to become c i t i z e n s of the region than i s usually true of immigrant stocks who have been so employed. They flow back south and into the c i t i e s where t h e i r habits of speaking Spanish are preserved. As examples of conditions i n cotton growing communities i n I 9 6 I , l e t us consider three communities i n the High Plains area, Colo­ rado C i t y on i t s southern edge, the c i t y of Lubbock i n i t s cen­ te r , and the town of Post between them. .46d Colorado C i t y (population 6?00 i n 1950, founded 1880) has an o i l r e f i n e r y . I t i s the county seat of M i t c h e l l County where only 3*$ of the Mexican scholastics were enrolled i n school i n 1942-4-3; 86$ of those enrolled had not made a grade per year. For the cotton picking season i n the early 1 9 6 0 fs labor d i r e c t l y from Mexico was l a r g e l y employed. Some, probably most, of t h i s force were braceros brought from Mexico by govern­ ment arrangement. There were also wetbacks to judge by report. In any case the laborers from Mexico were numerous enough to lower wages and encourage l o c a l Mexicans to go farther north to work. The l i n g u i s t i c r e s u l t was that almost a l l the permanent Mexican residents were b i l i n g u a l , but only the few young persons - 9 9 6 - that had been accepted f o r work i n contact with Anglos i n town used English with one another. Other Mexicans, including the young, regularly spoke Spanish together. In I 9 6 O - 6 I there were fewer Mexicans i n i ;high school than there had been the preceding year. .46e Lubbock, founded i n I 8 9 O , 293 inhabitants i n 1 9 0 0 , was l a t e i n acquiring a large permanent Mexican population. I t s f i r s t cotton gin was i n s t a l l e d i n 1 9 0 9 . In 1 9 3 0 , when the c i t y ' s population was 2 0 , 5 2 0 , those of "Mexican race" i n i t numbered 7 2 4 ; i n the county there were 1 , 0 1 7 . In 1940 the urban popula­ t i o n was 3 1 , 8 5 3 and there were only 127 persons born i n Mexico i n town, i n the county 1 8 6 . By i 9 6 0 the c i t y had grown to 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 ; the Mexican population was perhaps not greater percen­ tage wise, but i t was larger i n absolute terms. Mrs. Kibbe re­ ported that i n October, 1 9 4 4 , there were an estimated 7,440 mi­ grants, presumably a l l Mexicans, i n Lubbock f o r the week-end. She lamented that "Lubbock had made no provision at a l l for taking care of t h i s i n f l u x of people which occurs regularly every f a l l " (Ki 1 7 3 )• As indicated above, these migrants were s u f f i c i e n t l y b i l i n g u a l to do business r e a d i l y , but they were evidently given no other opportunity to exercise t h e i r English i n Lubbock. By i 9 6 0 there was government operated housing which led to a sort of de facto segregation, presumably because most applicants were Mexican. In a school i n the neighborhood 75$ of the enrollment was Mexican. Out of 58 newly enrolled children 26 spoke no English, the remainder some English but of -997- l i m i t e d character. The neighborhood was b i l i n g u a l only when necessary. 46f Post, founded i n 1907, population 3100 i n 1950, acquired a cotton gin early i n i t s history and a t e x t i l e m i l l i n 1913* Mexicans were employed to. the cotton m i l l i n 1961. Their c h i l ­ dren spoke Spanish during school recesses against the w i l l of the teacher. Only Anglos used the swimming pool. The Mexicans played together i n the park without f a c i l i t i e s for swimming. I t i s evident that t h e i r Engl-izing was not progressing r a p i d l y . In I 9 6 I cotton harvesting was i n the midst of an important t r a n s i t i o n . Cotton picking machines had been introduced only a few years before; i n I962 i n the southern area three fourths of the crop was harvested by the machines. Mexican cotton p i c k e r s i thus thrown out of work, required r e h a b i l i t a t i o n (P 292). The process implied increased Engl-izing. 47 San Antonio 1s large Mexican population has generally remained i n the lower economic echelons. The c i t y has been a fav o r i t e wintering s t a t i o n f o r cotton pickers (TA 100, 103V 1^ 7 MC-XVII). The l o t of the pecan shellers i n the I 9 3 O Js has already been a l ­ luded to. The Mexicans have exerted l i t t l e p o l i t i c a l power or­ ganized by themselves, but enough so that discrimination against them i s less overt than i n many other areas. Clark's informant i n San Antonio, Man educational o f f i c e r , 1 1 i n 1907 t o l d him that there was usually a Mexican member on the school board. "The c i t i z e n s of San Antonio want the Mexican children to have the same advantages as t h e i r own i n the public schools f o r four - 9 9 8 - reasons: (1) • • • humanitarian• • • , (2) from p o l i t i c a l con­ siderations they want to s a t i s f y the Mexican voter. (3) Many business men see a p r a c t i c a l advantage ;in having t h e i r children — more especially boys — associate with Mexican children i n school and learn t h e i r character because they w i l l have to deal with them i n a f t e r l i f e ; (4) we a l l want to keep the! Mexican pop­ ulation contented, so more Mexican labor w i l l immigrate to t h i s country" (CI 5 0 8 ) . This p r a c t i c a l i d e a l i s t was probably over ardent, but we have already seen that retardation among Mexican children i n San Antonio was l e s s than elsewhere. Public swim­ ming pools have been open to Mexicans. S t i l l the economic status of Mexicans separates them from others. They have l i v e d much to themselves so that Engl-izing i s impeded. The' pecan shellers of 1938 were mostly immigrants. Of 479 interviewed 17% had been born i n San Antonio. The dates of a r r i v a l of the others i n percentiles was as follows % Presumably these percentages (MC 4) were not completely t y p i c a l of the Mexicans i n San Antonio at the time because Mexicans long established might have attained better f i n a n c i a l status. These data prove, however, that the Mexican population of San 1911-1920 - before 1900 1931-1938 - I92I-I93O - I9OI-I9IO - 8% 15% 28% 22% 10% -999- Antonio received many newly arr i v e d Spanish speakers u n t i l quite l a t e so that Engl-izing was i n h i b i t e d . By I 9 6 I Spanish as a written language had l a r g e l y f a l l e n into disuse. In the business d i s t r i c t on South Plores Street, where the population was prac­ t i c a l l y a l l Mexican there were no signs i n Spanish. Even the an­ nouncement of a supper at the V i l l a Maria was i n English. St. P h i l i p of Jesus Church; near by, was labeled "Spanish 1 1 i n 1915 and i t s pastor bore a Spanish name. He was s t i l l there i n 19^8 but his assistant was I r i s h and the q u a l i f i c a t i o n "Spanish" was no longer applied o f f i c i a l l y . In i 9 6 0 the two pr i e s t s bore Ger­ man names. In I 9 6 I the mimeo-graphed announcements were a l l i n English but the names of a l t a r boys, ushers; etc., were Spanish. The English of the parishioners was not perfect. Concerning a car r a f f l e , a notice said, " I f t h i s car i s going to stay i n the garage, we don ft come any farther." The Spanish of two crude signs before neighboring houses was l i t t l e better, "Serentan dos cuartos — Una casa de reta." But Spanish was the language of spoken intercourse. Everybody on South Flores street, including the rare Anglos, was using Spanish. In Roosevelt Park on the eastern edge of the d i s t r i c t everybody i n the swimming pool over twelve years old was Mexican and t a l k i n g Spanish. Younger c h i l ­ dren were pa r t l y Anglos. Under the trees the company was nfeed and Mexicans addressed Anglos i n English. An informant from Ala­ bama who had been i n San Antonio since 1935 spoke no Spanish though he knew that some Anglos did. He had seen no change i n -1000 the linguistic situation i n 25 years? the Mexicans were almost a l l "bilingual, "but had habitually spoken Spanish, In a Mexican family in which both parents had become teachers, the children were using primarily the languagejof their baby-sitters. One had learned English at once; the other spoke l i t t l e but Spanish. The parents spoke English professionally but demonstrably fa­ vored Spanish elsewhere. In the neighborhood of San Antonio linguistic conditions are similar. For Frio County whose nearest corner is about 25 miles from San Antonio, Manuel reported in 1930 statistics very similar to those quoted for Brownsville. Here the median age of the children was 11.2 years; 35$ of them had both parents born in the United States, both born in Mexico 32$; 92$ of the parents spoke l i t t l e but Spanish to their children; 4$ were bilingual with them (Ma 7)• Castroville to the west has already been cited ( #89.45). At Pleasanton thirty miles to the south in I 9 6 I , there were no signs in Spanish^ but four-fifths of the people on the street were Mexican who were a l l talking Spanish no matter what their age. The economic and social position of Mexicans seemed good. The Anglos were often of German extraction. 48 In Texas in general and in cities other than San Antonio and El Paso the Engl-izing of Mexicans in I96I depended largely on the proportion of the Mexican population. Corpus Christi, San Angelo, Austin and Dallas serve as examples. 48a At Corpus Christi the Mexicans made up 60$ of the popula- -1001- t i o n i n the 1930*s; i n i960 the proportion had sunk to 47$. The r e l a t i v e decrease took place during the. period of the Second World War. Probably because a greater proportion of Mexicans are permanent residents than i n San Antonio and can thus exert p o l i t i c a l power more st e a d i l y , the position of the Mexicans i n Corpus C h r i s t i i s somewhat better than i n the larger c i t y . Po­ l i t i c a l l y they held the balance of power i n the 1890*s and s t i l l had i t i n 1929. A p o l i t i c i a n t o l d Taylor's investigators i n 1929 that the Mexicans voted as a block f o r candidates promoting t h e i r interests (TA 236). School segregation f o r the early grades began i n I896, but i t did not spread beyond the s i x t h grade. The Mexicans f o r many years accepted the s i t u a t i o n with­ out protest; i t made l i n g u i s t i c behavior easier. In I96I there were many Mexicans i n the high schools. In the one where most attended they held o f f i c e s , but not i n high schools where Anglos predominated. The number of Mexican students decreased mater­ i a l l y a f t e r th#.y had reached age 16 and were no longer obliged to attend school. Corpus C h r i s t i contained a number of Mexican families of high standing who championed t h e i r fellows. The children of these families were well accepted by Anglo high school students and spoke English h a b i t u a l l y much of the time. On the other hand the generality of Mexican students were thrown l a r g e l y into one another's company and spoke Spanish together on school premises. The number of Mexican students i n high school was s t i l l reduced i n I96I by the retardation that they had ex- -1002- perienced i n t h e i r early years f o r lack of knowledge of English. Taylor 1s investigators of 1929 were t o l d by Mexican merchants that they belonged to the Chamber of Commerce and could attend i t s luncheons (TA. 265) • In 1961 there was a separate Mexican Chamber of Commerce which transacted business i n English. A l l through Corpus C h r i s t i 1 s h i s t o r y the -relations between Anglos and Mexicans have been almost always of a business character. Mexican clerks i n stores became common early because of the num­ ber of Spanish-speaking customers (TA 176). The management of most large stores remained i n Anglo hands. Few Anglos except foremen i n industry learned to speak Spanish. Mexican employees reduced t h e i r opportunities f o r advancement to foremanships by leaving t h e i r jobs f o r cotton picking during the season. The motivation was employment fo r the whole family. The b i l i n g u a l clerks had no appreciable f i n a n c i a l advantage over others. Their l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y was often overshadowed by Anglo distaste f o r dealing with them. At public dances the Mexicans were subject to a color l i n e ; at beach houses obstacles were put i n the way of service to Mexicans (TA 257$ 262). The use of Spanish de­ creased i n the middle decades of the twentieth century i n Corpus C h r i s t i , but i t was l a r g e l y through the r e l a t i v e decrease i n the population of Mexican o r i g i n . The neighborhood of Corpus C h r i s t i by contrast became more completely Mexican and Spanish speaking with the passing decades. Robstown and A l i c e to the west have always been quite Spanish and Mexicans i n A l i c e enjoy some pres- -1003- t i g e . Three Rivers to the north west of Corpus C h r i s t i i n f e r ­ t i l e country i s almost i n the same condition, though the people of German o r i g i n are important i n the economy of these towns. At Refugio to the north, there had been up t i l l I96I a steady immigration and large fam i l i e s were staying i n the area. A r e l i a b l e Anglo informant who had been resident i n the community 28 years prophesied that i n twenty-five years the Latins would control the area. Education was becoming more common among them, but schooling was not bringing about abandonment of Spanish. •48b San Angelo, founded i n 1867$ was a center f o r sheep growing from the l a t e I870 rs on. I t passed through a "wild west" period, and attained l i t t l e importance u n t i l the Orient r a i l r o a d made i t a shipping center i n 1909. I t s population reached 25*000 i n 1940, 52,000 i n 1950 and 72,000 i n i960. On the southern edge of the High Plains cotton d i s t r i c t i t became a wintering station f o r cotton pickers and sheep shearers. From f i f t e e n to twenty thousand Mexicans l i v e i n the town. Comparatively few of those resident i n I96I were immigrants from Mexico; many had been i n the United States several generations. Here as at Corpus C h r i s t i they deserted other jobs f o r cotton picking. Spanish was i n I96I the habitual language of them a l l , although only a few were unable to speak English. About half of the preaching and pastoral work was done i n English. In the neighboring t e r r i t o r y conditions were s i m i l a r . At M i l l e r ' s View, 45 miles to the east, i n I96I, f o r t y percent of the population was Mexican. A l l were permanent -1004- residents and r e l a t i v e l y prosperous; nearly a l l were b i l i n g u a l . No Anglos spoke Spanish. At Eden to the southeast of the c i t y at about the same distance the proportion of Mexicans was l e s s . In Austin i n 1961 the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n i n the Mexican settlement i s well exemplified by the labels on packages i n a seed store. A l l common seeds were labeled i n Spanish, those fo r l e s s well-known plants i n English. Conversations were or­ d i n a r i l y i n Spanish but the bllingualism was of a /casual charac­ te r . Anyone older than f i f t e e n years was t a l k i n g Spanish by preference, but younger school age children preferred English. Ten miles south of Austin where there were Mexican landholders on farms not pr o f i t a b l e enough to support the ouners without work i n townj Spanish was so common that negroes i n that neigh­ borhood were p r o f i c i e n t i n i t s use. Twenty miles beyond at Lockhart the a i r base ,>gave an Angl i c i z e d atmosphere but the im­ pact of English had not been s u f f i c i e n t to oblige old Mexicans to learn i t . At Georgetown some 25 miles to the north of Austin; the comparatively small Mexican settlement i s more nearly Engl- ized. In season many become migrant workers. •48c In Dallas the influences that advance the importance of Mexicans are complicated. Wealthy Tejano families maintain Spanish i n much the same way that a r i s t o c r a t s have clung to French i n New Orleans. The rest of the community i s more w i l l i n g to accept t h e i r superior position than i s the case where there are more gradations between the wealthy and impoverished Spanish -1005- speakers; as i s true i n the c i t i e s farther south. Consequently the wealthy preserve t h e i r language as a mark of high cast. The posi t i o n of lowly Mexicans i s not unlike that found i n northern c i t i e s . By I96I t h e i r establishment on McKinney street had a t ­ tracted t o u r i s t i c i n t e r e s t . The workers i n the meat packing plants had often gained a comfortable degree of prosperity. Be­ tween t h e i r d i s t r i c t and McKinney street was a sordid tenement d i s t r i c t broken at i t s worst point by a government housing pro­ j e c t . I t i s probably here that the migrant workers who winter i n D a l l a s congregate. They are more l i k e l y on migrating to be employed i n the beet f i e l d s or on the f r u i t farms of the north than i n the cotton f i e l d s . A ce r t a i n number of Mexicans are ac­ cepted f o r varied work throughout the c i t y . A l l i n a l l the at­ mosphere of Dallas i s more favorable to Engl-izing than i n south- 89»48d^rest Texas; and i t i s more advanced. 'HAS already said, the pro­ portion of Mexican population has throughout Texas had a r e l a ­ tionship to gngl-izing; so has the degree of h o s t i l i t y to Mexicans. Their schooling i s another f a c t o r ; one that i s connected with the h o s t i l i t y , with t h e i r economic status, and with the length of time the stock i n a family had been i n the United States. In 1930 Manuel quotes J.K. Harris the p r i n c i p a l of a San Antonio school as saying of "children whose parents have come from Mexico i n the l a s t twenty-five years and who rent t h e i r home and engage fo r the most part i n manual labor . . . show retardation and s e l ­ dom go beyond the fourth grade" (Ma 1?) . Lack of English was -1006- demonstrably connected with retardation, though by no means i t s only cause. "Probably more than ninety per cent of the Mexican children who are just entering school f i n Texas} cannot understand and speak English" (Ma 121)• Manuel reported further that the English-speaking laborer ha<& earnings 37$ higher than the non- English-speaking" (Ma 16). I f the higher wages were to be ex­ plained by the a b i l i t y to speak English; the economic reward would be a great push toward Engl-izing. The lack of response indicates .that other factors than ignorance of English were s t i l l more important i n impeding economic advancement. The state of Texas found Spanish monolingualism i n i t s whole area a phe­ nomenon that i n 1959 l e d to the i n i t i a t i o n of a summer program for pre-school children to increase t h e i r proficiency and reduce retardation (P 298 note). The Head Start programs of the mid- 1960 f s worked toward the same aim. 49 The rel a t i o n s of Texas Mexicans with the north have been important. The movement from E l Paso d i r e c t l y to Kansas and the states beyond has been referred to above. The movement involving that c i t y has not been a l l i n one d i r e c t i o n . Mexicans can be found i n E l Paso bom i n I l l i n o i s v probably the r e s u l t of the exi t from the United States of the 1930 fs and a l a t e r return. The beet f i e l d s , orchards and berry patches have drawn heavily on the Mexican population not only i n states close to Texas l i k e Colorado, and Kansas near Colorado, but also a l l along the north- em border from Montana to Ohio p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Michigan (NM 184; -1007- TA 114, K i l 71, Bu 49) . A f t e r the automobile came into use the ordinary practice was f o r a capitan to gather together a truck load of Mexicans and drive night and day to a destination so as to make as many t r i p s as possible during the aseason and to avoid high-jacking competitors; U.S. agents on the watch f o r wetbacks, and Texas o f f i c e r s a f t e r those v i o l a t i n g the Texas emigrant Labor Law of 1929• Texas seriously objected to other states depleting the cheap labor supply and had passed a b i l l against r e c r u i t i n g i n t h e i r state (TA 143; 281). Enforcement was d i f f i c u l t . McWilliams i n 1949 quoted estimates that "nearly 60,000 Texas-Mexicans leave the state every year." (NM 182) The Mexicans who became i n d u s t r i a l laborers i n northern c i t i e s and i n d u s t r i a l centers more usually arrived v i a r a i l r o a d s with­ out a Texas interim a f t e r leaving Mexico, but Texas and the northern states have none the l e s s exchanged Mexican population of a l l sorts. Many Kansas Mexicans have a history of a sojourn i n Texas and the same i s true elsewhere. Mexican Texans some­ times have been employed i n industry i n other states (examples TA 114, 115)• The movement tends to promote Engl-izing i n Texas and to delay i t somewhat i n the north. -1008- 50 Mexicans i n Arizona li v e most densely i n the southern third of the state. The two most important areas are those centered at Tucson and at Phoenix i n the oases furnished by the Santa Cruz and Aqua Fria valleys. Similarly Yuma and environs deserve attention. Mining also attracted Mexicans; i n the southeastern d i s t r i c t , Clifton, Douglas, Bisbee, and (les) Tobstone are important, i n the center Globe, Miami, and Superior, and i n the southwest Ajo provides an isolated case i n the midst of the desert. Elsewhere i n Arizona the importance of Mexicans i s usually of the same character as i n Kansas, that i s , as railway laborers, but they are more numerous. 51 The Spaniards never penetrated far into Arizona as settlers, no farther than the country later included i n the Gadsen Purchase. Jesuit missionaries circulated i n the Santa Cruz valley i n the closing decade of the seventeenth century. Definite missions were established i n the valley i n 1732 and soon s i l ­ ver excitement drew a few other Spaniards. Dissension with the Indians pre­ vented much development, though there were some ranches established i n the neighborhood of Tucson and to the south. T/ftiat settlement there was — something lik e 1,000 people i n 1848 (NM 52) — did not become part of the United States u n t i l 1854 after the Gadsen Purchase. f,A census report of September 1848 gave Tueson 760 inhabitants and Tubac [south of Tucson] 2^9fl (Ba 4?5). With departures for the gold fields of California the number of Mexicans i n Arizona f e l l to about 300 i n I856 (NM 82). The tot a l population i n 1866 was 5*526 when the proportion of Mexicans was presumably at i t s highest, for the white settle­ ment of the Gila valley and here and there farther north was then just beginning. The United States census of 1870 gave Arizona a population total of 99 658, of whom ^ ,339 had been bom i n Mexico; 1,221 persons had been born i n Arizona, many of course of Mexican parents. Mexicans thus made up one half of the population of Arizona, nearly a l l of stock that had arrived after I856 . In 1880 there -1009- were out of 40, 440 inhabitants 9*330 born i n Mexico and 8,166 born i n Arizona. The proportion of Mexicans for the t e r r i t o r y as a whole was less, but immigra­ tion had gone on, and i n the south the Mexicans were more numerous proportion­ ately* In the territory the proportion of foreign-born Mexicans f e l l but l i t t l e i n the next decade — from 23$ to 19$ — , »ore sharply i n the decade 1890-1900 — down to 11.53$. But i n the south i t remained high. The census of 1920 showe d that a third of the population i n Santa Cruz and Greenlee counties was made up of persons born i n Mexico. In these two counties i n 1930 half o f the inhabitants were of "Mexican race.*' Santa Cruz County i s small, t e r r i t o r i a l l y much smaller than any other county i n the state; i t l i e s on the Mexican border and contains Nogales. Greenlee, also small though three times as large, contains Clifton. This i s a copper mining area where Mexican labor was especially important. The other border counties held about a f i f t h Mexican foreign-born i n 1920, Pinal County between Tucson and Phoenix a fourth, and the counties of south central Arizona a sixth. In this area i n 1930 at least a fourth of the population of each county was of lfMexican race 1 1 except that i n the c i t y of Phoenix i t was no greater than 15$* In 1940 only Santa Cruz County contained more than 9$ f o r e i g n born Mexicans; there 17$ of the people had been born i n Mexico* In spite of the heavy proportion of Mexicans i n the early population of Arizona most of the Mexicans now present are of recently arrived stock — leas than 10,000 foreign- born i n 1880, more than 60,000 i n 1920; i n 1920 there were half as many again whose parents had been bora outside the United States. The two generations were 28$ of the state fs population. In 1940 there were 100,000 persons of Spanish mother tongue i n Arizona. 89*52 The social situation of Mexicans i n Arizona i s i n most places somewhat better than i n other border states. There i s more of a sense of forming an economic unit with Sonora to the south; the sentiments are o f f i c i a l l y recog­ nized by an international commission of cooperation. S t i l l the Mexicans are i n very large proportion i n the lower economic strata of the people, and -1010- as a whole suffer the social disadvantages that accompany relative poverty. Their prestige was upheld somewhat by the low standing of the f ,0keys H who, as they gravitated toward California during the depression of the 1930fs and in the years following, were a substantial part of the potential labor force. Brown and Cassmore stated the matter thus i n 1939s MFor several years after the [First] World War Mexicans, diligently recruited, provided a cheap, tractable and f a i r l y adequate labor supply for the Arizona cotton growers.... The Mexi­ cans are s t i l l referred to by the growers as the best workers they ever had. The one d i f f i c u l t y with them was that they soon l e f t Arizona.... In the f a l l of 1928 u n o f f i c i a l restriction of the immigration of Mexican laborers began.... The development of good East-West roads i n the late twenties had allowed Arizona to draw cotton picking labor from the steady stream of California- bound Texas and Oklahoma migrants... even before drought and depression times 1 1 (BC 65-66). In the country near Phoenix and i n the d i s t r i c t s farther south the standing of the Spanish language was thereby raised. Esteem for i t i s some-what increased by the large number of Indians s t i l l speaking their own several languages. Spanish and English are flwhite men's languages'* as opposed to Papago, Pima, Yuma or Apache. Observations made i n May, 1962, support data i n the following sections. •53 Nogales (population 6500 i n 1955) on the Arizona-Sonora border south of Tucson i s predominantly a Spanish-speaking town. It was not founded u n t i l 1880, though i t i s i n the area f i r s t entered by the Spanish. It held many Mexicans from i t s beginning, but i t s Spanish character has become more marked as the twentieth century has advanced. The WPA Arizona guide remarked that MSpanish, as frequently as English, i s heard on the streets" (WP 209)* For 1962 the statement should be: Spanish i s heard much more frequently than -1011- English. In some stores English-speaking clerks were a minority among an ex­ clusively Mexican force of employees. The linguistic situation i s largely to be explained by the fact that the paired town of Nogales, Sonora, i s much larger, 25»000 inhabitants, also by the higher birth rate of Mexicans as compared with others on the American side. There were some Anglos whose knowledge of Spanish was limited, but there were very few who knew none. Here the older Mexicans were more l i k e l y to be at home i n English than the younger ones. Though the town cannot be considered more Spanish than Laredo, Texas, the proportion of Mexicans bilingually proficient was less. Thirty miles back into Arizona from this point, at Arizonan Sonoita and Continental some signs of Engl-izing were to be found i n 1962, but Anglos who had been long i n the area had learned some Spanish. The land was owned by them, but the ranches were operated by Mexicans. The invasion of resort people was beginning to exert an influence favoring English. •5^ Douglas and Yuma, the other two Arizona border towns, are somewhat less Spanish-speaking than Nogales. For Douglas, founded i n 1900 (popula­ tion 9*800 i n 1955)» the reasons are two: Agua Prieta, a town of the same size across the border, i s at a few miles distance, so that the exchange of local population i s less; Douglas has been an industrial rather than a on commercial town, depending*the smelting of ore from Mexico. Its prosperity pulsates with the price of copper, and the workers are not a l l Mexican. S t i l l i n 1962 one estimate fixed the Mexicans as 80$ of the population; a l l agreed that the Mexicans were more numerous than others. Of the two schools one was almost exclusively Mexican; the other was 75$ Anglo. Mexican c h i l ­ dren were bilingual, but some older people knew no English. The capi­ t a l i s t i c classes i n the neighborhood contained a substantial Mexican element -1012- which was bilingual. The Anglos, even i f they had arrived i n middle age had usually acquired some Spanish. Among teen-agers there was f r i c t i o n between Anglo and Mexican stocks, which made for scorn of using the other language, but i n general relations were good. Xuma has a much longer history than Douglas and Nogales, but Spanish ventures of the eighteenth century were temporary, and American concern i n the last half of the nineteenth century centered on activities at the crossin g of the Colorado River. The greatest development came with the introduction and subsequent expansion of irrigation i n the surrounding region. Yumafs population was 15,000 i n 1955* Its Spanish element f i r s t took root i n the nineteenth cen­ tury, and a number of old families persist. But there was early a cosmopolitan mixture. In I883 "you are served i n the same dining room by Mexicans, Chinamen, Irish, Americans, and a tame Apache Indian" (Bi tyk). English obviously had to serve as a lingua franca. But i n Yuma, as elsewhere, the Mexican population i s primarily of twentieth century origin. At least half of the people are Mexi­ can. Engl-izing i s farther advanced than i n the towns which have a port of entry within their limits. The entry i s 28 miles to the south, though across the Colorado Mexico i s only seven miles to the west. In the Mexican quarter i n 1962 children and early teen-agers were playing together i n English. They were, however, conversant with Spanish and spoke i t at least with their grand­ parents. At Wellton thir t y miles east Engl-izing was more advance^ Mexicans less numerous. 89•55 In Tucson the prestige of both English and Spanish are maintained with less f r i c t i o n than elsewhere. Only from one fourth to one third of the popu­ lation has been Mexican throughout the twentieth century as the town has progressed from a population of 7,500 to some 120,000, but there i s a respected professional and business Mexican group, there are profitable relations with So­ nora, and a general tendency, for touristic purposes, to g i l d the Spanish past and find Spanish names for contemporary phenomena. The ci t y i s large enough so that there are both Anglo and Mexican monoglots, but bilingualism i s wide­ spread, more extensively practiced by the Mexicans because of the economic advantages. Young Mexicans frequently have a tendency to prefer English, but are forced to use Spanish with deliberately monolingual parents. In the Catholic church, where no economic advantage i s to be gained by the exal­ tation of Spanish, the hierarchic w i l l to displace Spanish i s apparent. Tucson became the see of a vicariate apostolic i n 1868 and of a regular dio­ cese i n 1897. The history of development i s similar to that i n New Mexico. The last French bishop reigned from I887 to 1922, but already i n 1900 there were more Germans than French among his priests; there was one Spanish pas­ tor i n charge of a parish i n northeastern Arizona. Then the only Catholic church i n Tucson was the cathedral. In 1915 there were several Spanish names appearing i n the ranks of the diocesan clergy, and i n Tucson there were three churches. St. Augustine 1s, the cathedral, and Holy Family were labeled ••Spanish," and A l l Saints 1 "English. 1 1 A l l Saints 1 pastor bore an Irish name, the only one i n the diocese. A German, who became bishop i n 1923* was s t i l l reigning i n i960, but with an auxiliary appointed i n 1953 whose name was Green. Irish names were numerous among the clergy i n I960; Spanish names had rather decreased than increased. In Tucson by 19^ *8 there were twelve churches; Holy Family an d Santa Cruz were Spanish, but not the Cathedral. The only priest with a Spanish name was one of those at Santa Cruz. There was a church for Papagos, another for negroes; the rest were unlabeled, though i n some the people must have been largely Spanish. In i960 the Tucson situation was simi­ la r except that one of the three priests at the cathedral had a Spanish name and the Discalced Carmelite fathers had two representatives with Span­ ish names instead of one. With such influences only new blood from Mexico -10i4- could adequately maintain Spanish. But the new blood was arriving. Braceros who returned as immigrants chose Tucson as their home. 89«56 Phoenix has had a smaller proportion of Mexican residents than Tucson, but because the c i t y has grown rapidly, the Mexican population has since 1920 been several thousand (7,293 of "Mexican race" i n 1930). Phoenix was not founded u n t i l after the C i v i l War. I t became the capital of the territory i n 1889 when i t s population was about 2,000 ~ half Mexicans. The early stock has remained in the city, but i t i s small compared with later immigration. Engl-izing did not progress rapidly u n t i l after the Second World War. The emphasis on English i n the schools became such that the young up u n t i l they were out of high school usually spoke English together. Many young families continued to do so i n the home. The sentiment toward English was so favorable i n 1962 that a Spanish priest prophesied that Spanish would be displaced i n another twenty years. However, i n his church preaching at a l l masses but one was i n Spanish. The one was for children; they spoke Spanish, but could not understand abstract ideas i n that language. The community attitude toward Spanish and toward Mexicans was less favorable i n the c i t y of Phoenix than i n Tucson. But i n the country surrounding Phoenix the situation was not the same. In the late 19^0fs and 50 fs many people from Texas and New Mexico had moved into this gardening d i s t r i c t i n such proportions as to maintain the Spanish-English balance. Bilingualism was the common condition of Mexicans; they were not disposed to desert Spanish but they had made themselves acceptable to Anglos. In the high school at Tolleson a few miles west of Phoenix, the senior class president and the high school queen i n 1961 were Mexicans; about 10$ of the seniors and a larger proportion i n lower classes were Mexicans. Children below school age usually played i n Spanish but were 1015- being taught English also. At E l Mirage northwest of Phoenix the situation was similar. Here the priest did not have sermons i n English regularly for c h i l ­ dren, but preached i n both English and Spanish — English whenever the church contained those who were at home i n that language. The braceros here were frequent candidates for admission as citizens. 57 Mexicans i n mines and smelters i n Arizona were studied by the Immigration Commission investigators for the Senate i n 1909. Few Mexicans i n these indus­ tries were able to speak English. Length of Residence Metallic Mining Smelters i n the U. 3. No. reporting Speaking English No. reporting Speaking Englisl Less than 5 years 322 3 429 12 5 to 9 years 181 k 262 21 10 years or more 106 13 227 ^9 Totals 609 20 918 82 (Se 568, 606) About three f i f t h s of these could read Spanish. About half of the Mexicans had been i n the United States five years. Among the smelter workers here 10 years or more some 22$ had learned to speak English , among miners less than 13^• 58 The eastern copper mining towns of Arizona were developed i n the l870 fs. Mexicans opened the f i r s t works at Clifton even a l i t t l e earlier, i n 1867• The Clifton-Morenci d i s t r i c t was operating i n 1872. Between 1910 and 1920 Greenlee County was created to take care of the special needs of this area. In 1920 35$ of the population of that county had been born i n Mexico, and i n 1930 the "Mexican race" furnished of the population. A l l the copper i n ­ dustry i n Arizona employs many Mexicans, i n part experienced before a r r i v a l i n the mines of Chihuahua; the proportion of Mexicans i n the Clifton-Morenci d i s t r i c t has been especially high, presumably because the early Mexican work­ ers gave i t a reputation that attracted later comers. The more celebrated Bisbee d i s t r i c t developed after 1877 and reached f u l l a ctivity as the Slavs of the New Immigration were pouring into the United States. Mexicans and Slavs have been the most numerous elements i n the labor force. In 1930 those of the "Mexican race 1 1 were one third of the population. The existence of two strong non-English elements i n Bisbee made for the early acceptance of English as a lingua franca* However, separation and dispute between the various national groups was normal for many years; s t i l l , children growing up i n the 1920fs were often polyglots. The Mexican influence continued to be great after the Slavic flood subsided, and i n 1962 second generation Serbs, who had forgotten Serbo-Croatian, found occasion to exercise their fluent but imperfect Spanish. In Bisbee*s Brewery Gulch Spanish was as prevalent as English, though non-Mexicans who had grown up there i n the wild days were sometimes ill-equipped i n Spanish. Bisbee i s less than ten miles from the Mexican border, and Tombstone i s some twenty a i r miles farther away. The town now profits t o u r i s t i c a l l y from the wildness of i t s silver mining days which began at the same time as copper development at Bisbee. Then i t was a town of some size. In the 1950fs i t s population varied between 850 and 1500. Half of the inhabitants were Mexicans, usually native to the immediate area and bilingual. In 1962 some Mexican children played together i n English, some i n Spanish. An Anglo informant of substantial standing said that there were "some nice Mexicans." The mining towns farther west i n Arizona are i n quite widely separated areas. The degree to which they have Spanish character varies with their distance from the border. Ajo i s the nearest to i t ; the distance i s some thi r t y a i r miles. Activity began at Ajo by 1855> but the high grade ore was -1017- soon mined out, and i t was not u n t i l 1916 that the low grade ores were ex­ ploited. The town's population i n the 1950fs was about 7>000. The Mexicans formed a very important element i n i t . The Writers Project guide reissued i n 1956 remarked that "the Mexican national holidays (May 5> Septem­ ber 16).. • are gaily celebrated i n A jo by the large Mexican population1* (MP 401). These Mexicans practically a l l arrived after 1916, for the surrounding country i s desert. They make up about one third of the population, non-Spanish- speaking Papago Indians another third. The Anglos are not significantly of stock recently arrived from Europe as at Bisbee, Not a l l Anglos are thrown i n ­ to direct contact with Mexicans, but many are, and relations are i n general good. Children of the two stocks play together, and the Mexicans* young be­ come comfortably bilingual, often using English with each other even i n the family. Some Anglo children learn Spanish, but the school room i n 1962 was fur­ nishing them no encouragement to do so. Older Anglos, who usually arrived as adults have gained no great proficiency i n Spanish. More distant from the border and farther east l i e s the Superior-Miami-Globe complex. Globe i s 87 miles east from Phoenix, with Miami quite near i t , and Superior 20i«iles on the way to the capital. Globe i s the oldest of the group. Activities began there with a silver strike i n I876, and copper exploitation began by 1881. The hey-day was from 1895 to 1917* In 1950 there were 6,419 people there. The distribution of population was similar to that at Bisbee with similar result. The Mexican quarter remained intact past the mid-century, but Spanish, except i n the quarter, became of lesser importance. In 1962 Apache was heard on the streets of Globe more frequently than Spanish. Miami with 4,300 population i n 1950 came into existence i n 1907. National groups from Europe did not gain the same footing as at Globe. "After the post war depression of 1921... i t was apparent that the r a c i a l composition -1018- of men on the mine pay r o l l s was changing from a mixture of many nationalities to a majority of Mexicans M (WP 204). Miami and Globe i n 1950 accounted for about half of the non-Apache population i n Gila County and were the only two towns i n i t whose population rose above 800. Of the county1 s "white11 pop­ ulation of 21 , 825 there were 4 ,550 who bore Spanish surnames. Among these only 846 were foreign-bom. This was then a population of twentieth century origin which had not been replenished significantly after 1925* In 1962 only some of the foreign-born were reputed to know no English; the other 4 ,000 were bilingual with a few exceptions who had abandoned Spanish. Superior (5>000 population i n 1955) was a silve r mining town from 1875 for over a quarter of a century. After 1910 i t became a copper center — mines and smelter — and the labor force which was then developed was primarily Mexican. In 1962 three fourths of the population was Mexican, part of them Hispanos from New Mexico. The linguistic situation was that described for Gila County. School children were accepting English as their language for play at least during school hours. At recess, well out of ear shot of the teachers, groups of children were using English to each other. The young adults mixed Spanish and English, both of doubtful quality. A photographer who used pictures of pairs of children as advertisement i n four pictures out of six displayed children with Spanish names and put his comments i n English. Wickenburg (1750 population i n 1955)$ 53 miles northwest of Phoenix, was a gold mining center beginning i n the I 8 6 0 fs; other mining did not follow the exhaustion of gold. The Mexicans who came i n as miners l e f t no higher proportion i n the townfs population than that on the surrounding ranches. Except among the old the use of Spanish was rapidly deteriorating i n 1962. •59 Th© Gila valley possesses almost a l l the irrigated country i n southern -1019- Arizona outside of the Santa Cruz-Tucson area and the Phoenix oasis. The activi t y i s greatest i n a region between Tucson and Phoenix. Eloy, Coolidge, Casa Grande, and Maricopa are towns i n this d i s t r i c t . Cotton growing i s com­ mon i n the area, and braceros have been brought i n numbers for part of the seasonal labor. A high proportion of the permanent residents are Mexican, partly from New Mexico. In 1962 at Eloy (population 5>200) where some two thirds of the inhabitants are Mexican, a disgruntled Anglo held that "they complain i f you can ft talk Spanish to them; a l l of them talk i t to each other." Maricopa (population 400) i s on the border of the Gila Indian reser­ vation; therefore, although the town and surrounding country i s three-fourths Mexican, English as a lingua franca i s i n a better position. However, h o s t i l i t i e s come to the surface more easily here, at least i n the early 1960fs they did; violence was not uncommon at Maricopa. At Casa Grande ( population 5*800) between Eloy and Maricopa, half the population i s Mexican, a large propor­ tion from Texas and New Mexico. Indians, who are more comfortably bilingual than elsewhere^are also present. English enjoys prestige without as fierce antipathies as those described for Maricopa. Among the descendants of the second generation of Spanish speakers, the children play i n English, and English i s largely the language of the home. At Coolidge (population 4,200) north­ east of Casa Grande and near the river, the Mexicans make up one third of the population. Those born i n the United States are numerous, and here too the young have largely become habitual speakers of English. Farther west i n the oases the language of the fields has been largely Spanish because of long dominance of braceros among the workers. Everywhere i n Arizona railroad maintenance crews are Mexican; the section bosses are also Mexican, so that Spanish i s the ordinary language during the working day. -1020- 60 Mexicans i n California have attracted more attention from the rest of the nation than Mexicans i n any other state, though basically they have not been so important to the welfare of California as a whole as those i n other border states. Partly because other material on them i s easily accessible, but mainly because their relation to Mexicans i n Kansas has been minor, the examination of the California Mexicans i n this work i s comparatively brief. California south of Santa Barbara, roughly; south of the t h i r t y - f i f t h parallel, receives most attention. The California Mexican Fact Finding Committee stated i n 193C^hat 24 cities reported "segregated d i s t r i c t s composed of Mexicans or Mexicans and other foreigners"; 20 of these c i t i e s were south of the thi r t y - f i f t h p arallel. Napa (north of San Francisco), Porterville and Visalia (in the San Joaquin valley) and Bakersfield (farther south) were the exceptions. (San Jose at least should also have confessed to having a colonia.) The others except Santa Barbara and Santa Maria were i n a narrow band i n the Los Angeles area; i t s north edge extended from the coast to San Bernardino (MF 176). In 1910 and 1920 and 1927, the counties below the thirty-sixth parallel contained 78$ of the Mexicans i n the state. In this area, the desert oases, the rural areas not far from the coast, and the band of towns on the route leading out of the desert to Los Angeles are given most consideration i n this work. 61 Spanish settlement of California came much later than early exploration along the coast, which was going on i n 1587* The establishment of missions be­ gan i n 1769» The missions were to the Indians, but Spanish settlers, as planned, collected around them. Ultimately they extended, with intervals between them, to a short distance above San Francisco Bay (Ca 119). The plan was to secular­ ize them as soon as settlement was firm; secularization did not begin u n t i l 1830 after Mexico was free of Spain. The grants to individuals which were then made were for ranches, many very large. The land-owning class became an aristocracy with a much larger component of ranch hands and laborers. Amalgamation with the loc a l Indian population was limited. In 1848, there were about 7*500 Spanish speakers i n California (NM 5 2 ) . As i n New Mexico, the Spanish landowners of southern California sometimes succeeded i n maintaining their status after Anglo settlement became important, but also as i n New Mexico, l e g a l i s t i c maneuvers transferred many holdings to Anglos (Ca 366ff.). In the mining country Anglos were particularly ruth­ less i n their treatment of the earlier Californians, so also along the trade routes. In reaction, banditry became common among the Mexicans. The result was a tradition of h o s t i l i t y between the "races" more severe than any ex­ isting elsewhere i n the border states. Anglo settlement of southern C a l i ­ fornia became important i n the I880 fs, and save for a few influential families Mexican native sons became reduced to much the same low status as that gen­ erally accorded everywhere i n the United States to peon immigrants. A few new arrivals from south of the border kept joining those who had come earlier. Thus when the great wave of twentieth century immigration from Mexico began, the newcomers and the old stratum were almost indistirjjuishably fused. The influx after 1900 was largely made up of agricultural workers, but the migrants, including those employed i n central California, wintered i n the southern c i t i e s , particularly i n Los Angeles and i t s neighborhood, so that the linguistic development of great numbers of Mexicans was affected by both urban and rural conditions. Similar situations existed i n Texas and elsewhere but Mexicans i n California seem to have been more influenced by c i t y pressures than i n other states. For instance, strikes by Mexicans i n Texas receive a l ­ most no comment, whereas strikes i n California beginning about 1930 were not isolated phenomena. The strikes were among farm workers, but presumably the technique of organization was learned i n c i t i e s . During the depression of the 1930 fs, C a l i f o r n i a ^ impatience with the burden of r e l i e f for Mexi­ cans was greater than that farther east, and repatriation from California was more frequent, often from indirect persuasion, but also from subsidization of departures. Economic recovery did not abolish h o s t i l i t i e s . The Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 were an i l l u s t r a t i o n . California became and remained, however, an ardent consumer of bracero labor. 89#62 The social position of Mexicans i n California, as i s evident from the h i s t o r i c a l allusions above, has sometimes been the cause of more tempestu­ ous events than i n other states. The California border i s much shorter than that of other states facing Mexico, and the half million Mexicans i n California have only i n a few desert towns been able to maintain numbers near their homeland which enable them to demand consideration to the same extent as Mexicans i n Tucson and Laredo, or even i n Corpus Christi and E l Paso. Their position i s more or less subject to the fluctuations of humanitarianism among the generality of Californians. There has been, however, perhaps more respect for the qualities of the Mexfcan as a worker than i n other border states. Comparisons between them and the Japanese and Filipinos were possible early i n the century, between them and Okies and Arkies later; the result, particularly i n desert farming, was not unfavor­ able to the Mexican. S t i l l , the fact that he was so often a migrant f i e l d worker developed conditions similar to those described for cotton pickers i n Texas, willingness on the part of the Mexicans to accept almost no housing while i n the f i e l d s , economic necessity of taking the worst while wintering, reluctance of communities to take any responsibilty for temporary residents, neglect of schooling because of family movement, i n general the promotion of isolation that discouraged Engl-izing. The Catholic church erected a Diocese of the Two Californias i n 1840, then a diocese of Monterey, a l l California i n the United States i n 1850. In 1853? the archdiocese of San Francisco was divided from i t . By 1894, the diocese of Monterey had become Monterey and Los Angeles, and i n 1922, Monterey was separated from Los Angeles. The c i t y of Los Angeles became the see of an archdiocese i n 1936 when the diocese of San Diego was erected. Spaniards were the bishops at f i r s t , but i n San Francisco i n 1884, Arch­ bishop Francis Garcia Diego y Moreno l e f t his post to an Irishman and re­ tir e d for his last years to Valencia, Spain. In the Monterey-Los Angeles diocese, Bishop Francis Mora held out u n t i l I896 before resigning and be­ taking himself to Barcelona, Spain. The successors of both have had English names, almost a l l obviously Irish. In 1900 i n the area below the thirty- f i f t h p a r allel, there was only one parish served by a rector with a Spanish name and he had a German assistant. By 1915, however, Our Lady of Angels had been handed over to the Claretian Fathers, a l l with Spanish names and par­ t i c u l a r l y designated to %ttend the Mexican people11 i n Los Angeles (1915 Catholic Directory, p. 8 6 7 ) . There was also a chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe, but no further recognition of Spanish-speaking needs i n the area. In the years that followed, the dioceses of Los Angeles and San Diego made much greater use of Spanish-speaking clergy than the dioceses i n New Mexico and Arizona. In 1954 Burma stated that "there are seventeen fMexican f Catholic churches i n Los Angeles." In the Catholic Directory of i 960 none of them was specified to be a national parish (and national labels had not been abandoned i n the archdiocese), but they could a l l be identified either by their names, Cristo Rey, Our Lddy of Guadalupe,etc., or by the names of at least part of the serving clergy. The Catholic church i n California thus -1024- became belatedly more of a force for the preservation of Spanish than i n the other border states. I t was perhaps not so powerful a force as i t would have been i f the Mexicans had been more often practitioners as well as believers • The schooling of Mexicans has given rise to problems similar to those found elsewhere, problems i n school attendance and i n segregation. Since the Second World War court action has done away with overt segregation, but i n 1963 preponderance of Mexicans i n certain schools was recognized when a law was passed requiring teachers of Mexicans to know Spanish. In that year, according to the San Jose Mercury-News (14 July), one tenth of the elementary school enrollment was made up of Mexicans; they furnished one half of the drop-outs (Fishman1 s study recorded this fact i n the preliminary edition, III , 107. Similar material F310.) Social organizations among Mexicans i n California have originated more fre­ quently and have perhaps been more evanescent than i n other states. Early labor organization impressed the public (Bo 41). The general California ambiance encouraged experimentation and quick change of mind. This same t r a i t has made for sharper contrasts i n rates of Engl-izing, which i n some places has advanced rapidly with more than usually sharp contrasts between the gene­ rations, while i n others i t lagged. 89*63 Los Angeles was founded as a pueblo, not a mission, i n 1780. There were 70 families there i n 1800, less than 3>000 persons i n 1846. Soon thereafter, the Anglos became important i n the town. By 1880 the population had increased to 11,183. In 1883 Bishop could s t i l l say, ,fThe Mexican ele- must be something like one third of the entire population. In the Spanish town*, •Sonora1, the recollection of Mexico i s revived, but a very shabby, provincial Mexico,, (Bi 426). He treats San Gabriel as a separate community and remarks that " a l l the signs are i n Spanish11 (Bi 442). With the boom of the I880 fs -1025- the presence of Mexicans was largely obscured. They were not decreasing i n numbers, but were being overwhelmed by Anglo newcomers. The inhabitants num­ bered about 50,000 i n 1890, about 100,000 i n 1900. Clark fs report of 1907 on schooling i n Los Angeles notes bad attendance and dropping out as usual among Mexicans after the second grade. The informant was sympathetic and understood the causes — the usual ones, allowing for adjustment to urban conditions. "Mexican children are rather studious by nature, but those i n Los Angeles are hampered by poor home conditions^ *.. They give no trouble, and their only d i f f i c u l t y comes from the aggressions of a rougher class of white pupils" (CI 509)• Clark also indicates that there was some appreciation of opportunity. "One old laborer i n Los Angeles, who was signing a pay r o l l , said his children had taught him to write, adding i n Spanish: f I f l l never go back to Old Mex­ ico, because I have five children i n the public school 1 ** (03^10). McWilliams attributes the sites of Mexican colonias i n Los Angeles and i t s neighborhood largely to railroad activity. "As early as 1900 the Southern Pacific was regularly employing 4,500 Mexicans on i t s lines i n California. By 1906 the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe were importing as many as two or three oarloads of cholos a week to Southern California.... Wherever a r a i l ­ road labor camp was established, a Mexican colonia exists today. For example, the Mexican settlement i n Watts — called Ta.jarita by the Mexicans — dates from the importation of a carload of cholos i n 1906. While the lines were be­ ing b u i l t , the cholos lived i n box cars and tents. Later the company b u i l t row houses.... Thirty or forty such camps are s t i l l to be found i n Los An­ geles county" (NM I69). McWilliams i n 19^ 9 gave 385*000 a s the Mexican popu­ lation of Los Angeles County. As regards Mexicans within the city, i t could be said i n 1930 that "the older section of Los Angeles, around and east of the Plaza, i s a di s t i n c t l y Mexican settlement. Spanish i s the language commonly -1026- heard, the signs i n the shops are i n Spanish, the goods on sale are dis­ t i n c t l y for Mexicans, and the moving picture theaters show only Spanish t i t l e s " (MF 177 Industrial development here was already imminent and came about later. Another important colonia i s that at Belvedere comparatively close to the Old City on the east. Carey McWilliams wrote i n 1948: "With a Mexican popu­ lation of f i f t y thousand i n the middle twenties 045,000 i n 1930 by MF 177] th e Belvedere section has a population today, mostly Mexican, of around 180,000. A c i t y i n size, i t i s s t i l l governed by remote control as an unincorporated area" (NM 224). He describes particularly the colonia i n Chaves ravine, and what he has to say of i t , f i t s very c l o s e l y i n the Dodge City, Kansas, Mexican " v i l l a g e at the time that he was writing (see 47 .76 i n Vol. 110. For a simi­ la r description of Belvedere, see MF 178). A great many people i n various colonias were subject to these l i v i n g conditions, unqualifiedly bad, but calculated to produce group unity and consequently aid i n the conservation of Spanish. In the 1960 f s the Mexican population of the area surpassed 800,000. Hostility to Mexicans in Los Angeles has been strong i n spite of a flour­ ished cult for the old Spanish days, and this attitude, which had i t s strongest m a n i f e s t a t i o n on the occasion of the Zoot Suit Riots of the 1 9 4 0 f s , also tends to keep Mexicans together and to preserve their language. The s p i r i t of change that characterizes Los Angeles, however, militates against conservation; aged Mexicans i n other states who report that they have children i n Los Angeles a l ­ most always add that their grandchildren there know l i t t l e Spanish or none, while grandchildren elsewhere are sometimes p r o f i c i e n t . The incidence of Spanish, though, i s greater than the preceding sentence indicates because families that disseminate i n this manner are those least conservativejlinguisti- cally as well as otherwise. Observations made i n Belvedere i n late December 1967 showed a great de­ gree of bilingualism. The Claretian church, which i n the Catholic directory i s entitled "Our Lady of Solitude (La Soledad)1*, bore one sign reading "Our Lady of Solitude" and another proclaiming that i t i s "La Soledad Church." The quarters of "El Club Social Gomez Palacio" carried posters with dance an­ nouncements a l l i n Spanish and with bordering advertisements mostly i n English. At the CYO center a display of snapshots had a l l labels i n English. Some children and many adolescents were frequently speaking Spanish, particularly teen-age boys, but on a school play ground even i n those days of Christmas vacation a l l speech was i n English. A nine-year-old g i r l said that she played i n English, but talked Spanish with her mother. One of the Claretians, born i n Los Angeles i n 1931 of a father native of Texas and of a mother who came from Mexico, said that as a child he had answered his parents i n English and had mastered Spanish only after he became a priest. As he talked, he greeted a passer-by i n Spanish and said his farewells to a thirty-year-old woman i n English. (At a neighboring bakery another woman of the same age was mono- lingually Spanish.) At the church there were two masses i n English and six in Spanish. Children brought to a Spanish mass spoke English afterward. I t was d i f f i c u l t for them to t e l l the content of any sermon that they had heard i n Spanish. The old throughout the neighborhood, and there were many, con­ versed i n Spanish only, and often had trouble expressing even simple ideas i n English. In the 1940fs and 1950fs at least, a jargon or cant with sources i n both languages and i n the inventive faculties of i t s speakers existed among youth­ f u l Los Angeles gangs (Bu 118). Teen-age Mexicans are l i k e l y to have a strong Spanish accent while speaking English. Industry i n 19&3 w a s also -1028- bringing i n fresh Mexican blood, partly braceros to l i v e i n compounds with "domestics;" The "domestics" i n these industries were partly late immigrants who knew no English. They were employed i n common with American-born able to speak English. The effect was more preservative of Spanish than contribu­ tory to Engl-izing. At Monrovia or* t>?e northeast edge of greater Los Angeles , i t was usual i n 1962 for the Mexicans who came i n to work on estates there to leave negotiations with Anglos or with negroes to a leader l i n g u i s t i c a l l y f i t t e d to speak for them. Some of the Mexicans there were quite recent ar­ ri v a l s , young but inexpert i n English. 89#64 To the west of Los Angeles» there are spots where Mexicans are numerous. In 1917 Espinosa remarked on the English borrowing i n the Spanish of Santa Barbara where, he said, there had been "a strong Spanish community since the early part of the eighteenth century" (EP 408). Among other communities i s Oxnard, population 38,500 i n I960, by one estimate half Mexican. E l Rio, two or three miles away, was older with early Mexican inhabitants. Oxnard was established i n I898 as a sugar beet town. The beets attracted many Mexi- and remained important i n the town's economy, though truck gardening i n ­ creased i n importance. In 1915» when the population of the town was ap­ proaching 4,000, the single parish had separate parochial schools for Anglos (who here include many Germans) and Mexicans (enrollment 154 and 6 2 ) . In 1948 and I 9 6 0 , there were s t i l l the two schools (in 1948 488 and 175; i n I960: 916 and 175). But i n i 9 6 0 , the larger school had accepted about 10$ Mexicans, who were well integrated with the other pupils. In these years, there were two churches whose people were fundamentally Mexican, Christ the King staffed with Missionaries of the Holy Ghost, whose ijtotherhouse i s i n Mexico City, and i t s Mission, Our Lady of Guadalupe. There was also a Catholic high school, but a great many Mexicans were going to the public high school. -1029- A seventy-year-old man born i n Mexico who had been i n Oxnard forty years said that a l l his children spoke Spanish and used i t at home (evidently at least i n his presence), but about half of his thirty-two grandchildren knew or used no Spanish. Some of their f acer s were Anglos. The behavior observed among high school students t a l l i e d w i t h this statement. 89*65 San Bernardino, east of Los Angeles, was a rancho t i l l the Mormons founded a town there i n 1851. By 1930, i t numbered 35t000 people; i n i 9 6 0 , about 91 ,000. As elsewhere i n California, the Mexicans born i n San Bernardino were joined by immigrants from Mexico beginning about 1900. The inhabitants of San Bernardino born i n Mexico numbered 888 i n 1910, 1,989 i n 1920, 2,244 i n 1930. Many came as children; by 1948, 57$ of the foreign-born Mexicans had arrived before age 20; 37$ were young children (TR 6 9 ) . The Southern Pacific ran i t s line three miles to the south of San Bernardino, but the Santa Fe i n 1885 made i t a division point. Though prosperous i n part because of agricultural production close by, San Bernardino i s s t i l l a Santa Fe town. As such, i t s Mexicans almost a l l came from the part of Mexico supplying the Santa Fe, that i s , from the central plateau of Mexico (TR 6 5 ) . Ruth D. Tuck christened i t Descanso, and 1946 published Not with the Fist» which studied the conditions of the Mexicans i n the town. The t i t l e implies that i t i s a work of popular propaganda and so i t i s , but at the same time i t i s founded on sc i e n t i f i c i n ­ vestigation, and the zeal of the propagandist hardly penetrates into the areas of most interest to us. What excites Miss Tuck*s regret i s that "when no cr i s i s exists, he [the Mexican] i s forgotten." She pleads for attention to him. As she describes i t , the attitude of San Bernardino toward i t s Mexican inhabitants i s rather contemptuous indifference than h o s t i l i t y . It i s not greatly different from the attitude elsewhere, Kansas included, especially i n railroad towns. Merchants were glad enough to secure Mexican trade, and -1030- some took the linguistic measures necessary for fulsome advertising and making sales (TR 104), The general attitude was, as always, that English should rig h t f u l l y be used. Spanish, lik e skin color, was a mark of i n f e r i o r i t y . The[ use of Spanish ranked foremost, far above a l l other reasons given by Anglo- Americans, as a cause of f r i c t i o n between the populations. "You go to Woolworth's after school, 9 1 said a housewife, "and you might as well be i n a foreign country. A l l those l i t t l e g i r l s chattering Spanish, when you know they fve been educated i n our public schools" (TR 97)• There are two Mexican quarters i n San Bernardino, a smaller one i n the south part of town and a much larger one i n the west. An o f f i c i a l l y segregated school existed i n the south d i s t r i c t t i l l 19^4. Only de facto segregation has ever reigned for the elementary schools i n the west section; there the Mexicans provided a l l the pupils. Junior high school brought Mexicans and Anglos together. "Most of our playground fights," said a junior high school principal, "between the two groups start because Mexican boys were speaking Spanish i n a mixed group. The others, because they don't understand, are sure they are being insulted" (TR 97)• Of course there were also fights when the Anglos did understand and were not expected to do so. The Mexicans explained to Miss Tuck their persistence i n the use of Spanish as caused by the need to express things impossible to express i n English — at least not i n their English and not with an appropriate emotional background. " fYou can say so many more things i n Spanish! 1 'Personal things [in English]... sound flowery and insincere!..•* 'Yes, I'm bilingual,' said a e x c e l l e n t Mexican merchant, who speaks*English with only the faintest accent, 'but only i n a sense. For business yes, and for many other occasions. Bit when I want to relax, to be at ease to express myself f u l l y , precisely, and with variety, I must do i t i n Spanish* " (TR 98). S t i l l the Spanish of these people, even of immigrants, was badly anglicized (TR 111, 118). Also, -1031- "the group which i s most repeeted and admired i n the colonia i s noted f o r i t s decided command of American x-rays 11 (TR 158) , i n spite of an undercurrent of resentment against them for desertion, caused, the others f e l t , by greed for money. In 1948, Miss Tuck d i d not attribute a great deal of influence to the padre of the Mexican community. As she saw i t , he was generally re­ spected as a man, but supported as a leader only when he voiced an opinion generally received. He had, she said, been most effective i n helping i n action "establishing the right of American citizens of Mexican descent to use Descanso's public plungef# (TR 156) . This padre, says Carey McWilliams, was "the Rev. R. N. Nunez" (NM 282) . Joseph R. Nunez was i n 1948 pastor of our Lady of Guadalupe i n San Bernardino; he had two assistant priests bearing Spanish names. The pastor of the Church of Christ the King also bore a Spanish name. Our Lady of Guadalupe also had a school with 200 pupils and served two missions. The Catholic establishment seems to have been larger and more vigorous than Miss Tuck realized. She suggests that "visiting missionary fathers, Anglo-Americans" had given the padre intelligent assistance. "The public c l i n i c for children conducted by a missionary sisterhood, has been a success­ f u l innovation" (TR 156). Father Nunez, says Mis** Tuck ;"is Mexican-born, and, though a naturalized American citizen expresses himself with d i f f i c u l t y i n English.... fA good man, such a good man111 (TR 154) . In I 9 6 0 , the two priests serving Christ the King both bore Spanish names; Father Nunez was s t i l l pastor of Our Lady of Guadalupe with three assistants, only one of whom bore a Spanish name. The non-Spanish character of the other two names suggest that Engl-izing was taking place. The school then had 411 pupils; no missions. There was a Spanish language paper i n Ruth Tuck*s Descanso. Its editor was not sanguine of the future, predicting that most of i t s news i n ten years would be i n English (TR 115)• The Mexicans did not read i t too often , finding i t a derivative of the English language papers, heedless or uncon­ scious of i t s editorial importance (TR 165). In 1948 i n San Bernardino the Anglo streets nearer the larger Mexican quarter contained some Mexi­ can inhabitants, but at that time i t was easier for Mexicans to find pur­ chasable property i n well-to-do parts of town than i n those where the Anglo inhabitants were less well off. In I962 the Mexicans made up less than a third of the town's population. An Anglo informant stated, " A l l the Mexicans know English, but Spanish i s i n their blood. 1 1 At Beaumont, California, 25 miles southeast of San Bernardino, the Church of San Gorgonio (called St. Gorgonius i n 1915) had pastors with non- SDanish names i n 1915> 1948, and I960. Here the church served a l l Catholics. Ten of the 54 who gave $5 at Easter, 1962, bore Spanish names. In a block on a well-to-do street ne$r the church, Mexicans lived i n two houses. They habitually spoke English and were accepted by their neighbors — so said the neighbors. The Mexican quarter was farther east. •66 Indio i s 75 miles from the Mexican border and the same distance from the nearest point on the coast, approximately the same from San Bernardino. I t i s i n the midst of an oasis i n the desert. It began as a railroad construc­ tion camp i n the 1880*s. In 196&, i t s population was about 9*100. It had not yet acquired a Catholic church i n 1915• In I 9 6 0 , there was s t i l l but one. Its priests i n 1948 and i 9 6 0 , two i n number, were Iris h . There was no school i n 1948; i n i 96 0 the school taught 202 pupils; the five School Sisters of Notre Dame were not Spanish-speaking. Notes taken i n 1962 at the time of dispersal after a f i r s t communion give an accurate notion of the use of Spanish among the people on this occasion. Almost but not quite every one -1033- present was Mexican. Spanish was the language i n general use, particularly between adults. A group of teen-age g i r l s were mixing English and Spanish. Edward E. (Mexican, about 15) reported that about half of his high school class was Spanish-speaking. He spoke Spanish with those his age unless there were Anglos about, but many Anglos were trying to learn Spanish, and he mixed the two languages. Among older Mexicans he said that there were many who knew no English. —Mrs. D (Mexican, about 30) said that her grand­ parents had come from Mexico and later returned, but that her mother had remained i n the United States (the inference was that a father had not counted for much i n her l i f e ) . She had a slight accent when speaking English and said that she used Spanish a great deal because she was usually at home, that her sister, aged about 22, used English most of the time. But her sister, on coming up, addressed her i n Spanish and Mrs. D. answered her i n English. The two conversed i n English with an older man (Mexican) across the street. Mrs. D reported that there were many Arizonans there; no Californians of nineteenth century stock. —A boy and g i r l of high school age were speaking English together. —Two g i r l s , aged about eight, were using English i n a car where a mother and grandmother were. — Three womei^ aged about thirty, talking Spanish got into another car. —One of the nuns passed with a mother and two young daughters. The mother was speaking English with the others, but i t evidently required an effort. —A group taking pictures were speaking Spanish, except that the nun who was with them spoke English with a German accent. As she l e f t , one of the Mexican boys called after her i n English with a typical American accent. At Palm Desert, ten miles westward, where dates are grown, there were no resident Mexicans, but the Mexicans came as date harvesters during November and December. Many of them were braceros; i n 1962 a l l used Spgiish as nearly exclusively as was possible when Anglos were employing them. -±0>f- 89*67 The Imperial Valley began to be developed i n the f i r s t years of the twentieth century, and there were a certain number of Mexicans i n i t from the start. They became more numerous beginning i n 1910, but i t was not u n t i l 1917 that they were a truly important element i n the Valley's labor supply. A decade later, Paul S. Taylor undertook to survey conditions among Mexicans there. Except for a number of business men i n the border town of Calexico and clerks i n the stores catering to Mexicans (T71 f f ) they were laborers, most importantly i n intensive cultivation farming, producing melons, truck crops and cotton. In 1927 when Taylor wrote, cotton after great expansion was compar­ atively i n the doldrums, but i t s importance has see^sawed since. The housing of Mexican seasonal workers was i n many places more primitive than any reported elsewhere. The climate made the necessity of protection from cold minimal; therefore, screening from the sun and more or less from the wind along an irrigation ditch which furnished the water supply was often the only measure taken to provide f i e l d residence. In off seasons the work­ ers collected i n the Valley towns, most notably Brawley. Housing there was s t i l l primitive. But agglomeration led to beginnings of organization (T62), evanescent though i n character, and agricultural strikes had already taken place (T53-54). Education played l i t t l e part i n the Mexican population's l i f e . The families needed the income from the children, and the farmers were more anzious to see their work done than school attendance laws enforced (T 75)• Violent fluctuations i n attendance occurred, handicapping among other things the linguistic adjustment of Mexicans. Segregated schools early came into existence, i n Brawley i n 1914 (T 84). In spite of these handicaps, Taylor observed that "through the schools Mexican children are learning English, cleanliness and the rudiments of an education. It i s said to be more common for young Mexicans to speak English now than i t was a few years ago" (T89)» Community attitudes toward Mexicans were no more friendly than elsewhere, perhaps less so (T 83) • Mexicans who became Ameri­ canized had few friends; they were shunned by both Mexicans and Anglos . But the economic importance of the Mexicans was recognized because their serv­ ices brought them into direct contact with much of the other population. In 1927, the population of Imperial County was about 54,500 of whom 20,000 were Mexicans. Of 6, 217 Mexicans registered with the Associated Labor Bureau of Imperial Valley i n that year, 43.7$ came from nearby northwestern coast states, 46$ from the central plateau states and the exit of those states to the north (Durango, Chihuahua) (T 20). To the United States as a whole, the West Coast states of Mexico furnished only 7*4$ of the immigrants. The d i f ­ ference i n provenience of the Mexicans made no difference i n their problems, which were the same i n the Imperial Valley as elsewhere. In 1915* Catholic organization was just beginning i n the Imperial Valley. In 1948, there were several churches; none of their pastors had a Spanish name and only Our Lady of Guadalupe at E l Centro indicated by i t s name that i t was for Mexicans. In I960, the situation was the same except that one of the two priests at St. Margaret Mary's i n Brawley bore a Spanish name. In I962 at Our Lady of Guadalupe i n E l Centro, masses were l i s t e d bilingually, the program of H l a Semana Santa11 was i n Spanish, and the notice of catechism classes was i n English. This evidence of the Engl-izing of children corresponded to performance among them. They mixed English and Spanish. People of re­ producing age often spoke English badly, but their pre-school children did better, though habitually using Spanish. E l Centro was i n 1962 not at i t s most prosperous stage as regards the size of i t s Mexican population. Closed Spanish business houses indicated as much. The use of braceros explains -1036- the situation. The employment of braceros had encouraged farmers to learn Spanish. Though Mexicans have i n recent years furnished practically a l l the foreign immigrants i n the Valley, Orientals (Japanese, Hindus, Filipinos) were there early. The Japanese and Hindus learned both English and Spanish. In Calexico on the border i n 1962, almost everybody habitually spoke Spanish because there were few Anglos there. However, everybody knew or desired to know English. The parochial schools (525 i n grade school, 112 i n high school i n i960) had a majority of pupils from across the border i n Mexicali, because their parents wished them to learn English. 89.68 San Diego (i960 population about 550,000) after i t s early establishment, was certain to keep something of i t s Spanish character because of i t s prox­ imity to Mexico. But no more has remained than i n the other urban centers of California. The Mexicans are there (10,000 out of 150,000 i n 1930), but overwhelmed i n the urban population. In the agricultural sections of San Diego County, they play a larger part, hard to estimate i n terms of numbers of people, for many, as elsewhere, prefer to l i v e more cheaply south of the border, especially those who have American citizenship, and hence no problem of re-entry. The Anglo invasion may be judged i n part by develop­ ments i n the Catholic church. The pastor of the only parish from 1866 to 1907 was Anthony Ubach, born i n Catalonia. In 1900, he had two Irish as­ sistants. In 1936, the c i t y became the see of a diocese. In 1948, i t contained 24 parishes, i n i960, 28. Of these, only Our Lady of Guadalupe was frankly Spanish; i n i960, one of the two priests at Christ the King bore a Spanish name, the other, an Italian. The school of Our Lady of Guadalupe had 260 pupils i n 1948, 466 i n i960. The Writers Project Guide of 1939 (p.259) reported the Mexicans as flMost of them clinging to their own lan­ guage. 11 In 1962, an employee of a chain supermarket said that the Mexicans -1037- came to the store i n groups with very few able to speak English. The one of their number chosen as interpreter often spoke an English d i f f i c u l t to understand; i t would be a great advantage to know Spanish. There are, how­ ever, persons with Spanish names who know no Spanish. The explanation of this situation l i e s i n continuing immigration. Farmers weill sponsor as im­ migrants men who have served them well as braceros. These men soon leave agricultural work for better paying jobs; and before their English i s well- developed, they may leave San Diego for s t i l l more pay farther north. On the farms i n southern San Diego County, the dependence on Spanish monolin- guals i s such that employers learn Spanish a few years after their own a r r i v a l . At Escondido i n the northern part of the county, there were i n 1962, a few young Mexicans unable to speak Spanish, but the young were almost a l l bilingual, though some spoke only rudimentary English. The tendency toward assimila­ tion was manifest i n the dress and carriage of young Mexicans there. •69 Two types of Mexican experience elsewhere i n California merit remark. In the middle decades of the nineteenth century the old settlements did not lose their Mexican character rapidly. Bishop said i n 1883: "Monterey has a population which s t i l l , i n considerable part, speaks Spanish only. I t re­ tains the impress of Spanish domination, and l i t t l e else" (Bi 365)• In 1962 i n spots i n southern Califorria where neither industry nor agriculture has been too completely revolutionizing i n i t s effect, the old California could s t i l l be found with so l i t t l e admixture of late comers that they may be singled out. San Juan Capistrano i s such-a spot. In 1962, Mr. H. said that his father was a German gardner, who spoke English to his wife. She, of old California blood, could understand him, but spoke no English. Young H., born about 1904, grew up bilingual, married Spanish, and his three sons and one daugh­ ter learned Spanish, but not a l l his grandchildren did. The experience seemed -1038- typical of the community. At Elsinore over the mountains to the east, the old Spanish element and the Anglos seemed completely assimilated. A great deal of seasonal labor i s used i n the San Joaquin Valley farther north* San Jose, closer to San Francisco, has attained a notable Mexican colony as a wintering retreat* Margaret Clark (CH 5^ -59) gives an excellent analysis of the linguistic situation about 1959? including Engl-izing i n the colonia on the east edge of San Jose i n 1955• Her most succinct statement i s : "Viewed as a whole, the population of Sal s i puedes i s evenly divided i n terms of home language; half speak only Spanish and half are bilingual. Of those who speak only Spanish at home, some know enough English to be able to communicate f a i r l y well i n English; this brings the proportion of bilinguals i n the neighborhood up to two-thirds of the t o t a l population, as compared with one-third who speak no English at a l l " (CH 55)• The presence of Mexican laborers i n the San Joaquin valley was a characteristic that began early. In 1883 Bishop said: "At Visalia [some 200 miles north of Los Angeles]... f i r s t observed "Spanishtown,* a community which begins to appear regularly alongside •Chinatown1 as we go southward. I t i s composed of persons of Mexi­ can blood, poor, shiftless" (Bi 402). The treatment of Mexicans i n the Valley averages somewhat better than elsewhere for those who remain as permanent residents. It was not, hox*ever, satisfactory; a two year strike of grape gatherers i n the earlfer 1960fs extracted some sort of terms from the growers, but militant dissatisfaction has continued. Braceros were employed i n this region also. In general braceros have been described as indifferent to the acquisition of English since their stay i n California was short, but those who have hacjbracero experience and re-enter as immigrants show an immediate desire to acquire English. Even during the short bracero stay, those who tend toward leadership often pick up English rapidly so as to act as intermediaries between their fellow and their employers. Jesus Topete, a youth brought up i n the c i t y of Guadalajara, employed west of Stockton, California^in 1944, was an example of this type, even becoming a leader i n a strike against contract infractions (To 118 f f ) . Bracero experience with discrimination against Mexicans i s limited by the o f f i c i a l character of their transport and manipulation. Topete refers to places which only socialites could patronize. I f he had f e l t that he was excluded simply because he was a Mexican, he would have said so ; he was writing for a Mexican audience and shows no disposition to hide Anglo faults. His sense of discrimination was per­ haps dulled because on a short vacation i n San Francisco (To 84 f f ) he put on an American uniform and was accepted wherever he wanted to go (To 89); he clearly knew that clothes were a means of escaping social classification, but thought that he was being classed by something other than his complexion. He had already acquired enough English to be readily acceptable i n the polyglot c i t y . He was thoroughly dis­ gusted with the "poehos" among whom he included a l l Mexicans born i n California. Mexi­ can g i r l s came out to work at the potato picking with the braceros. Probably they thought that they were "kidding" harmlessly, but Topete was repulsed by their r a i l l e r y One of them, probably attracted to him, asked "why he was so proud as not to come talk to them." Her approach unleashed his tongue. He told her, "The Gringos think you are Mexican g i r l s , and perhaps you think so too sometimes; you talk i n fake-Gringa- English to any Mexican you meet, and, according to me, you don't speak English be­ cause, though I don't know much, I see that much, and you don't talk Spanish be­ cause what you c a l l Spanish i s a mess of words from pickpockets' slang and of terms used on the most remote ranches i n the Mexican mountains" (To 51-52). He was much more i n sensed one day by the woman who cooked for the gang. She had bfeen b o r j i i n Eng­ land and on this continent had gone through the depression with many hardships and nearly as many husbands. She and Topete were on friendly terms, and he asked her why she did not t r y to learn a l i t t l e Spanish. She told him "that she had no desire to descend so far as to express herself i n such a low and vulgar Inguage used only by uneducated people" (To 64). -1040 89.70 In Colorado, Mexicans were a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e r s e a r l i e r than anyone else. Ifhis was to the west of the Front Range of the Rockies, near the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. They were also as early as any one important on the east side of these southern mountains, as indicated by the names Pueblo and Trinidad. Much l a t e r they became important i n the northeast when sugar beets took over the South Platte drainage basin; from there they wintered i n Denver and became numerous. F i n a l l y there developed along the Arkansas River i n the southeast a lesser beet region, closely connected with the Garden City sugar d i s t r i c t i n Kansas. Each of these regions i s hereafter treated as a separate unit. A small beet region near Grand Junction i s not treated. 89.71 New Mexicans coming up the Rio Grande established San Luis, 13 miles above the present border, and about:that distince east of the r i v e r , i n 1851. In the early 1840 Ts, large land grants had been made by the Mexican government; they occupied most of the southern two counties on each side of the r i v e r (BH 431). These grants were l a t e r subject to the t i t l e manipulation of Anglos using the same ta c t i c s as i n New Mexico and southern C a l i f o r n i a . When i n 1867 Colorado Ts governor acquired a claim to the Sangre de Cristo grant from the mountains to the Rio Grande, 1100 of the 1200 inhabitants upon i t were Hispanos (BH 431). Farther west across the ri v e r there were 2000 inhabitants mostly Mexican (BH 432) i n 1868. U n t i l the beginning of the 1870 fs, the Mexicans occupied the San Luis Valley without much competition. Del Norte, Anglo i n o r i g i n despite itsmme, was founded i n 1872 as a base for miners and prospectors. The Denver and Rio Grande Railroad came over the mountains i n 1877-8 and Alamosa was founded, Monte Vist a a few years l a t e r . Monte V i s t a and Alamosa have strong but not dominant Hispano elements i n the population; they are on the northern f r o n t i e r of the firmly Hispano area. Del Norte has an attenuated Hispano character. In 1962 o f f i c i a l s i n the government employment o f f i c e estimated that i n C o s t i l l a County where San Luis i s , 80% of the population was Hispano, 60% across the r i v e r to the west i n Conejos County, ju s t north i n Alamosa County 60%; west of Alamosa County, Rio Grande County, has 40%, more to the east (Monte Vista) than to the west (Del Norte). Saguache County, north of the l a s t two, was half Hispano, — most inhabitants here are i n the San Luis Valley, much more land i s mountainous. The deep-rooted Hispano character of C o s t i l l a County i s further indicated by the fact that the archdiocese of Santa Fe retained i t s Catholics u n t i l after 1900. A l l Colorado had been assigned to the v i c a r i a t e apostolic (later diocese) of Denver i n 1868, but this area continued to be i n charge of the parish of C o s t i l l a j u s t over the border i n New Mexico. Unlike most parishes under the archbishop, i t had a priest with a Spanish name i n 1900, J . S. Garcia. In 1915 he was s t i l l serving C o s t i l l a County, but he had been transferred to the Denver diocese and resided at San Luis. Conejos County across the r i v e r was during these years i n charge of Jesuits stationed at the town of Conejos. Their personnel i n part bore Spanish names. By 1948 the Theatine Fathers were i n charge of Conejos, serving i t from i t s very near neighbor Antonito, and of San Luis. The Theatines i n part had Spanish names. Alamosa County was not created from the surrounding counties u n t i l 1926. The town of Alamosa was o r i g i n a l l y i n Conejos County, but i t early had enough Anglo character to separate i t from other settlements. U n t i l after 1915 i t was served from Del Norte where the Jesuits did not bear Spanishmmes. The names of the priests i n these two towns i n 1948 and 1960 were not Spanish either. -1042- In the early years of the twentieth century education i n th i s area was handled somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y from the treatment i n New Mexico. Espinosa wrote i n 1911: "In Colorado, since long ago, the law of the state requires that i n the School d i s t r i c t s where the majority of the children are of Spanish parentage, the teacher must know both Spanish and English and may teach them to read i n Spanish 1 1 (EH 18). Concerning English he adds: " A l l are learning i t and very quickly." Clark i n 1907 conveys sim i l a r testimony: "An educational o f f i c e r , who himself spoke Spanish f l u e n t l y , whose duties made him f a m i l i a r with conditions i n the southern part of Colorado, said that . . . while formerly i t was comparatively rare to meet a person of Mexican race who spoke English, i t was now rare to meet a young "Mexican" who was not f a m i l i a r with that language" (CI 522). The s o c i a l and l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n of the country to the south of Monte Vista and Alamosa i s so much l i k e that i n New Mexico that i t i s here presented by the same method. 89.72 The Hispanos of the San Luis Valley (1962) SAN LUIS (population 1950 — 1,239). Everybody on the streets including many high school students just leaving classes was speaking Spanish. MKS, G, (aged 50; Hispano postmistress) Everybody here i s descended from f i r s t pioneers. When her daughter comes from college, the family speaks less Spanish; when her mother comes from Denver they speak only Spanish. This grandmother understands English but does not speak i t . Generally, everybody i s b i l i n g u a l , though there are some Hispano children who unfortunately know no Spanish. 1043- MANASSA (population 1950 — 832) i s 32 road miles west of San Luis and west of the Rio Grande. I t i s at least half Anglo. ROMEO (404) 3 miles farther on i s only one-fourth Anglo. Mrs. M. (aged 25, Hispano store clerk and postal employee). P r a c t i c a l l y everybody speaks Spanish. School children tend to play i n English even when they return home (she spoke English to a small Hispano child:who arrived with a note to make a purchase). She herself learned English before going to school, which was then unusual. She spent much time with an aunt who, unlike her mother, often used English. The implication i s that the generation born i n the early twenties began using English more frequently. ALAMOSA (population 1950 — 5354 , on Rio Grande, 30 miles from New Mexico) Mr. C. and Mr. M. (both^Hispanos, aged 40 and 37, the employment o f f i c i a l s c i t e d above) 90% of the Hispanos are b i l i n g u a l . Many children are imperfect i n knowledge of Spanish especially i n town. Many Anglos and a few Japanese learn Spanish. 1200 to 1400 braceros are brought i n to work with vegetables. Mr. W. (Anglo former resident, aged 40, p r o f i c i e n t i n Spanish; seen elsewhere). There has been no preaching for some time i n Spanish at Alamosa. The church notices were i n English, 85% of the names appearing on them were Spanish. Spanish services i n near-by towns. At Monte Vi s t a u^p r i v e r , 3,272 inhabitants i n 1950J the si t u a t i o n i s s i m i l a r to that at Alamosa except that here the Hispano Catholics are i n town while there they are i n the country. FORT GARLAND (Population 500, 25 miles east of Alamosa, 16 north of San Luis ) . Mrs. M. (Hispano, aged 50) learned some English before going to school. Her s i x grandchildren who l i v e with her play i n English. -1044. 89.73 East of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Mexicans were present among the trappers and traders before true settlement began. On the s i t e of Pueblo i n 1842, there were "ten or twelve Americans, most of whom are married to Mexican women" (BH 430, quoting Sage). Indians drove them away l a t e r . In 1859 the s i t e was reoccupied and became known as Pueblo. This was the year of the f i r s t gold rush. Mexicans played only an obscure part i n the quest of the precious metals, but, other mining, p a r t i c u l a r l y for coal, has occupied them, as w e l l as dependent smelting and the iron and s t e e l m i l l s of Pueblo. "The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company established i n Pueblo i n 1880, was largely responsible for making of that c i t y the 'Pittsburgh of the West1 " (BH 467). The coal came mainly from farther south, from Walsenburg and Trinidad. A l l these towns attracted many of the "New Immigration" from Europe, and Pueblo eventually had a large element of Mexicans from Mexico, but i n Walsenburg and Trinidad the core of the workers were Hispanos from New Mexico, and they have been the ones to c l i n g to these towns as coal mining has subsided. The s i t u a t i o n i s more or less depicted by the character of the Catholic parishes. In 1900 at Pueblo's St. Patrick's, there was a superintendent and a pastor, both Jesuits with German names; another Jesuit was "pastor for I t a l i a n s and Mexicans". — he served the Mexicans i n a separate chapel. St. Mary's was for Slovaks and Slovenians, St. Boniface's for Germans. That was a l l . In 1915, there were separate churches for I t a l i a n s , Slovaks and Slovenians, but Mexicans had no such recognition, and there were no priests with Spanish names. In 1948 a l l national designations had been suppressed, and none of the clergy had a Spanish name. In 1960, one of t h e i r number did. In 1965 a teacher at the Catholic high school of Pueblo did not hear the Mexican students speaking Spanish and thought they "were very much against i t , but i t was not the same -1045- i n the c i t y high schools, 1 1 where apparently the gang s p i r i t was strong. Pueblo i s at the northern edge of the Spanish country. Walsenburg i s i n i t ; there 43 a i r miles from the New Mexican border, i n 1900 the Rev. Gabriel Ussel was the only p r i e s t ; besides his home parish, he served 3 missions and 7 stations, a l l but one i n l o c a l i t i e s bearing Spanish names. In 1915, the si t u a t i o n was s i m i l a r , but the parish then had a school with 350 pupils and two priests with I t a l i a n names. In 1948 the number of missions and stations was shrinking , and i n 1960 had been reduced to one; i n those years there were four p r i e s t s , three I r i s h , one Slav. In 1924 there were i n Huerfano County 32 coal mines producing 2,000,000 tons (BH 733); at Walsenburg there were 17,000 people; i n 1962 there was one mine and 7,000 inhabitants. The percentage of Spanish speakers dropped from 70% to 35%. The exodus was largely to Pueblo, Denver, and C a l i f o r n i a . Before the F i r s t World War the Hispanos were learning English and Spanish together. The next generation included some urbanites who did not learn Spanish. The children of 1962 were sometimes speaking Spanish, but usually preferring English. The Slavs had by no means disappeared. Trinidady 12 a i r miles from New Mexico, i n 1900 offered a Catholic s i t u a t i o n s i m i l a r to that i n Walsenburg, but expanded. The parish was staffed with f i v e J e s u i t s , one with a Spanish name and one with an I t a l i a n name. The missions and stations nemhered 27, twelve i n l o c a l i t i e s with Spanish names. In 1915 the Jesuits had increased to 7, with one, possibly two, bearing Spanish names. There was a separate church for I t a l i a n s . There were 27 missions and 7 stations. None of the l a t t e r were i n l o c a l i t i e s with Spanish names, 16 of the missions were located i n places with such names. The school of 1900 had increased from 250 to 400 pupils. I t had 645 enrollments i n 1948. The parish for I t a l i a n s was then designated as for "It a l i a n s and Spanish-Americans". The school had dropped to 408 i n 1960, and comparable shrinkage had taken place elsewhere. None of the Jesuits then had Spanish names. Trinidad, which i s i n somewhat better ranch country than Walsenburg and also a r a i l r o a d town, did not suffer i n the same way as regards population. In 1920 i t had 11,000 inhabitants, i n 1950 somewhat over 12,000. However, the great days of mining were past. In 1924 there had been 44 miiles i n the area producing 3,200,000 tons of cooking coal (BH 734). Three-fourths of the town i n 1962 was Hispano. The I t a l i a n s s t i l l were an element, between 5% and 10% of the population. Slavs were at one time numerous. The mature I t a l i a n s learned Spanish from t h e i r co-workers, but true Anglos disdained to do so. Except for a few old people everyone was able to speak English i n 1962 and there were a great many children who knew no other language. However, the Hispanos were conserving Spanish better than the European immigrants did t h e i r languages. A small cemetery s i x or seven miles up the valley to the west between Sopris and Cokedale contained only Spanish names. The language of i n scriptions was as follows: English 1900 - 09 0 1910 - 19 3 1920 - 29 2 No Spanish l a t e r ; s t i l l i n use. The ranch country on the plains to the east began to receive Anglo perma­ nent s e t t l e r s i n the early 1870 fs. They and the i r children learned Spanish, but the Hispanos on the ranches were largely Engl-ized i n 1962. Spanish % of Spanish 2 100% 7 30% 2 50% -1047- 89.74 Mexicans i n Denver grew strong in numbers during the 20th century. As a r a i l r o a d center and as a wintering area for beet workers i t early attracted many immigrants from Mexico. Later they were able to enter the economy more generally, p a r t i c u l a r l y working for the government and the municipality and i n h o s p i t a l s . The proportion of Hispanos to Old Mexicans and t h e i r descendants i s low enough so that they require no special attention. The Mexicans were not stable enough to obtain a separate church or regular mission before 1915. Some time l a t e r St. Cajetan's, a "Spanish American" parish, was established on the north edge of the down-town d i s t r i c t . Between 1948 and 1960 i t s serving p r i e s t s X a l l with Spanish names) increased from two to three, but i t s school declined in enrollment from 300 to 285. Dispersal into other parts of the c i t y , promoted by housing projects, was the explanation. In west Denver a mission of St. Cajetan's was operating in 1948; there were also many Mexicans to the southwest. The p r i e s t s of St. Cajetan's were in 1948 and 1960 serving Our Lady of Guadalupe in the north part of the c i t y , and i n the same area so many Mexicans had become parishioners of the I t a l i a n National parish of Our Lady of Mount Carmel that one of the three p r i e s t s serving that parish had between 1948 and 1960 been replaced by a man with a Spanish name. There was no preaching in Spanish there, but people went to confession in Spanish. In the schools of that neighborhood the Mexican children entering school about 1950 a l l knew a modicum of English, but many of them practiced i t so l i t t l e as they grew up that they arrived at maturity with strong accents. In the schools there was no e f f o r t to require the use of English -1048- outside of classes, and Mexican children both in grade school and high school h a b i t u a l l y spoke Spanish with each other developing a jargon d i f f e r i n g but s l i g h t l y from that ex i s t i n g i n Los Angeles. People with jobs, p a r t i c u l a r l y the men, exercised t h e i r English, but s t i l l i n 1966, la r g e l y with Anglos. In that year too, children of Mexican parentage often played together in Spanish, but shifted to English, when they were joined by non-Mexican youngsters. Anglos acquiring a b i l i t y to speak Spanish were rare, but in this neighborhood of I t a l i a n background many of the young learned to understand Spanish nearly as well as the language of th e i r parents. 89.75 Sugar-beet Mexicans i n Colorado are treated in some d e t a i l under Garden C i t y ( #47.22). The matter i s taken up under that heading because at that Kansas town as in Northeastern Colorado there i s a symbiosis of Mexicans and Volgans. (The Colorado sugar beet Mexicans are also the subject of b r i e f comment i n #57.93 and 57.94 which deal p a r t i c u l a r l y with Volgans.) In the present sections, considerations defining the si t u a t i o n of Mexicans in Colorado are presented. As noted above, the beet regions dealt with are two, the South Platte Valley i n northeastern Colorado and the Arkansas V a l l e y in the southeast. They d i f f e r i n several respects besides r e l a t i v e size (the northeast i s primary). The Hispanos, as contrasted to the workers from Old Mexico, are more important i n the north. Though they are here farther from their base, the l i n e s of com­ munication from south of Pueblo to north of Denver are good and the distance from Texas, whence the Old Mexicans came i s greater, a fact more important for the exi t a f t e r the beet harvest than for the a r r i v a l s ; i n the autumn the tendency to remain on or near the beet f i e l d s i s greater i n the north, p a r t i c u l a r l y , a f t e r the Second World War, among the Hispanos who prevailed s u f f i c i e n t l y i n some towns so that Anglos were w i l l i n g to c a l l the group Spanish i n the 1960's rather than Mexican. 76 The South Platte Valley and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those draining from the west, in 1927 was the source of one- t h i r d of the beet sugar produced in the United States. About three-fourths of the acreage devoted to beets, in Colorado was in this area (T 99). Nine sugar f a c t o r i e s were put into operation i n i t between 1900 and 1906. Mexicans appeared there i n 1900, as soon as sugar beets were sown, but t h e i r importance as seasonal help was not so great in the early days as l a t e r . The Volgans were then the main contract workers in the f i e l d rather than the Mexicans, but the Germans soon became growers. In 1909 they Were over h a l f of the hand workers; in 1927 less than a t h i r d . The Mexicans were one-tenth of this force i n 1909, well over a h a l f i n 1927 (T 107). In 1909 the Volgans were already one-sixth of the beet growers; i n 1927 they were 35% of the t o t a l . The Mexicans so classed had increased from .5% to 2.1% (T 187). The Volgans were rather infrequently the employers of Mexicans up to this time; they worked the i r own families. The mutual l i n g u i s t i c influence of these two non-English-speaking groups was less than might be expected. The f i r s t Spanish-speakers in the South Platte area were almost a l l Hispanos (T 104). They and those who followed came mainly from the coal mining towns just -1050- east of the Rockies (see #89.73). "In 1918 the f i r s t bulk shipments of Mexicans from Old Mexico were made when two t r a i n - loads were brought up from E l Paso . . . The Great Western Sugar Company the largest by far however, . . . extended i t s radius of shipments into Mew Mexico and so i s able to draw a large supply of Spanish Americans " (T 105). Taylor computed that in 1927 there were i n winter 11,000 Mexicans in the South P l a t t e area (T 109), h a l f of them i n Weld County, the large county which contains Greeley. In 1920 persons born i n Mexico i n t h i s area had numbered 1,658 (T 110) out of a t o t a l computed Mexican population of 3,1320 We are here dealing for both years with "permanent" residents. The Great Western Sugar Company did i t s best to r e t a i n workers in the beet area through the off-season (T 136, NM 181) because thus recruitment was easier. Its e f f o r t s were rewarded, i t would seem; at l e a s t s t e a d i l y from 1921 to 1927 wintering families increased from 537 to 2,084 (T 139). To promote continuing residence The Great Western Sugar Company made winter advances to the Mexicans (T 176). Beginning a month before thinning the farmer had to provide wages before service, and he had to be supported by banks. Permanent residence was a force for Engl-izing, for beet workers t i e d to a community had a better chance for ultimate assimilation i n every way. There was some shuttling between the beets and the coal mines, not only those mines discussed in the preceding section, but some closer at hand at E r i e and LaFayette, not twen­ ty miles north of Denver. Taylor noted that "opinions vary as to the r e l a t i v e merits of Mexican (from Old Mexico) and Spanish- -1051- American beet laborers" (T 151). Those least favored were the sons of immigrants. Favor was c l o s e l y related to d o c i l i t y . Farmers l i k e d workers who would do what they were to l d , and the most do c i l e were those with ingrained peon habits. It i s to be noted that there was no problem in the Mexicans' understanding d i r e c t i o n s . "In the v a l l e y of the South Platte the Mexicans are scattered during the beet season, usually a single family on a farm . . . The Colorado farmers r a r e l y speak Spanish. The r e s u l t i s noticeably; the Mexicans, even those but a comparatively short time in the United States, speak English better and more w i l l i n g l y than i n the Imperial Valley" (T 227). But b i l i n g u a l development was not swift. Tasks among the beets could well be shown by example rather than precept. Taylor found that "Mexican s o c i e t i e s i n the beet area of Colorado are neither strong nor numerous in membership" (T 184), not so powerful as i n C a l i f o r n i a ' s Imperial Valley. The explanation l i e s p a r t l y i n the mixture of New Mexicans and Old Mexicans. The two groups "don't get along too well" (T 214). The American G. I. Forum Was, however, one society able to enter the South Platte country i n the 1950's, and i n 1967 was reported by the Hispanos to be "helping the Spanish people*" "Spanish V i l l a g e s " grew up near the sugar m i l l s , and remained centers i n the 1960's though the v i l l a g e s were shared with others somewhat and many "Spanish" resided i n various parts of the towns. The problem of school attendance and of segregational tendencies i s similar to the problems discussed for New Mexico and C a l i f o r n i a , but the s i t u a t i o n i n beet regions has some special features because of the calendar of working. The matter, e s p e c i a l l y for the e a r l i e r days, i s treated in the discussion of the beet industry at Garden C i t y , Kansas. By 1967 permanent resident. "Spanish 1 1 were behaving i n schools l i k e the general population. The migrants are treated below in #89.77. The general community pressures to sustain c h i l d labor in the f i e l d s were doubtless greater i n northeast Colorado than i n the Arkansas Valley, WM& e s p e c i a l l y Garden C i t y . At Garden C i t y only one-fourth of the trade t e r r i t o r y was beet growing. Communities in Colorado, where nearly the whole economy depended on sugar, produced c o l l u s i v e c a p i t a l i s t i c forces a l l i e d with parents and growers, a l l demanding that children be in the f i e l d s i n May and October rather than i n the schools 0 The administrators of c h i l d labor laws focused th e i r attention where these pressures were greatest. The Catholic church of the Denver diocese seems to have taken no s p e c i f i c measures for i t s Mexican c l i e n t e l e i n the South Platte u n t i l rather l a t e . The di r e c t o r y of 1915 shows nothing i n the way of names of parishes or p r i e s t s to indicate attention; nor i s any parish labeled Spanish. The directory of 1948 terms Holy Family i n Fort C o l l i n s "Spanish" and by 1960 i t had acquired a school (105 p u p i l s ) . At Greeley i n 1948 Our Lady of Peace had two p r i e s t s with Spanish names; so also i n 1960 when one of i t s Missions was termed "Spanish Colony". 89.77 L i n g u i s t i c a l l y the Mexicans of the South Platte showed, as we have seen, early signs of Engl-izing, but the constant recruitment of workers from the south which continued i n d e f i n i t e l y brought new -1053- blood into the area; and while bilingualism became general, Spanish was not abandoned. In the 1960fs a d i s t i n c t i o n must be made between those who became permanent residents rather early and were not a l l beet workers and the migrant population which came i n for the growing season. Three-fourths of the l a t t e r came from southern Texas, from Brownsville, Corpus C h r i s t i , Texas City. Sometimes they worked early i n the cotton f i e l d s . Many had a regular c i r c u i t ; from Texas they came to the same farms i n Colorado, then to Idaho for potatoes, then to C a l i f o r n i a , and so back to Texas. A lesser number went east to the Great Lakes country i n July. At G i l c r e s t , 18 miles south of Greeley, for example, one-fourth of the regular enrollment i n elementary school i n 1966-67 was Mexican; the main i n f l u x of migrants was at the f i r s t of June, but some came e a r l i e r . In the larger towns the Mexican proportion of the permanent^to the whole school population was doubtless not so great, but i n certain quarters i t would be heavier, and rarely n e g l i g i b l e , for Mexicans were we l l distributed geographically. Transient population i n the towns during summer was also considerable. But with the improvement i n methods the proportion of permanently resident Mexican population had r i s e n , and th e i r readiness to accept regular school attendance bad gradually become greater. The Engl-izing of the permanently resident group had reached the point i n 1967 where teen-agers usually spoke imperfect Spanish, and th e i r parents alternated between English and Spanish f r e e l y , not merely at home but with others of t h e i r age i n public. The old habitually used Spanish. Examples follow. 1967 Data concerning Mr. 1\ of Loveland. Construction worker. Born near here about 1933; his wife also born i n Colorado. He, educated through the ninth grade, i s b i l i n g u a l ; speaks Spanish with his mother, who however -105**- knows some English; usually addresses his children i n Spanish l i k e his mother. His wife, however, usualty speaks to them i n English. A daughter, aged 13, speaks Spanish w e l l , another, aged 3, bilingual. Finds many, though, "who just look at you i f you ta l k Spanish." 1967 Data on Mr. A. of Ft. C o l l i n s . Construction worker. Born 1933. His father from New Mexico. Speaks Spanish to the Hispanos his age, but circulates f r e e l y among Anglos (testimony of an Anglo) and there uses English. 1967 Data on J.A., male b. 1953 at Ft. Col l i n s where he l i v e s i n the Spanish v i l l a g e . His grandparents now near Colorado Springs came from near Trinidad. He thought the family had been there a long time. Mother has three s i s t e r s i n Ft. C o l l i n s and some i n C a l i f o r n i a . He has 2 s i s t e r s and a brother a l l i n different states. Speaks some Spanish, especially with mother, but does not understand the people from Texas who come i n the summer. Most boys are l i k e him l i n g u i s t i c a l l y . They use English together normally. " G i r l s are worse; they never t a l k Spanish." The establishment of summer schools for migrant Mexican workers began by the 1950 fs. The state of Colorado f i r s t furnished funds for the purposes i n 1949. The Federal government began to participate i n 1966. The school at Wiggias, t h i r t y - f i v e miles east of Greeley, began functioning i n 1955. Fort Morgan had i t s f i r s t i n 1967. The cit i z e n s of Weld County, the most productive county, had organized a Migrant Council. The matter of day care was i n 1967 i n the hands of a project of the University of Colorado under a Federal grant. In order to insure migrant attendance at summer schools, Federal workers, "contact men", were then c i r c u l a t i n g among the a r r i v a l s to inform l o c a l authorities of the enrollment they could expect. -1055- Enrollment and attendance were not nearly synonymous. In 1966 at G i l c r e s t the enrollment was over 400; the average da i l y attendance was 187. The teaching program was that regularly offered i n school i n an e f f o r t to bring retarded pupils up to standard progress — the usual retardation i s two years because of irregular attendance. The emphasis i n i n s t r u c t i o n was on English and mathematics• The English of pupils eleven and twelve years old was a p a r t i c u l a r worry; i t was l i k e l y to be fluent enough, but sub-standard and not i n the usual sub-standard pattern. The l i n g u i s t i c problem with those i n the f i r s t grade was not considered so great; there were no established habits i n English to erase. A program for parents, which meant two meetings during the eight weeks session, found d i f f i c u l t i e s i n communication. The ideas and the vocabulary were not eas i l y absorbed. .78 Mexicans i n the Arkansas Valley appeared early i n Colorado h i s t o r y , much as i n the area ju s t east of the southern mountains, but there was no great population of any type u n t i l nearly 1870. Las Animas, half-way from the mountains to Kansas, was founded i n 1869 and La Junta the next town west became a Santa Fe d i v i s i o n point i n 1875 (BH 457). These two centers attracted Hispanos from the beginning, and agriculture as it developed, also drew them. A l f a l f a and melons as w e l l as sugar beets became profitable crops i n the v a l l e y . That part of southeastern Colorado outside of the immediate valley went through booms and depressions because of droughts and more favorable years. The towns were affected thereby, farming i n the valley less so. Beet growing began as elsewhere i n Colorado i n 1900. In that year a sugar factory was established i n the center of the melon country at Rocky Ford, 11 miles northwest of La Junta, another i n 1907 at Las Animas (BH 730). These were b u i l t by the American Beet Sugar Company, which had plants i n other regions. The Great Western Sugar Company did not enter this region; the other companies that came here had no investments i n the northeast. There were more factories i n the La Junta area, notably at Sugar City to the north and some farther east. The Arkansas Valley did not become as great a sugar producer as northeastern Colorado. Clark i n 1907 said, "New Mexican laborers have been employed since 1900, but Old Mexicans have come i n more recently....The laborer from Old Mexico was generally preferred to the Spanish speaking laborer from New Mexico.... Immigrants from Old Mexico are displacing New Mexicans" (CI 488-89). This was true though the f i r s t workers from Mexico i n 1900 had been driven out. As Clark wrote the sugar companies were advancing fare from E l Paso. Mexican workers from Mexico came into this area for seasonal work as i n the north* Eventually they were of the second generation and the employing farmers drove down to Texas to bring back workers who had done we l l previously. After the second World War those from Texas and the southwest were supplemented by braceros who i n 1962 were looked upon as a normal phenomenon, though not greatly affecting the l i f e of resident Mexicans. The most noteworthy connec­ tion between the Arkansas Valley and the South Platte area was that Mexicans came down from the north during the slack beet period i n the l a t t e r part of the summer to pick melons at Rocky Ford (T 123). The relations with Garden City, Kansas, have been closer as regards the Mexicans, but along the Arkansas River i n Colorado the Volgans have not the same importance as i n the South Platte area and at Garden City. For the Arkansas Valley the directory of the Catholic church showed no special recognition of a Spanish element i n 1900. By 1915 Our Lady of Guadalupe had been founded i n La Junta, and Ordway had a mission at Sugar City which would l i k e l y be for Mexicans. In 1948 Lamar, 56 road miles east, had a church consecrated to Our Lady of Guadalupe. Las -1057- Animas, though the town was reported to be one-third Mexican i n 1962, had no Catholic church i n 1900 and nothing recognizing a Spanish-speaking element among i t s people i n 1915, 1948 or 1960. Mexicans were attracted to Las Ani­ mas by employment opportunites at the Fort Lyons Naval Hospital. 79 Mexicans i n the Arkansas valley have been noticeably Engl-iaed but are, none the less ; frequently given to Spanish. At La Junta i n 1962 there might be children l i v i n g with grandparents who began school ignorant of English, but there were also young parents who used English habitually at home and had children ignorant of Spanish. Adult negroes who had l i v e d among the Mexicans here a l l the i r l i v e s had sometimes acquired no Spanish. On the other hand the p r i e s t who arrived i n 1952 ignorant of the language soon became fluent i n i t s use. He did not, however, preach i n Spanish but brought i n a Spanish colleague for novenas at holiday season. At Las Animas too most Anglos did not acquire Spanish, but Mexican children were i n general s t i l l conversant with i t i n 1962. At Lamar i n 1962 there was i n process an active e f f o r t to eliminate the national character of the two Catholic churches. At St. Francis's 3 a l t a r boys out of 22 bore Spanish names, at Our Lady of Guadalupe, a l l 9 of the boys had Spanish names. The t h i r s t for Spanish sermons was s a t i s f i e d by missionary priests on week days only. The children of parents 35 or 40 years old had learned Spanish; children of younger Mexicans heard English from thei r parents. Old people might be b i l i n g u a l only to the extent of un­ derstanding English, able to carry on conversations with those who understood t h e i r Spanish without being able (or w i l l i n g ) to answer i n that language. The influence of rather recent immigrants from Mexico accounted for^the fact that the Spanish was freer of English borrowings than i n the San Luis Valley. At Holly only a few miles from the Kansas border the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u ­ ation was much the same as at Lamar though Mexicans were both absolutely and proportionately less numerous* gO Mexicans outside of the southwestern states were i n 1930 more numerous at census time i n Kansas (19,150 f b . + fmp.) than i n any other state except I l l i n o i s (28,906). Michigan was next (13,336). Then followed Indiana (9,6^2), Oklahoma (7,53*0, Wyoming (7,17^), Nebraska (6,321). Michigan, because the r e l a ­ tions and parallelism between Mexicans there and those i n Kansas i s minimal, receives scant attention i n t h i s study, though i t s comparative importance grew. In I l l i n o i s (and Indiana) the center of i n t e r e s t i s Chicago (19,516); i t s r a i l r o a d and meat packing industries p a r a l l e l those i n Kansas Ci t y —- and Omaha. The greatest part of the Mexicans i n Wyoming were attracted by the beet f i e l d s on the North P l a t t e ; i n Nebraska the f i e l d s on both of the Platte Rivers accounted fo r h a l f of i t s Mexicans. We s h a l l assume that Mexicans working beets within these two states presented phenomena si m i l a r to those i n the beet areas of Colorado and consider them no further. Omaha (9*K>) receives some additional attention. Most of the Mexicans of Indiana were i n or near Gary (8,915) and they may be treated with Chicago. The Mexicans i n Oklahoma present cases s i m i l a r to th Speaking more generally of the l i n g u i s t i c s i t u a t i o n Williams wrote, "Early families knew but one language and one book" (WC 30). "Welsh communities have made a brave figh t to preserve the language of t h e i r fatherland . . . the average period of persistence of the Welsh language i n Welsh communities i s about three generations or about 80 years; sometimes more and frequently l e s s , " And, l i k e a l l American-born ministers of foreign language denominations faced with losing the young i f they persist i n the use of foreign language, he advocates English i n the Church (WC 132, 134). " I f the Welsh church seeks only to minister to those Welshmen who speak the Welsh language, i t f a l l s far short of providing for i t s own n a t i o n a l i t y i n t h i s country" (WC 121). Even the old were s u f f i c i e n t l y b i l i n g u a l to follow English sermons even when protesting they could not; at least "they are able to report i n t e l l i g e n t l y on what they have heard" (WC 124). He concludes that the ministers should be trained i n America; those trained i n Wales attach too much weight to worshipping i n Welsh (WC 125-6). This conclusion meant the abandonment of Welsh, for the young Welsh-American ministers were incapable o£ preaching i n Welsh (WC 127), since no seminary gave training i n Welsh. 1148 93.00 B i b l i o g r a p h y f o r Greeks A - A l e s s i o s , A l l i s o n B. The Greek Immigrant and h i s Reading. Chicago, 1926. Ab - Abbott, Grace. "A Study of the Greeks i n Chicago, 1 1 American J o u r n a l of Sociology, XV (1909-10) 379*393. B - Burgess, Thomas. Greeks i n America. Boston, 1913. C - Canoutas, Seraphim G. Hellenism i n America. New York, 1918. F - F a i r c h i l d , Henry P r a t t . Greek Immigration to the United S t a t e s . New Haven, 1906. Fe - Ferriman, Z. Duckett. Home L i f e i n H e l l a s . London, 1910. G - Garnett, Lucy M.J. Greece of the Hellenes. London, 1914. Ma - M a r t i n , Percy F. Greece of the Twentieth Century. London, 1913. M - M i l l e r , W i l l i a m . Greek L i f e i n Town and Country. London, 1905. Q - Quigley, Margery. "Greek Immigration and the L i b r a r y , " L i b r a r y J o u r n a l , XLVII, (1922), 863-865. S - S t e i n e r , Edward A. On the T r a i n of the Immigrant. New York, 1906. X - Xenides, J . P. The Greeks i n America. New York, 1922. 93.10 S t a t i s t i c s f o r the United States as a whole and f o r v a r i o u s s t a t e s show t h a t , though the Greek immigration i n t o Kansas was s m a l l , i t was t y p i c a l . The Federal Census shows: 1149 Persons Born i n Greece and Th e i r C h i l d r e n Resident i n the United States Foreign-born Foreign of Mixed Parentage Foreign White Stock 1880 776 1890 1,887 1900 8,515 1910 101,282 9,985 111,249 1920 175,972 52,083 228,055 1930 174,526 129,225 303,751 I n 1920, 96.3% of the speakers of Greek were from Greece; i n 1930, 89.7% p r o p o r t i o n high enough to j u s t i f y omission of f i g u r e s on Greeks from Turkey, from where Greeks be g a n m i g r a t i n g t o the United States somewhat l a t e r than from Greece. Persons Born i n Greece and Resident i n the F i v e States Containing the Greatest Number and Two States A d j o i n i n g Kansas and Kansas i n 1900, 1910, and 1920 1900 1910 1920 1900 1910 1920 Mass. 1,843 11,413 20,441 111. 1,570 10,031 16,465 N.Y. 1,573 10,097 26,117 Mo. 66 3,022 Penna. 465 4,221 13,893 Neb. 23 1,594 Ohio 213 2,555 13,540 Kans. 17 1,410 640 93.11g The great preponderance of males over females was a p e c u l a r i t y of Greek immigration, more marked continuously f o r i t than f o r any other people (see f u r t h e r F 112-3, Ma 162). Born i n Greece, Resident i n 1920 1930 Males Females Males Females United States 143',-606. 32,370 129,101 45,425 Kansas C i t y , Kans. 244 29 422 92 Since marriage to non-Greeks was very l i m i t e d throughout t h i s p e r i o d , c l e a r l y we are d e a l i n g w i t h few reproducing f a m i l i e s . The p r o p o r t i o n of fmp to f o r e i g n - b o r n i n d i c a t e s the same thingJ~ Among Greeks t h i s pro- Xenides i n 1922 estimated t h a t 20% of the Greeks had f a m i l i e s w i t h them i n Americ til A l e s s i o s (& 14) quotes an estimate t h a t i n 1926 "Prob ably 40% of the 400,000 Greeks now i n America have t h e i r f a m i l i e s w i t h them. Since, i n 1926, the Greeks of the f i r s t two generations numbered not more than 300,000, t h i s estimate must have been meant to i n c l u d e couples, at l e a s t one of whom was born i n the United S t a t e s . p o r t i o n was: 1910 - 10%; 1920 - 30%; 1930 - 74%. Two other r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the new immigration show much higher p r o p o r t i o n s : P o l e s , 1910 - 85%; 1920 - 114%; 1930 - 163%; I t a l i a n s , 1910 - 53%; 1920 - 109%; 1930 - 154%. The lower percentage of c h i l d r e n i n the stock would tend to make Greeks more l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e u n t i l the immigrating generation had died. .2 For-Greeks the records of the Immigration Commissioner show s i m i l a r f a c t s , and i n a d d i t i o n b r i n g out the movement of immigration. These X X ^ J L r e p o r t only 210 Greeks a r r i v i n g i n the decade 1871-1880 and 2,308 i n the f o l l o w i n g decade. A l l commentators ( f o r i nstance B 17, A 7, X 38; see a l s o EI 244 Jfor EI see German B i b l i o g r a p h y ] ) regard 1891 as the moment when enthusiasm f o r America became strong i n Greece; 1,105 reached here i n that year, and, w h i l e the average through the years of hard times was no g r e a t e r , over 2,300 a r r i v e d i n 1898. The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e speaks f o r the years f o l l o w i n g t i l l the immigration laws of the 1920 fs cut o f f the supply. A l l United States Kansas A l l United States Kansas T o t a l Males Females T o t a l T o t a l Males Females T o t a l 1899 2,395 2,263 132 1 1900 3,773 3,655 118 0 1901 5,919 5,754 165 3 1902 8,115 7,854 261 1 1903 14,376 13,885 491 3 1912 31,566 28,521 3,045 91 1913 38,644 35,143 3,501 50 1914 45,881 40,207 5,674 91 1915 15,187 n,74o 3,447 11 1916 26,792 21,093 5,699 38 1904 12,625 12,106 519 18 1917 25,919 21,124 4,795 21 1905 12,144 11,586 558 17 1918 2,602 2,149 453 1 1906 23,127 22,266 861 61 1919 813 696 117 7 1907 46,283 44,647 1,636 98 1920 13,998 11,167 2,831 18 1908 28,808 26,972 1,836 42 1921 31,828 21,551 10,277 41 1909 20,262 18,738 1,524 147 1922 3,821 1,679 2,142 6 1910 39,135 36,580 2,555 114 1923 4,177 1,474 2,703 5 1911 37,021 34,105 2,916 110 1924 5,252 2,256 2,996 16 1152 During the years 1905-1908 the number of Greeks going to the three s t a t e s r e c e i v i n g the most was: 1905 1906 1907 1908 N.Y. 3,154 6,150 14,372 10,927 Mass. 2,108 3,879 7,293 4,116 111. 1,504 2,817 5,070 2,514 The c o n t r a s t between the number of women and the number of men a r r i v i n g i s confirmed. I t i s only a f t e r the immigration laws of the 1920 fs begin to operate, when spouses are coming to j o i n husbands already here, that the number of women approaches that of men. Under such circumstances we might assume that the immigrants r e t u r n i n g to Greece would be very numerous. Even i n the 1960 fs the number of Greek males i n the United States i s much i n excess of the number of females. The published record i n t h i s case goes bafck only u n t i l 1908. I n the f i r s t f i v e years f o l l o w i n g , the r e t u r n i n g were about one-fourth as numerous as the a r r i v i n g . I n the next f i v e years (through 1917) t h r e e - e i g h t s as numerous, during the peri o d 1918-1924 s l i g h t l y greater i n number than the a r r i v a l s . .3 Xenides i n 1922 says repeatedly and quotes other Greeks to the same., e f f e c t that the men r e t u r n i n g to Greece would sooner or l a t e r r e t u r n to the United States (& 77-78). The Federal census of 1930 shows data on t' i e date of immigration of foreig n - b o r n ; the f i g u r e s p e r t i n e n t here are: Year of Immigration to the U.S, . of Persons Born i n Greece and Resident i n the U.S. i n 1930 A l l U.S. Kansas Kansas Males , 1930 Females Before 1900 8,075 27 26 1 1901-1910 56,658 230 219 11 1911-1919 65,311 181 145 36 1920-1930 38,135 75 36 39 For s i m i l a r data, as recorded by the s t a t e census of 1925, the proportions i n Kansas between the periods were s i m i l a r . Of those who immigrated between the periods 1901 and 1910, 50% were s t i l l l i v i n g i n the United States i n 1930; the p r o p o r t i o n of those l i v i n g i n Kansas was 70% of the number of those who had s a i d they were bound f o r Kansas i n those years. For the next decade the proportions were: U.S., 30%; Kansas, 50%. The Greek p o p u l a t i o n i n Kansas had thus i n 1930 r e s i d e d longer i n America than the average. Their conservation of Greek would then probably be l e s s * .40 Overpopulation i n Greece, according to commentators w r i t i n g during the decades when emigration was the g r e a t e s t , was not a cause of departure. "The people are not s u f f i c i e n t l y crowded to j u s t i f y us i n regarding mere overpopulation as a cause of emigration" (F 60). This comment of F a i r c h i l d ' s i s t y p i c a l (Ma 164, G 133). And yet the number of i n h a b i t a n t s had increased from 752,007 i n 1838 to 2,187,208 i n 1889 and to 2,631,952 i n 1907. Some 115* 600,000 of these persons had been acquired through annexation of the Ionian i s l a n d s i n 1864 and Thessaly i n 1581. With the t e r r i t o r i a l i n creases l a t e r , which approximately doubled i t s area, the pop u l a t i o n of Greece reached something over f i v e m i l l i o n i n 1921. The p o p u l a t i o n growth has gone on s i n c e and i f a r a b l e land was s u f f i c i e n t during the f i r s t century of Modern Greece, i t no longer i s so. Even e a r l y , d e s p i t e lands added, i t i s evident that p o p u l a t i o n growth was such as to exert pressure, even gr a n t i n g that at the end of T u r k i s h tyranny the land was v a s t l y underpopulated. Whether the greater numbers were occasioned by n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e or i n f l u x from "enslaved 1 1 regions i s of l i t t l e moment; the country was s t i l l o b l i g e d to support a much l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n , and a g r i c u l t u r a l methods d i d not g r e a t l y change (F 61, X 34) nor was i n d u s t r i a l growth remarkable (F 67, X 33). C e r t a i n l y , however, the u t i l i z a t i o n of resources improved so g r e a t l y through the nineteenth century that s t a r k poverty was by no means as common as i n southern I t a l y and a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s managed to make some s o r t of a l i v i n g (F 61, M 211, Ma 162). There were no r e a l l y l a r g e c i t i e s . Athens and the Piraeus together, ten times as l a r g e i n the 1960 fs, contained 235,000 people i n 1907, and t h e i r growth t i l l then s i n c e l i b e r a t i o n had been fabulous. P a t r a s , next i n s i z e , numbered 37,000. There were four other towns l a r g e r than 15,000. 41g Economic c o n d i t i o n s f u r n i s h e d the main push f o r emigration. P o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , and pur e l y s o c i a l reasons were very minor or non-existent. The American consul at Athens i n 1908, George Horton, 1155 reported: "There are 180 f a s t i n g days i n the Greek r e l i g i o u s year, which are r i g o r o u s l y observed by the l a b o r i n g c l a s s , without, however, causing any marked degree of abnegation i n the matter of d i e t . " A people, e x i s t i n g at t h i s l e v e l , i s s e n s i t i v e to even l i m i t e d shocks to the economic s t r u c t u r e . The general a g r i c u l t u r a l depression which most of Europe was undergoing i n the 1880 fs seems not to have a f f e c t e d Greece d i r e c t l y , but n e i t h e r i n d u s t r y nor a g r i c u l t u r e made progress; the great blow was the c o l l a p s e of the currant trade at the end of the nineteenth century and i n the succeeding years (F 77, X 38). Not a l l Greece r a i s e d c u r r a n t s , but a l l Greece s u f f e r e d when i t s only important cash crop became of l i t t l e value. .5 The p u l l of American wages was the potent f o r c e that brought about emigration from Greece (M 229, F 74, G 134) not the quest f o r a b e t t e r l i f e i n America, f o r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n America were not s u f f i c i e n t l y a t t r a c t i v e to draw the mass of women a f t e r the men. To be sure, the returned emigrants, i f they had not been i n c a p a c i t a t e d i n America by overwork and d i s e a s e — a s f r e q u e n t l y happened (Ma 163, G 134) — were o r d i n a r i l y so r e s t l e s s as to leave once more f o r the land of wealth and t o r t u r e , s p e c i f i c a l l y at the r a t e of a thousand a year i n the pe r i o d 1905-08 (F 256), but a l l i n a l l the Greek emigrant envisaged, and a c t u a l l y accomplished, usin| nGreece a l l American d o l l a r s (M 230, Ma 163) over those needed f o r a poor maintenance and f o r business i n v e s t ­ ment. U l t i m a t e l y most of them could not separate themselves from the business investments. The p u l l of America seems to have been more than u s u a l l y augmented by steamship agents (f 80) and t h e i r l i k e ; i n Greece 1156 such propagandists appear to have been more shameless than elsewhere i n t h e i r exaggerations and to have found a more g u l l i b l e public"? L e t t e r s from emigrants u s u a l l y were s i l e n t on hardships and contained * The Immigration Commissioner complained i n h i s r e p o r t s of such p r a c t i c e s f o r a l l "new11 immigrants, but i n 1910 the document he produced was a mortgage made i n New C o r i n t h , Greece, f o r an immigrant bound f o r Kansas C i t y (p. 117). remittances that aroused a p p e t i t e s (F 79). .6 The Modern Greek language i s d i f f e r e n t i n i t s l i t e r a r y form from i t s spoken form. The l i t e r a r y form preserves i n s o f a r as p o s s i b l e the ancient h e r i t a g e , not to the po i n t of making a Greek of these times w r i t e or d e l i v e r addresses i n the idiom of Demosthenes or even i n that of the medieval emperors of Constantinople but so conservative as to be f a r t h e r from o r d i n a r y speech than the formal language of most peoples i s from that which they use every day, unless^as occurred f o r example i n Germany or I t a l y , t h e i r d a i l y speech i s f r a n k l y a d i a l e c t o$ p a t o i s . T e r r i t o r i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n Greek usgge e x i s t , c h i e f l y remarkable to the Greeks, themselves, i t seems by the character of vocabulary, which i s sometimes marked by borrowings from peoples w i t h whom the va r i o u s areas have been i n contact s i n c e the t h i r t e e n t h century, i n s u l a r s w i t h I t a l i a n s , lower p e n i n s u l a r s w i t h Albanians, others w i t h Turks. These d i a l e c t a l d i f f e r e n c e s have aroused l i t t l e argument, however, w h i l e ardent debate has been frequent over the q u a l i t y of the w r i t t e n language (X 52). This s t a t e 1X57 of a f f a i r s meant that the language which the emigrants c a r r i e d w i t h them was no more supported by a c u l t u r a l form than i f they were using a d i a l e c t acknowledged as such. However, they were or became a v i d readers so that l i t e r a r y Greek was no d i s t a n t t h i n g . 93.7 The centers of emigration i n Greece were by 1910 s c a t t e r e d over a l l Greece (G 133), but the e a r l y ones and o f t e n those that sent c i t i z e n s to Kansas were i n the Peloponnesus (M 228, Ma 162 names Arcadia) where the f a l l i n the demand f o r currants s t r u c k the heaviest economic blow. Thence the fe\zer spread i n t o c e n t r a l Greece, and l a t e r i n t o the o u t l y i n g areas (B 19). While Greeks from one n a t i v e d i s t r i c t have l o c a l p a t r i o t i s m (Fe 141) and have clung together more or l e s s a f t e r l e a v i n g i t , the greater importance of being Greek on the one hand or member of a f a m i l y group on the other has made p r o v i n c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s of s i g n i f i c a n c e mostly as a r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r s o c i a l groups of a more or l e s s f l u i d nature. 93.80 The character of the f a m i l y and the p o s i t i o n of women i n Greece are c l o s e l y bound up together. The closeness of brothers to one another and t h e i r sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r s i s t e r s (F 38, Fe 186), w h i l e at the same time regarding women as l i t t l e more than a c h a t t e l (Fe 140), has had notable e f f e c t s upon the l i f e of emigrants, f r e q u e n t l y of a l i n g u i s t i c nature. Though much attenuated by the 1960 fs, the a t t i t u d e s were s t i l l i n existence then. Women among the Greek peasantry were expected to do a l l s o r t s of work w i t h i n the f a m i l y , but they were not h i r e d out to work elsewhere, and t h e i r s o c i a l c i r c u l a t i o n was very l i m i t e d . The men might spend long hours i n coffee-houses (F 29). I f 1158 perchance the women had l e i s u r e , they were drawn from the home f o r l i t t l e except r e l i g i o u s o b l i g a t i o n s (F 40, X 140). Every g i r l a t marriage had a dowry (F 39, X 48), and the t r a d i t i o n was, and more or l e s s s t i l l i s , that the brothers should provide i t before they them­ selves married. Such a status l e f t women without the power to decide whether they should emigrate. A smaller q u a n t i t y of dowry money seemed s u i t a b l e f o r a g i r l marrying i n Greece than f o r one to be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h a Greek husband i n America, t h e r e f o r e the stimulus f o r b r i n g i n g marriageable g i r l s to America was s l i g h t . Because the women could work the farms i n Greece (M 266) but could not be h i r e d out even i n America, the economic stimulus f o r b r i n g i n g wives and daughters was equally s l i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the surplus of men over women i n the po p u l a t i o n of Greece was such that husbands f o r marriageable g i r l s could be found on the penninsula even a f t e r the d r a i n of male emigration (M 274). On the other hand boys were f r e q u e n t l y sent f o r by brothers who had emigrated (G 134) or by f a t h e r s . The boy could help b u i l d up the fa m i l y f o r t u n e , p a r t i c u l a r l y as the custom was to e x p l o i t boys f o r t h e i r labor as s y s t e m a t i c a l l y as females. Greek youths i n American shoe-shine p a r l o r s gave up t h e i r earnings w i t h very few cases of r e b e l l i o n . 81gThe Greek emigrants i n America were f a c t i o u s . This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was doubtless i n pa r t the r e s u l t of the l a c k of women among them; the men could vent t h e i r tensions only upon one another, and d i d not have the advice of the sex who has had to l e a r n that more may be gained by i n s i n u a t i n g means than by combat. But i t was a l s o i n part a t r a n s ­ p l a n t a t i o n from Greece (F 26, X 49, Fe 150). At the time that the emigration became great , there were places i n the southern Peloponnesus where vendetta, t h a t i s , deadly feuding between f a m i l i e s , s t i l l f l o u r i s h e d , and i n a l l Greece p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s were made the oc­ c a s i o n of more numerous and more v i o l e n t a l t e r c a t i o n s than among most peoples. This tendency was not, however, a n a r c h i s t i c i n nature. Even under the Turks the h a b i t of l o c a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n had p e r s i s t e d from ancient times, and the Greeks went on o r g a n i z i n g and erupting w i t h i n the u n i t s thus e s t a b l i s h e d . .9 The Greek Orthodox Church has harbored almost a l l Greeks, and they have remained t r u e to i t (X 69); indeed regard i t as the preserver of t h e i r n a t i o n a l i t y . I n s p i t e of an o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h a M e t r o p o l i t a n r u l i n g from Athens and an appropriate number of bishops, the church i s p r i m a r i l y congregational. The p a r i s h i o n e r s are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l o c a l management, and the country p r i e s t s , o r d i n a r i l y married, d e r i v e t h e i r income p r i n c i p a l l y from the fees paid f o r baptisms, weddings, f u n e r a l s and so on. Often they t i l l e d farms l i k e others i n the p a r i s h . These men were not, then, remarkable f o r t h e i r c u l t u r e or t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b i l i t y , and consequently, w h i l e there i s no question about d o c t r i n e , congregations are d i v i d e d i n t o f a c t i o n s as r a d i c a l l y as other s o c i a l u n i t s . P i e t y i s g r e a t , however, and among the humble, f r e q u e n t l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r . As w i t h other groups the church i s a s o c i a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e , but because of the nature of l o c a l a u t h o r i t y i t i s not at the p a r i s h l e v e l d i r e c t e d by s t a b l e p o l i c i e s . 1XOU • 00 Greeks i n the United States formed settlements of s e v e r a l types: (1) i n the c i t i e s ; and (2) i n the manufacturing towns p a r t i c u l a r l y of New England;^ n f n X e n i d e s i n 1922 made up a l i s t of settlements based on answers rece i v e d from a qu e s t i o n n a i r e submitted i n con­ n e c t i o n w i t h Greek R e l i e f Work (X 74, 75). Omaha and North P l a t t e , Nebraska, are incl u d e d w i t h estimates of 400-600 Greeks; Kansas C i t y , Kansas, 250-400. (Xenides may have considered a l l Kansas C i t y as being i n Kansas). (3) i n the f i r s t decades of the twe n t i e t h century they f r e q u e n t l y worked i n gangs on the r a i l r o a d s during the summer months. (4) One well-known and p i c t u r e s q u e colony of sponge fishermen developed at Tarpon Springs, F l o r i d a ; the sponges were discovered i n 1905. In 1909 the Greeks were strong enough there to b u i l d a church. I n 1912 they made up h a l f of the town's p o p u l a t i o n of 4,000 (B 176). The settlement has remained conservative l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , but on shore E n g l i s h has gained much ground. Greek a g r i c u l t u r a l settlements were n e g l i g i b l e . I n the c i t i e s the Greeks were i n commercial and s e r v i c e occupations (X 81 f f ) ; during the winter months the l a r g e r urban settlements were increased s t i l l more by the r a i l r o a d l a b o r e r s without work i n that season. The merchants u s u a l l y began as ambulant peddlers of f r u i t , f l o w e r s , e t c . and graduated to a candy s t o r e or the l i k e as soon as p o s s i b l e , seeking customers i n the general p u b l i c , except that they developed g r o c e r i e s and other s m a l l businesses to meet the needs of t h e i r own settlements. The most frequent s e r v i c e occupation was shoe-shining, c a r r i e d on i n " p a r l o r s . " Work i n h o t e l s and re s t a u r a n t s began e a r l y , and p r o p r i e t o r s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y of r e s t a u r a n t s , f o l l o w e d . U n t i l a f t e r the F i r s t World War the Greeks had not branched out much f u r t h e r . Most of JL10X these occupations meant contact w i t h the American p u b l i c , and t h e r e f o r e , development of at l e a s t elementary b i l i n g u a l i s m , but the contacts were f o r decades s t r i c t l y on matters of business. The m i l l hands l i v e d i n ^ i e t t o - l i k e c o l o n i e s , and were absorbed i n t h e i r own i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s . B i l i n g u a l i s m developed s l o w l y . L o w e l l , Mass. was the best known example. (B 138 f f . , F 133 f f . ) . Kansas population was not r e c r u i t e d among them, and we s h a l l be concerned w i t h them f u r t h e r only i n c i d e n t a l l y . The t r a c k l a b o r e r s as such are a l s o of s l i g h t i n t e r e s t . They were a passing phenomenon i n Kansas, occurring s e a s o n a l l y and almost a l l d r i v e n out e v e n t u a l l y by Mexicans even i f they t r a n s f e r r e d from e x t r a to r e g u l a r s e c t i o n gangs. Except f o r a few i n each gang they acquired very l i t t l e E n g l i s h . .10 The Greeks of Kansas C i t y , M i s s o u r i were more numerous than those i n Kansas C i t y , Kansas, and f o r many years the two settlements had l i t t l e connection w i t h each other. The Kansas C i t y S t a r , 19 Feb. 1967 says, "Many of them l i v e d i n an area c a l l e d Athens, g e n e r a l l y along F i f t h from Wyandotte west to B l u f f [that i s , c l o s e to the r i v e r , hemmed i n by r a i l r o a d t r a c k s to the west, by business to the south, by other stocks to the easlj. A newspaper account i n 1910 expressed a degree of c i v i c apprehension: 'Now we're wondering what w i l l happen i f t h i s f l o o d of Greeks doesn't cease. A l l w i t h i n f i v e of s i x years £there were a few e a r l i e r , 3 i n 1890, 16 i n 1900] something l i k e 5,000 of these Greeks have come to Kansas C i t y . ' 11 The j o u r n a l i s t of 1910 found more Greeks than the censustakers of that year, who reported 758 f o r e i g n born. P a r t of the generosity of the r e p o r t e r ' s estimate was doubtless occasioned by the presence of a considerable f l o a t i n g element. Kansas C i t y was se r v i n g as a recruitment center among the Greeks f o r r a i l r o a d u n s k i l l e d l a b o r . Canoutas estimates f o r r a t h e r e a r l y days are: 1908 Kansas C i t y , Kans. 100 Kansas C i t y , Mo. 450 St. L o u i s 2,000 Canoutas, too, seems to have been o p t i m i s t i c . The censustakers of 1920 found i n Kansas C i t y , Mo., 570 persons born i n Greece. The Star's estimate i n 1967 was "about 2,500 c i t i z e n s of Greeks o r i g i n or descent i n greater Kansas C i t y . " I t too seems o p t i m i s t i c . The census f i g u r e s f o r persons born i n Greece i n Kansas C i t y , Mo., are: 1930-425 f b of whom 356 were males, 69 females 1940-362 f b of whom 297 were males, 65 females 1950-320 f b The pro p o r t i o n s between the sexes were s i m i l a r t o those elsewhere and not such as to suggest p r o l i f i c breeding of pure stock. The Star says: "The e a r l y day [year not s p e c i f i e d , but 1912 appears t o be meantj Greek community was mostly male. Only 35 Greek women were here w i t h t h e i r husbands. F i f t e e n Greeks had married American women." I n those days there were f o u r t e e n c o f f e e houses. A "community" (see # 96.4) was formed, and an Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church was erected at 1421 Broadway i n 1912, s t i l l i n the same l o c a t i o n i n 1967. The rest a u r a n t business s c a t t e r e d Greeks somewhat and 1912 300 2,000 4,000 1918 4,000 4,000 1163 many found homes i n the southern part of the c i t y . I t was e a s i e r to leave the church where i t was than to f i n d a l o c a t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r y to a l l . The Star's a r t i c l e of 1967 says: "Orthodox l i t u r g y and s e r v i c e i s i n Greek but the sermon from the p u l p i t i s i n E n g l i s h . . . P a r o c h i a l schools are maintained by the church here where c h i l d r e n of the member f a m i l i e s may l e a r n Greek." The a r t i c l e does not add that at the very time of i t s composition the language question as regards schoo l i n g was being h o t l y debated i n M i s s o u r i . I n that year a young Greek woman born i n the homeland about 1933 u s u a l l y conversed w i t h others of the settlement i n Greek i f they were not much old e r than h e r s e l f , but many coeval h a b i t u a l l y spoke E n g l i s h . I n 1968 a young Greek man thought that Greek c h i l d r e n i n Kansas knew Spamlsh C i t y knew more Greek than Mexican c h i l d r e i ^ , l a r g e l y because of the Greek schools on both the Kansas and the M i s s o u r i s i d e . The schools were a l s o attended by non-Greek spouses of Greeks. For the c h i l d r e n as w e l l as f o r the o l d e r people the informant thought that the study of Greek was the study of a f o r e i g n language, but the r e s u l t s a t t a i n e d were s u p e r i o r to those i n most language c l a s s e s l a r g e l y because of high m o t i v a t i o n . On the use of language i n the p u l p i t he d i d not q u i t e agree w i t h the a r t i c l e i n the S t a r . Both languages were used by the p r i e s t , at l e a s t i n Kansas C i t y , Kansas, but more and more anything meant f o r the young was couched i n E n g l i s h . l l g The Greeks i n Chicago re c e i v e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n from observers soon a f t e r t h e i r settlement had become vigor o u s . Canoutas' Greek-American Guide 116* f o r 1912 pp. 391-392 ( c i t e d by B 123) reported that i n 1882 "a s m a l l number of Greeks 1 1 w i t h some Slavs formed a H e l l e n o - S l a v i c S o c i e t y . "By 1891, when t h e i r number had reached 100, they {the Greeks^ organized a s o c i e t y , the object of which was the establishment of a Greek church...The f i r s t church b u i l d i n g of t h e i r own was erected i n 1898... I t was changed from a house of God to a nucleus of s t r i f e , wrangles, and l e g a l c o n t e s t s , l a s t i n g f o r almost a decade, because of the j e a l o u s y of d i f f e r e n t p a r t i e s as to who should be the o f f i c e r s ...Often the p o l i c e were c a l l e d in...Order was r e s t o r e d at l a s t by the establishment of two more churches." The Federal census of 1900 showed 1,493 foreign-born Greeks i n Chicago. The school census of 1908 recorded 4,218. Grace Abbott quoted t h i s s t a t i s t i c and added that "The Greeks c l a i m four or f i v e times as many" (Ab 379). E v i d e n t l y quoting h i s f i g u r e s from the Canoutas handbook, t h i s time f o r 1909 (Canoutas' estimates were always generous) F a i r c h i l d says, " I n 1904 there were 7,500 Greeks i n the c i t y , and i n 1909 about 15,000 [by 1918 Canoutas s a i d 25,000 (C 209) Xenides i n 1922-13,OOO] of whom 12,000 may be considered permanent r e s i d e n t s , and the balance t r a n s i e n t s " (F 123), that i s , t r a c k l a b o r e r s , "probably the ones who are found most f r e q u e n t l y i n the m u n i c i p a l c o u r t s " (A 382). Of the three centers mentioned, one was i n the south end, one i n the n o r t h , and the t h i r d , the o l d e s t and l a r g e s t , was i n an area where I t a l i a n s had been d i s p l a c e d , j u s t west of the south part of downtown Chicago n o r t h and west of H u l l House, that i s , near Halsted S t r e e t and Blue I s l a n d Avenue. I t was studied by Grace Abbott i n 1909. 1165 S t e i n e r (S 282 f f . ) described i t i n 1906. His d e s c r i p t i o n , l e s s de­ t a i l e d and more i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c , i s i n harmony w i t h Miss Abbott's. S t e i n e r has the best commentary on the disparaging remarks some others make on the sexual mores of these almost womanless e x i l e s . "Without t h e i r w i v e s . . . i t i s j u s t p o s s i b l e that 10,000 Americans under the same c o n d i t i o n s wpuld not act d i f f e r e n t l y " (S 286). "Here i s a Greek Orthodox Church, a school i n which c h i l d r e n are taught a l i t t l e E n g l i s h , some Greek and much about Greece ...here, too, i s the combination Greek bank, steamship t i c k e t o f f i c e , notary p u b l i c and employment agency, and the c o f f e e houses...On Halstaad S t r e e t almost every s t o r e f o r two blocks i s Greek...The colony as a whole i s s t i l l ignorant of our language and customs...The very l a r g e number of men makes the l i f e of the Greek colony e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from that of [older settlements^ . . . l a r g e numbers of men l i v e together, keeping house on some cooperative arrangement... Three-fourths, at l e a s t , of the l a b o r e r s and peddlers belong to these non- f a m i l y groups, w h i l e probably n e a r l y the same p r o p o r t i o n of i c e cream p a r l o r and r e s t a u r a n t keepers belong to the f a m i l y groups...The Jones s c h o o l . . . had 81 Greeks e n r o l l e d i n 1908-9 out of a t o t a l of 252... The teachers found the Greeks the b r i g h t e s t and the quickest to l e a r n . . . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r Eastern t r a i n i n g and t r a d i t i o n s of almost O r i e n t a l s e c l u s i o n the Greek women adapt themselves very quickly...They do not work outside t h e i r own homes... out of 246... aged over 15, only 5 were found to be at work...The Greek man... considers i t a d i s g r a c e f o r h i s w i f e or s i s t e r to work...Often the ownerof 1166 a res t a u r a n t or f r u i t s t o r e , or a shoe-shine p a r l o r f u r n i s h e d h i s employee board and room...Many of the boys are worked under a system of peonage,... spend n e a r l y a l l t h e i r waking hours at work...have no time f o r r e g u l a r attendance at evening c l a s s e s or c l u b s , no normal home l i f e or r e l a t i o n s h i p s [see a l s o F 177 f f . , B 38| . But f o r the d i s c i p l i n e of the bosses who want them to be ready f o r work next day, an even l a r g e r number would f i n d e x c i t e ­ ment and r e l a x a t i o n i n dangerous amusements...They work f o r long hours c h e e r f u l l y , confident [that they may sooiJ[ set up as independent business men" (Ab 380-393). 94.20 Greek l i f e i n other c i t i e s great and s m a l l , o u tside of the m i l l towns, resembled that at Chicago, and that i n the m i l l towns d i f f e r e d p r i m a r i l y i n the l a c k of escape i n t o commercial a c t i v i t i e s . F a i r c h i l d s a i d of the New York C i t y Greeks,"The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c occupations of the Greeks here resemble those of Chicago...The tendency i s f o r Greeks to gather i n s e v e r a l s m a l l settlements" (F 147). The census f i g u r e s c i t e d above show that i n the second decade of the 20th century the New York Greeks grew i n numbers more r a p i d l y than those at Chicago. L i n c o l n , Nebraska, w i t h 35 Greeks at the time he wrote (ca. 1909) drew F a i r c h i l d T s a t t e n t i o n . " A l l but four or f i v e are males and only about a dozen are a d u l t s , the remainder beitiig boys employed i n the shoe-shining p a r l o r s and i n the candy s t o r e s " (F 159). His p i c t u r e of the l i f e i n t h i s s m all settlement i s very s i m i l a r to Miss Abbot's d e s c r i p t i o n of the Greek a c t i v i t i e s i n Chicago. 94.21 Oklahoma C i t y r e c e i v e d a quota of Greeks r a t h e r l a t e that maintained st r e n g t h . I n 1910 there were f i v e persons there born i n Greece. I n 1920, 152, i n 1930, 157, i n 1940, 141. For Greeks the p r o p o r t i o n of women was hig h , 42$gainst 115 i n 1930. A biography w r i t t e n by a young man i n 1967 born i n Greece concerning Father Merkouris of Oklahoma C i t y presents Greek a c t i v i t y i n western c i t i e s i n a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t , and f u r n i s h e s a counter weight to impressions that might be gained from statements quoted i n the f o l l o w i n g . .22 "Michael Merkouris, was born i n C o r i n t h , i n 1876. He attended the T h e o l o g i c a l Seminary of R i z a r i o s i n Athens, and was ordained i n 1906. P r i o r to ordainment, he married a g i r l from h i s home town, by which he had two sons. He l o s t one i n 1919, and i n 1920 he came to the United St a t e s . S h o r t l y afterwards he was assigned to Oklahoma C i t y , where there was not a church... He managed to motivate the Greek Orthodox of the area and b u i l t the church of St. George, on 1108 NW 8th S t r e e t . He has many sad s t o r i e s to t e l l of the d i f f i c u l t i e s of those f i r s t years, and the p e r s e c u t i o n by the Prot e s t a n t groups. "His o l d e r son, John, a l s o decided to f o l l o w h i s f a t h e r and went to the T h e o l o g i c a l School of the U n i v e r s i t y of Athens to become a p r i e s t . When he came back, a p r i e s t and married, he took over the church of St. George's i n 1952. At that time f a t h e r M i c h a e l r e t i r e d . I n 1965, h i s w i f e d i e d . Father Merkouris, being the f i r s t p r i e s t of the Orthodox f a i t h i n the area, performed l i t e r a l l y thousands of ceremonies: Baptisms, weddings, et c . He i s known to the surrounding States because of h i s t r a v e l , i n connection w i t h h i s r e l i g i o u s work. He s t i l l p a r t i c i p a t e s i n s p e c i a l masses a s s i s t i n g p r i e s t s i n Oklahoma C i t y , T u l s a , W i c h i t a , D a l l a s , and a dozen other c i t i e s . He and h i s w i f e were n a t u r a l i z e d i n 1929. His Greek i s p e r f e c t , and so i s h i s s o n ' s i His grandchildren's i s f a r s u p e r i o r to the Spanish spoken by any t h i r d generation Mexicans i n t h i s part of the country. 1168 9^»3 The place of the church i n Greek settlements d i f f e r e d from analogous c o n d i t i o n s among other f o r e i g n stocks i n that each American p a r i s h was e s t a b l i s h e d as a d e r i v a t i v e of a parent l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n that was only q u a s i - r e l i g i o u s . The Greeks, however, took t h e i r r e l i g i o n very s e r i o u s l y . The observances were c a r r i e d out s t r i c t l y enough so that shoe-shine p a r l o r s , that would o r d i n a r i l y be open f i f t e e n to eighteen hours a day, closed f o r Greek r e l i g i o u s f e s t i v a l s , though not on Sunday (presumably because patrons among the Western C h r i s t i a n s were numerous on the dress-up day). Canoutas' s t o r y of i n t e r n a l s t r i f e w i t h i n the church at Chicago resembled what f r e q u e n t l y happened elsewhere (F 208, B 57, A 16, X 118). The church f u r n i s h e d the best arena f o r f a c t i o n s to contend i n . Roman C a t h o l i c s had h i e r a r c h i c a l a u t h o r i t y to guide them through such c r i s e s , and P r o t e s t a n t denominations could some­ times r e s o l v e d i f f e r e n c e s by se p a r a t i o n i n t o yet more s e c t s , but the Greeks were d o c t r i n a l l y bound together and the h i e r a r c h y had l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e . The p r i e s t was o f t e n a f u n c t i o n a r y w i t h whom they d e a l t commercially, f o r the custom of maintenance of the c l e r g y through fees was continued i n the United S t a t e s . The Greek's " p r i e s t i s not s e r v i l e l y revered or fe a r e d , and the r e l a t i o n between them i s too o f t e n that of buyer and s e l l e r . The p r i e s t has the means of grace, the Greek i s i n need of them f o r s a l v a t i o n , and he pays f o r what he gets — sometimes r e l u c t a n t l y " (S 287). I n the e a r l y years, as w i t h some other groups of immigrants, the q u a l i t y of the p r i e s t s a r r i v i n g e a r l y was sometimes not high (X 123). They were not i n f r e q u e n t l y r e j e c t s or adventurers. Of course, they were a l s o f r e q u e n t l y men worthy of t h e i r p o s i t i o n . The poor ones, i n 1913 according to Burgess, an ordained E p i s c o p a l i a n , a "member of the American Branch Committee of the A n g l i c a n and Eastern Orthodox ±±oy Churches Union/' were u s u a l l y "Macedonians . . .who have s l i p p e d t h e i r b i s h o p s 1 j u r i s d i c t i o n and are m i n i s t e r i n g without a u t h o r i t y wherever they can make the most money, sometimes underbidding and o u s t i n g the p r i e s t s sent by a b i s h o p . . . . The Greek p r i e s t i s h i r e d , and o f t e n 1 f i r e d , 1 by a p a r i s h committee composed u s u a l l y of p o o r l y educated peasants. And thus come the wranglings and d i s p u t e s and d i v i s i o n s 1 8 (B 58). Burgess, p r e j u d i c e d i n f a v o r o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s i m i l a r to t h a t o f h i s own church was s c a n d a l i z e d by 11 C o n g r e g a t i o n a l i s m run w i l d , " but h i s evidence i s v a l u a b l e because he wrote from d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n . He i s not too c h a r i t a b l e toward the "sent" p r i e s t s . "Some are of good educations, some are not. They are sometimes accused of b e i n g ' l o v e r s o f f i l t h y l u c r e . ' Without doubt many are, . . . but c e r t a i n l y some are f a i t h f u l , s a i n t l y shepherds, r e s p e c t e d and loved by t h e i r f l o c k s 1 1 (B 83). Many of the s m a l l e r churches were f r e q u e n t l y without p a s t o r s . "The grievous problem of many a p l a c e would be s o l v e d i f o n l y the s e v e r a l poor communities o f a s e c t i o n would combine under one p r i e s t . . . . But Greek communities w i l l seldom combine amicably" (B 56). As time went on, d i o c e s e s (Kansas belongs w i t h Chicago) and an a r c h - d i o c e s e a t New York were e s t a b l i s h e d . S e l e c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c l e r g y became ordered, and the p a r i s h i o n e r s 1 share i n the c h o i c e of a p r i e s t decreased, but church government remained e s s B i i t i a l l y a d e m o e r a t i c (Q 864) . S i n c e no Greek was going to abandon the Orthodox Church, the tempests never b o i l e d o u t s i d e o f the teapots, and the v e r b a l development, u n l e s s some a f f a i r got i n t o c o u r t where E n g l i s h was necessary, helped keep the Greek language a l i v e . L i n g u i s t i c a l l y " a r g u f y i n g " b r i n g s people together perhaps more than l o v i n g harmony — u n l e s s the p o i n t under d i s p u t e i s c h o i c e of language. 1170 Xenides i n 1922 foresaw t h a t "the coming g e n e r a t i o n w i l l have the E n g l i s h as t h e i r mother tongue" (X 144) and s e r v i c e s would be i n E n g l i s h . "This however, cannot happen d u r i n g the present g e n e r a t i o n , which uses Greek and i s not accustomed to E n g l i s h a s s o c i a t i o n of i d e a s . The Greek language and other usages brought from Greece are too sacred to them." 9^t4 The Greek "community l >was the s o c i e t y t h a t was formed to sponsor the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f churches. They numbered 55 i n 1913 (B 56), 134 i n the Unit e d S t a t e s and Canada about 1920 (X 74). Each i n c l u d e d a l l the Greeks w i t h i n a settlement, sometimes d i r e c t l y , sometimes as members o f l e s s e r s o c i e t i e s . The subordinate u n i t s gave a b a s i s of power to t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n the "community," and e f f o r t s by them to p r e v a i l over other elements were common, but no one thought o f c a r r y i n g on Greek a f f a i r s except through the community. The long t r a d i t i o n o f m u n i c i p a l democracy w i t h i n which f a c t i o n s warred, was continued i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . The Greeks achieved a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , the Pan- H e l l e n i c Union (P 121), f o r the Un i t e d S t a t e s as a whole i n 1907; a t f i r s t i t was a c o a l i t i o n of other organized groups, but i n 1910 reached 'the norm of o r g a n i z a t i o n of n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . I t s purposes were the u s u a l ones. Some were " t o teach the E n g l i s h and Greek languages, t o p r e s e r v e the Greek Orthodox Church and to develop and propagate e d u c a t i o n a l and moral d o c t r i n e s . " So s a i d t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n (B 65). The P a n - H e l l e n i c Union e v e n t u a l l y lost importance.during p o l i t i c a l a l t e r c a t i o n s a f t e r the F i r s t World War (X 105). Wt seems to have 1171 served i n p a r t as a p u b l i c screen f o r AHEPA, a lodge of s e c r e t c h a r a c t e r organized to combat American tendencies to segregate Greeks and d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t them. As p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s changed, AHEPA emerged from the shadows. 5 The more l i m i t e d s o c i e t i e s might have as a b a s i s f o r membership occupation or l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t y (gymnastics f o r i n s t a n c e ) , but more u s u a l l y they were ™formed f o r the banding together i n a town of a l l the Greeks from one p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y i n Greece or Turkey" (B 59, X 102). "Campanilismo" was not so important as among the I t l l i a n s but i t s t i l l had i t s d e f i n i t e r o l e (A 15, Q 864, X 92). The organized groups might a c t as " s e r v i c e c l u b s , " do V a l u a b l e work along benevolent l i n e s 0 As f o r the r e s t I c a n f t f o r the l i f e of me say what t h e i r purpose i s . I ' l l t e l l you! Each s o c i e t y has a p r e s i d e n t , a v i c e - p r e s i d e n t , a s e c r e t a r y , and a t r e a s u r e r — and t h a t 1 s something"(F 156). So F a i r c h i l d ' s i n q u i r y as to the purpose of the s o c i e t i e s was answered by "one of the foremost Greeks i n the country." Greeks are not alone i n America i n making s o c i e t i e s the o u t l e t for p e t t y ambitions, but perhaps the t h i r s t f o r such s a t i s f a c t i o n s was l e s s d i s g u i s e d among them than among oth e r s (A 15). In any case campaigning allowed much e x e r c i s e of H e l l e n i c eloquence. T a l k flowed most f r e e l y or r a t h e r most f r e q u e n t l y i n the c o f f e e houses. Greeks consumed but l i t t l e a l c o h o l and the r o l e of saloons was s m a l l e r than i n most immigrant groups, b ut they brought t h e i r c o f f e e houses from Greece and p a t r o n i z e d them much (B 151, Q 863). S i n c e so many of them were without f a m i l i e s , p u b l i c p l a c e s o f c a s u a l 1172 assembly were n a t u r a l l y important, but men i n or from Greece appear to have conversed w i t h t h e i r women l e s s than men i n the r e s t o f Europe. 94.60 Schools such as t h a t r e f e r r e d to by Miss Abbott above were conducted by the "communities" (X 108). Though there was i n s t r u c t i o n i n r e l i g i o n i n the e a r l y days the p r i e s t was h e l d to have no d i r e c t i n t e r e s t i n them (B 77, Q 884). As d e s c r i b e d by Burgess the sc h o o l s when he wrote i n 1913 were a l r e a d y f i r m l y b i l i n g u a l : "There i s always an American teacher or two" (B 77). The f i r s t o f them had been estab­ l i s h e d about 1908 and the h o s t i l i t i e s of the p e r i o d of the F i r s t World War were so near a t hand t h a t d i f f i c u l t days l a y b e f o r e them. Burgess c o u l d name o n l y four t h a t had more than f i f t y p u p i l s . The "Greek s c h o o l s " continued, r e i n f o r c e d by Sunday s c h o o l s , of importance p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s m a l l communities. In the 1960's they were meeting some a p a t h e t i c a t t i t u d e s , but were s t i l l doing much to perpetuate the Greek language among c h i l d r e n . But Greek c h i l d r e n most f r e q u e n t l y attended the p u b l i c s c h o o l s . Consequently "many Greek c h i l d r e n answer t h e i r parents i n E n g l i s h who speak to them i n Greek"(X 113.) 94.61g The Greek press i n the United S t a t e s prospered e a r l y because the Greeks brought w i t h them an a v i d i n t e r e s t i n the r e a d i n g of newspapers (Q 863, X 109). A t l a n t i s was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1894 as a weekly i n New York. I t became a d a i l y i n 1903, and i n 1912 had a c i r c u l a t i o n o f 20 to 25 thousand i n c l u d i n g s u b s c r i b e r s " i n every p a r t o f the country" (B 67). A t l a n t i s s t i l l f l o u r i s h e s i n the 1960's. Second p l a c e i s occupied by a j o u r n a l w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d by 1925, the N a t i o n a l H e r a l d . A k r o p o l i s i n Chicago i s a l s o o f long d u r a t i o n . There were i n 1912 1173 i n a l l s i x t e e n Greek newspapers. Geographically the s i x t e e n were d i s t r i b u t e d , 4 i n New York C i t y , 4 i n New England, 4 west of the Rockies, one i n P i t t s b u r g h , and three i n Chicago (B 67f, Of. F 209). Obviously f o r l o c a l news Greeks on the t r a n s - M i s s i s s i p p i p l a i n s as w e l l as the other s m a l l groups i n many c i t i e s had to depend upon newspapers p r i n t e d i n E n g l i s h and thus b i l i n g u a l i s m was promoted. .7 Greek women i n the United S t a t e s , as has been shown, were much l e s s numerous than the men a l l through the p e r i o d of immigration. And the Greeks here had the same compunctions about a l l o w i n g women to work ou t s i d e the homes as they had i n Greece (Q 863). Consequently, America seldom saw them. They c e r t a i n l y d i d not s i t i d l # . Most of them were the wives of commercial entrepreneurs, and these men had the h a b i t of housing t h e i r employees, who very f r e q u e n t l y were r e l a t i v e s , under t h e i r own r o o f s . There were no p r e j u d i c e against women's working hard at home, and the care of these p a t r i a r c h a l establishments f u l l y occupied them. They n a t u r a l l y tended thus to be very conservative i n a l l s o c i a l r e s p e c t s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n language usage. This conservatism r e l a t i v e to that of the men seemed the greater because i n any given f a m i l y or community they reached America much l a t e r than t h e i r men (B 73, X 95). Among the g i r l s born here, however, t h e i r smallness i n number l e d to advancement i n independence. Their o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r choosing a mate who would s u i t the t a s t e s that they were developing were numerous, p a r t i c u l a r l y because miscegenation was so uncommon among Greek men. S t i l l , they clung to the imported language even more than the women of ether immigrant stocks. 1174 .8 Segregational f o r c e s exerted against the Greeks were approximately as great as against I t a l i a n s . The phenomenon d i s t u r b e d them l i t t l e i n the e a r l y years. They could not rent rooms i n lodging houses w i t h others (B 148), but they seldom had such a d e s i r e . U l t i m a t e l y they f e l t the s t i n g ; hence, the o r g a n i z a t i o n of AHEPA. During the F i r s t World War, the p u b l i c a t t i t u d e toward a l l f o r e i g n e r s made matters worse. Canoutas wrote i n 1918, "Greeks have been regarded by Americans as a race which, though i n f e r i o r to themselves, were q u i t e smart i n business and made good money. Their f a u l t s have been magnified, and i f any it>n-English-speaking f o r e i g n e r of dark complexion was accused of a grave o f f e n s e , Americans were too ready to surmise that he was of Greek o r i g i n . . . . Greeks . . . have been refused c i t i z e n s h i p i n some i n s t a n c e s , judges having pronounced that they belonged to the ye l l o w race!" (C 295). He a l s o r e l a t e s how the Greek owner of a " f i r s t c l a s s cafe i n Boston" succeeded i n g e t t i n g " s e v e r a l thousand d o l l a r s from Greeks" f o r L i b e r t y loans and not "one from a l a r g e number of h i s American neighbors." "This f a c t . . . was due e i t h e r to l a c k of readiness on the part of those n a t i v e Americans to subscribe to the L i b e r t y Loan, or e l s e to u n w i l l i n g n e s s to subscribe f o r a canvasser because he was a f o r e i g n e r " (C 313). The unde r l y i n g b i t t e r n e s s evident i n t h i s statement had i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n , and so d i d s i m i l a r emotions i n succeeding decades. L i n g u i s t i c a l l y t h i s phenomenon had a more conserva t i v e i n f l u e n c e among the Greeks than among other immigrant stocks s u f f e r i n g s i m i l a r treatment. There has been the same tendency to d r i v e the Greeks together, but among them not the same e f f o r t , at l e a s t to so marked a degree, to prove that one i s " j u s t l i k e everybody e l s e 1 1 by l i n g u i s t i c usage. On the other hand not only the Greek d e s i r e f o r commercial patronage but a l s o t h e i r tendency toward j e a l o u s i e s among themselves have l e d them to make ex t e n s i v e , i f not deep-rooted, contacts w i t h the general p o p u l a t i o n and have thus l e d to e a r l y b i l i n g u a l i s m . •90 Very s m a l l groups of Greeks, i f they p e r s i s t e d i n one l o c a l i t y long enough to become w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , were l i k e l y to be accepted i n t h e i r communities. Two cases of l i n g u i s t i c usage i n f a m i l i e s r e s i d e n t i n Kansas are t y p i c a l — not a - t y p i c a l of developments i n l a r g e r groups. Miss S., b. 1929, had a s i s t e r , b. ca. 1932, and a brothe r , b. ca. 1936. While the g i r l s were s m a l l the mother addressed them i n Greek but had ceased a l t o g e t h e r by the time they were grown. Their f a t h e r , b. ca. 1900, an immigrant, used only E n g l i s h to them, but the spouses spoke Greek to each other, i n s e r t i n g E n g l i s h words, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the area of business. A s i s t e r of the mother was o f t e n w i t h the f a m i l y , and the two older women used Greek to each other. Miss S, about 1952, was held by her mother to know Greek s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l so that three months abroad would i&ake her f l u e n t . Her s i s t e r was l e s s p r o f i c i e n t , and her brother knew only a l i t t l e . The mother was of c u l t u r e d background. The f a t h e r had a n g l i c i z e d h i s name. Mr. F., b. 1930 or 1931, l i v e d i n a town where the Greeks were s u f f i c i e n t l y numerous to form a s o c i e t y (13 f a m i l i e s ) . There was l i t t l e marriage w i t h other than Greeks. His mother had come from Greece i n 1900, h i s f a t h e r i n 1914. Tfee group kept up the use of Greek, and Mr. F. i n 1952 considered himself and those h i s age p r o f i c i e n t i n the language. A Greek p r i e s t who reported on the q u a l i t y of h i s Greek was not of the same o p i n i o n , and r a t e d him much as Miss S i s mother had ra t e d her daughter. But he had v i s i t e d Greece. 91g Greek speakers i n the United States i n the 1960's, i f f o r no other reason than that the Greek stock was one of the l a s t to ga i n any importance nu m e r i c a l l y here, were a l a r g e r f r a c t i o n of the number of immigrants and descendants than speakers of other f o r e i g n languages. Such i s the f a c t , t r u e f o r Kansas as elsewhere. R e l a t i v e smallness i n s i z e of settlements has been counter-balanced by i n f l u e n c e s f o r segregation, whether v o l u n t a r y or i n v o l u n t a r y , and perhaps most i m p o r t a n t l y , by the i n t e r n a l discouragement of p a r t i c i p a t i o n by women i n general s o c i a l l i f e . 1177 0 The Lebanese are the only stock speaking a non-Indo-European language s i g n i f i c a n t l y represented i n Kansas. As speakers of Arabic they represent the Semitic group. The l i n g u i s t i c behavior of the Lebanese, whose language has no r e l a t i o n s h i p to English, w i l l be seen to be similar to that of stocks speaking Indo- European languages. After consideration of the Lebanese a single paragraph i s devoted to each of four non-Indo-European groups not s i g n i f i c a n t l y represented in Kansas, but present in the United Stated* Their behavior follows l i n g u i s t i c a l l y a very simi l a r pattern. Lebanese Bibliography AI - Anonymous. "The Story of a Young Syrian 1 1 Independent LV (23 A p r i l 1903), 1007-1013. AL - Anonymous and u n t i t l e d . L i t e r a r y Digest, 3 May 1919, p. 43. G - Gulick, John. Soci a l Structure and Culture Change i n a Lebanese V i l l a g e . New York, 1955. HB - Hess, C. G. and Bogman, H. L. "Confessionalism and Feudality in Lebanese P o l i t i c s , " Middle East Journal VIII (1954), 10- 26. HH - H i t t i , P h i l i p K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine. New York, 1951. H - H i t t i , P h i l i p K. The Syrians i n America. New York, 1924. Ho - Houghton, Louise Seymour. "Syrians in the United States,'" Survey (1911), 481-495, 647-663, 786-803, 957-968. L - Leary, Lewis Gaston. Syria, The Land of Lebanon. New York, 1913.. 117& l l g Lebanese, a l l of whom are Arabic speaking, were u n t i l the F i r s t World War, known in the United States as Syrians even among themselves when speaking English. P o l i t i c a l l y , though nearly autonomous, Lebanon was part of Syria. Very few other Syrians came to the United States; thus there was no confusion as to t h e i r i d e n t i t y . In the following sections, too, they w i l l sometimes be referred to as Syrians, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n quoting material upon them. (In Volume I, notably on page 322, they are referred to as Syrians.) Even giving Lebanese the meaning that the word has acquired since Lebanon became a completely independent p o l i t i c a l e n tity, i t has a more sel e c t i v e meaning when applied to Lebanese i n the United States than i t has when r e f e r r i n g to those in Lebanon, for the Lebanese in the United States are nearly a l l Christians, Catholics of one type or another. In Kansas the exceptions are almost non-existent. In Lebanon, however, the proportion of Christians on the one hand to Mohammedans and Druzes on the other was such that " i n the Chamber of 1937 there were 22 Christians as against 20 Muslims and Druzes" (Z 72). C h r i s t i a n and Moslem Lebanese are mingled i n Beirut and certain other coastal towns, but r u r a l Christians almost a l l l i v e i n that part of Lebanon stretching from the sea up to the tops of the closest mountain range, but not on the coastal p l a i n at i t s two ends. The smallness of this area — 50 miles south along 1179 the coast from Beirut and less to the north, by about 15 miles inland from the shore — makes d i a l e c t a l v a r i a t i o n of Arabic within i t s l i g h t . 95.20 S i g n i f i c a n t American s t a t i s t i c s concerning Lebanese are not only those labeled "Syrian;" s t a t i s t i c s for immigrants from Turkey i n Asia are also s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e to measure in some sort the number of Lebanese a r r i v a l s , for Turks were few and even Greeks from Asia were not numerous u n t i l the Balkan War. The s t a t i s t i c s for these speaking Arabic in the United States are also pertinent; in 1920 88% of a l l Arabic speakers were from Syria, 82% in 1930. 95.21 On Lebanese, Syrians, and speakers of Arabic pertinent census data for various states and the United States are: United States born i n foreign-born f.w.s. Syrian & F.W.S.Syrian & Syria Syrian & Arabic Arabic Arabic mother mother tongue mother tongue tongue originat­ ing in Turkey in Asia 1910 32,868 46,495 39,633* 1920 51,901 57,557 104,139 99,181 1930 57,227 67,830 * 5,038 from Turkey in Europe, presumably mostly Lebanese from Cons tant inople. 1895 Syrian stock at home in Kansas - born. - 22, of which 19 were foreign- Syrian and Arabic mother tongue, foreign-born (as recorded by census of 1930) Kansas Oklahoma 1910 182 328 1920 270 717 1930 250 863 Syrian and Arabic, mother tongue, foreign white stock U.S. Mass. N.Y. Penna. Ohio 111. Mich. Mo. Okla. Kans 1910*46,495 *7,253 *7,312 *4,646 *2,442* 1,568* 1,642 * 1,055 *529 * 249 * * * * * * * * * * 1920*104,139* 13,270*14,752*11,162 *7,159* 3,064* 7,195 * 1,563 *717 * 572 95.22g Lebanese immigration to the United States f i r s t became noteworthy in the 1880's (HH 696, B® 481), but immigration s t a t i s t i c s begin only i n 1899. 1181 Report of the Immigration Commissioner Bound Bound Bound U.S. for U.S. for U.S. for Kansas Kansas Kansas 1899 3,708 0 * * 1908 3,520 56 * * 1917 976 1 1900 2,920 0 * * 1909 3,668 17 * * 1918 210 0 19S1 4,064 0 * * 1910 6,317 29 * * 1919 231 0 1902 4,982 5 * * 1911 5,444 24 * * 1920 504 6 1903 5,551 25 * 1912 5,525 19 * * 1921 5,105 10 1904 3,653 8 * * 1913 9,210 18 * * 1922 1,334 1 1905 4,822 9 * 1914 9,023 11 * * 1923 1,207 1 1906 5,824 37 * 1915 1,767 3 * * 1924 1,595 3 1907 5,880 32 * 1916 676 7 * -3 Some knowledge of the h i s t o r y of Lebanon during the nineteenth and early twentieth century i s needful to understand even s t a t i s t i c s Ipng regarding the country through t h i s period. It had been part of the Turkish empire, a portion of the v i l a y e t of Damascus, not a p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y but, at lea s t i n the portion whence emigration came, l i t t l e disturbed by the Turks and r e l a t i v e l y quiet with Druze overlords and a la r g e l y C h r i s t i a n population, mostly Maronites, indeed so nearly t r a n q u i l that i t attracted immigration by Sunni and S h i ' i Moslems, and Orthodox C h r i s t i a n s . During the m i l i t a r y occupation by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha (1831-1840) communication with the west became easier. The Jesuits returned, and by 1848 American Protestant missionaries were at work (HH 701). The Maronite population increased and tended to displace the cDruze commoners who l i v e d to the south of them. There arose chaos among the feudal lords, and 1182 beginning about 1838 r e l i g i o u s h o s t i l i t i e s became marked (HB 10). In 1859 and 1860 the Druzes massacred many Maronites, abetted by the Turks who saw greater power for themselves in these d i v i s i o n s . Thereupon the powers of Europe intervened and set up a quasi- independent government over a t e r r i t o r y c a l l e d Lebanon (HH 695) and extending approximately over the area described above as the source of emigration, but not including the c i t y of Beirut. This Lebanese d i s t r i c t had a C h r i s t i a n governor, chosen among non- natives, and a Maronite bureaucracy which behaved i n c i v i l a f f a i r s much as preceding governments had, that i s corruptly and v e n i a l l y (AI 1007). But safety of l i f e and limb was rather well established, and the population went on increasing to the point that emigration soon had to provide r e l i e f . This state of a f f a i r s continued u n t i l 1914. Then the Turks, because the population was pro-Ally during the F i r s t World War, blockaded the country. No e x i t was possible; hardship and undernourishment took many l i v e s , so that i t i s generally held that no population increase occurred u n t i l about 1922 (G 53). At the close of the F i r s t World War when the French secured Syria and Lebanon as a mandate, a separate state of Lebanon was set up with considerably increased t e r r i t o r y , including the high broad v a l l e y of Beka'a between the f i r s t range from the sea, Mount Lebanon, and the second, the Anti-Lebanon, amd more to the north (HB 14). The additions l e f t the Christians a majority but only a meager majority. This mandate afte r the Second World War became the sovereign state of Lebanon. During the period of the French mandates, i n spite of the difference i n government, the world tended to regard Syria and Lebanon as a unit, and l i t e r a t u r e on the subject to treat them as such. E a r l i e r writings are s t i l l vaguer i n dealing with Lebanon, so that certain s t a t i s t i c a l and economic observations must be based on extrapolation. .4 The population of the Lebanon ex i s t i n g in the f i r s t decade of the 20th century was according to the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica and Grande Encyclopedie 400,000 of whom 320,000 were Christians (3/4 of these^ Maronites, another 15% Greek Orthodox, and the res t Greek UniatesX There were 50,000 Druzes and 30,000 Moslems. A l l agree that this population was too great for the resources of the area. The Statesmens Yearbook of 1913 in assigning to Lebanon a population of 200,000 was probably repeating a figure t r a d i t i o n a l from 1860. Certainly population did not f a l l o f f , though Himadeh in 1936 (quoted by G 63) estimated that 120,000 persons emigrated from Lebanon between 1860 and 1906, almost twice as many between 1900 and 1914; sometimes v i l l a g e s l o s t whole clans. Concerning the Lebanon created a f t e r the F i r s t World War Zradeh i n 1945 reported as follows: "The most recent census i n Lebanon was held i n 1932. In 1943 a mira (rationing) census came to be recognized, but a great deal of suspicion surrounds i t . Very l i t t l e data are available . 0 . . The following figures are mostly estimates. 11H* Year Population (in thousands) 1932 1,047 1942 1,105 1947 1,186 1952 1,338 1955 1,420"(Z 240) For the estimates l a t e r than 1932 other commentators agree. The rate of increase i n population i s in d i c a t i v e of what was happening e a r l i e r . A mountainous country, where extensive industry developed l a t e and a g r i c u l t u r a l methods have made slow progress, with a population of about 350 persons to the square mile, provides great push for emigration. 95.5 The p o l i t i c a l push for emigration can be deduced from the h i s t o r i c a l sketch presented above. The massacres of 1859 and 1860 provided an i n i t i a l impetus (Z 242). The protected p o s i t i o n of Lebanon i n the Turkish empire made exit possible thereafter and permitted the growth i n number of American mission schools (Z 37, also 256, Ho 788). These schools made few converts to Protestantism, but they opened the eyes of pupils to a larger world and instructed many i n English so that even emigrants of the 1890 fs were not uncommonly able to get along i n English on a r r i v a l (AI 1009). The blockade of 1914-1918 allowed the in t e r n a l push no vent, and emigration was ready to burst into a c t i v i t y when peace returned. The American immigration laws removed the United States as a destination for many years, but the push s t i l l existed and people went elsewhere though not in such numbers, for urlgan development absorbed part of the surplus r u r a l population. 1185 .6 Religion among the Lebanese, af t e r the c r i s i s of I860, provided l i t t l e push for emigration, but i t has been fundamental in determining behavior of Lebanese both at home and abroad. In Lebanese government, Hess and Bodman say, "We may somewhat loosely characterize confessional- ism as a comfortable, acceptable, and understandable way of doing things 1 1 (HB 22). Gulick says: "Beyond, and except for, kinship and l o c a l connections, sectarian a f f i l i a t i o n i n the Middle East i s the strongest bond which can unite a group of people and the most impenetrable b a r r i e r which can separate one group from another" (G 26) . H i t t i i s as outright: Religion "divided them [the Lebanese} into two main h o s t i l e camps — C h r i s t i a n and Muslim — and in the case of the Christians into mutually jealous communities, but within each denomination i t brought the members together" (H 34, see also Ho 961). The d i v i s i o n s among the Moslems int e r e s t us l i t t l e since few came to the United States and so to speak, none to Kansas. The same i s true for the Druzes (on their o r i g i n see H 41) who despite Moslem connection, are always treated as a separate group. The Maronites and Melkites are "Eastern Rites in communion with Rome" (Cath. Directory 1960, p. 777) 0 In the United States t h e i r parishes are part of the regular dioceses, subject to the diocesan government. In Lebanon, however, they are u n i t i e s d i s t i n c t from each other and from the few Roman Catholics to be found i n that country. Prom the point of view of the Eastern Orthodox church these two eastern groups were schismatics. They were there­ fore e a s i l y accessible to Western influences. The Maronites, through contacts made with the Crusaders, were more or less i n the o r b i t of 1186 Rome from the twelfth century on, and the bond became very strong i n the 18th century. The Melkites were not attracted so early. Though both spurn the claim that they were once h e r e t i c a l , the differences between the two of them and between them and the Eastern Orthodox Church were o r i g i n a l l y d o c t r i n a l , and the s p i r i t of separation continued strong. The Maronites, as the numerically strongest C h r i s t i a n body i n Lebanon, furnished through i t s clergy the administrative personnel of the Lebanon of 1861-1914. Under the regime that has followed the Second World War the president of the Republic (who has r e a l power) i s a Maronite and h i s prime minister a Sunni Moslem. The Melkites are badly i n need of an unambiguous name; thi s p a r t i c u l a r term has been used with a broader meaning. Some authors prefer the term Greek Catholic, taking the term "Catholic" to mean "dependent upon Rome" and "Greek" to mean "using the Greek r i t e . " 7 The group of the greatest interest to Kansas i s that c a l l e d Greek Orthodox i n Lebanon, and Syrian Orthodox in the United States Though Maronites and Melkites do not have churches in Kansas, the Orthodox did at Wichita. Like Eastern Orthodox elsewhere, the Lebanese Orthodox have congregations showing great independence (G 74). The figures given above for the r e l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Syria of the various sects are much d i f f e r e n t from the d i s t r i b u t i o n according to Zradeh i n 1957 (Z 25) which are (figures in thousands) 1187 Sunnis 274 Maronites 422 Armenian Orth. 58 S h i 1 a 225 Greek Orth. 198 Armenian Cath. 14 Druzes 88 Melkites 90 Protestants 13 Jews 6 Other Cath. 16 The Maronite growth (nearly double the number in 1905} can be attributed very l a r g e l y to natural increase, the Greek Orthodox four-fold increase has a larger source derived from the population in added t e r r i t o r y . Near the sea coast the Orthodox v i l l a g e s are in general the descendants of colonists who came from the Damascus area or elsewhere in the seventeenth century (G 146). The v i l l a g e s of every stock maintain confessional i d e n t i t y . There may be peripheral inhabitants belonging to sects other than the p r i n c i p a l one, but they are strangers outside of the l i m i t s of intermarriage. Many d i f f e r e n t sects l i v e together in the c i t i e s , but sectarian d i s t i n c t i o n i s nearly as r i g i d there. .8 The economic push for emigration i n Lebanon was the r e a l l y compelling factor. The basic urge came from population growth i n a laggard economy. Two important accidental factors were the collapse of the s i l k market in 1893 (Ho 481, see a l i o G 148) shortly a f t e r the opening of the Suez Canal and the disaster to grape production from phylloxera. An e x c i t i n g factor was the b u i l d i n g of a good harbor at Beirut about 1900 (Z 45) which made ex i t much easier. In the e a r l i e r part of the 19th century the Turkish government established a system of land ownership c e r t i f i c a t e s . To dodge taxes the peasants not infrequently had t h e i r land registered 1188 by some r i c h inhabitant of t h e i r d i s t r i c t under h i s name. Eventually, the property became the registrant's (£ 237) and the the peasant's family was l e f t landless, therefore ripe for emigration. (See the 1903 Independent for a case evidently of t h i s character which led to emigration, AI 1008.) As in other countries of the New Emigration the worda^ pictures of returned emigrants played an important r o l e in promoting more departures (Ho 482). Emigrant remittances helped b u i l d up the economy in Lebanon (G 62), but also provided money for further emigration. .9 The family structure in Lebanon tended to produce mass ex i t once emigration had begun. Brothers had the same sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for each other as i n Greece and there was the same p o s s i b i l i t y of absorbing s i b l i n g s i n family commercial enterprises. Therefore one member of a family brought to America a l l the rest of h i s family; thus houses were often abandoned and l e f t to r u i n i n Lebanon (G 37, 112, L 23). Furthermore, what affected one family in a v i l l a g e l i k e l y affected a great many more, for "the v i l l a g e as a whole . . . i s , i t s e l f , a kin group toward which feelings of utmost l o y a l t y and unity are directed" (G 155). As a contrast to Greece there was almost as much motivation for bringing women to America as men. The women in Lebanon as workers were not r e s t r i c t e d to a c t i v i t y within the family or upon i t s lands (G 61); they par t i c i p a t e d in commercial a c t i v i t i e s . Only the Moslems l e f t t h e i r women permanently behind when they emigrated (H 58). 1189 96.0 The reverence of the Lebanese for the Arabic language has been and i s great (G 165, H 34, 101). They do not consider i t forced upon them by foreigners. Such action occurred far too long ago to be remembered. C l a s s i c Arabic i s written in such a manner as to make possible the reading of i t by peoples speaking various d i a l e c t s without adjustments in s p e l l i n g . The Lebanese were, i t seems, unaware of the d i a l e c t a l character of t h e i r own speech. They were not l i k e South I t a l i a n s , for instance, who are brought up with the notion that t h e i r own d i a l e c t i s something pleasant but i n f e r i o r . Consequently, there i s l i t t l e push for a Lebanese to abandon Arabic. He w i l l acquire other l i n g u i s t i c tools, as he has English in the American schools in Lebanon, but such an a c q u i s i t i o n i s merely that of a t o o l . 96.1 The Lebanese spread a l l over the United States as soon as t h e i r immigration became important toward the end of the nineteenth century, but the census data quoted above show that nearly h a l f of them congregated in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. The rest of the i n d u s t r i a l northeast accounts for s i g n i f i c a n t numbers. Though the t o t a l s are not imposing, a larger proportion of Lebanese emigrated to the South than was true for any other st$ Akron, Archbold, Canton, Celina, C i n c i n n a t i , Cleveland, Dayton, Deshler, Lancaster, Munster, Napoleon, Ridg e v i l l e Corners, Somerset, T i f f i n , Toledo, Zanesville 1241 Catholics, Soman (cont*) within the U. S* (cont.) mentioned as resident i n (cont*) Oklahoma — B a r t l e s v i l l e Mex, Dewey Mex, fihid l e x , Okarche Ger, Oklahoma Ci t y Mex, Pawhuska Mex, Shawnee Mex, Tulsa Mex Pennsylvania — Early Philadelphia, Pittsburgh Slov enian Texas — C a s t r o v i l l e Ger4Mex, E l Paso Mex, MarfafMex, San Angelo Mex Wisconsin —- Appleton, Beaver Dam, Dane Co*, De Pere, Fenimore, Fond du Lac, Genoa Ger+Ital, Green Bay Ger+Pol, J e f f e r ­ son, J e r i c o , Kaukana, La Crosse, Luxemburg, Madison, Menasha, Milwaukee polyglot, Hew Muenster, Oshkosh, Pewaukee, Pi l s e n Cz, Sheboygan, Sherwood, Stockbridge, Washing­ ton Co. Ger Cath i n Wise & Bennett Law 56.41-42 On Catholics see also Maronites, Melkites, Orthodox Cemeteries, National Czech 75»31? parochial and congregational cemeteries, passim Census s t a t i s t i c s , U* S., except mother tongue, q* v., by states f o r national­ i t i e s * For Germans, Scandinavians, and Czechs see Vol.. 14 f o r Germans also 50*20 Dutch 59-02 French 84.1 French Canadian 86.1 f f • Greek 9 3 . 1 0 , 11 1242 Census s t a t i s t i c s (cont.) I t a l i a n 81.1 Lebanese 95*20, 21 Mex 8 9 . 0 ; . f o r Texas 89.41, f o r Oklahoma 8 9 . 9 0 , leaving southwest 89.80 Poles 7 6 . 0 Welsh 91 . 2 , . 3 Chicago. See I l l i n o i s Children and Ifogl-izing, general 9 9 . 2 - 5 Chinese 9 6 . 8 Ghiniquy, Father 8 7 . 8 3 , 82 Christian Reformed Church (Dutch) 5 9 . 4 Church of God (Ger-ling) 57.50; 58.29 Church of God i n fehrist, Mennonite. See Holdeman Mennonite Church of the Brethren. See Dunkards Cincinnati. See Ohio Clannishness, Czech 7 5 . 6 . See also Cam- panilismo, Intermarriage, Provincialism Claretian Fathers 8 9 . 6 2 , 6 3 , 81 Cleveland, see Ohio Co§l Mining 4 9 . 3 2 f f . Elsewhere: Germans i n I l l i n o i s 55*68 I t a l i a n s 82 . 6 0 , 61 Mexicans, general 90 .25 Mexicans and Slavs i n Colorado 89 .73 Welsh i n I l l i n o i s 9 2 . 3 4 , i n Missouri 9 2 . 3 7 , i n Ohio 9 2 . 3 2 1243 Colorado American GI Forum (Mexican) 89*76 Calvanfcfcic Methodist Church (Welsh) 91 . 3 Denver and Rio Grande Railroad 8 9 . 71 Germans, from Reich 57*90, from Russia see Volgans below Hispanos 89*71-72 occasionally i n sur­ rounding sections; term defined 8 8 . 0 0 ; 89 . 0 3 Kansas, summary of likeness to 97*72 Mexicans 89*70 f f . See also Garden Ci t y i n Vol. I I , 48 .22 Volgans 53*94, 9 6 . See also as f o r Mex. For-ling stocks, Mexican or Hispano un­ less labeled otherwise, mentioned as occurring i n ; 8 9 . has been omitted where an item has only one reference beginning with i t . Alamosa 8 9 . 7 1 , 72 Eaton Volg 57*93 mmMmm Erie 76 Alamosa Co. 71 Fort C o l l i n s Volg Antonito 71 ## 5 7 . 9 3 , 9^, Hex Arkansas River 8 9 . 70 ,78 8 9 . 7 6 , 77 Berthoud Volg 57*93 Fort Garland 72 Burlington Black Fort Morgan V+Bl 57*93, 9^, Mex sea57.92 89*77 Brighton Volg 57.92 G i l c r e s t 77 Cokedale 73 Greeley Volg 57*93, 94 , Mex 89 .76 Conejos 71 Holly 79 C o s t i l l a Co. 71 Huerfano Co. 89 .73 Del Norte 71 Lafayette 76 DenverVolg 5 7 . 9 1 , 92 Mex 89*71 , 7 2 , 7^ Animas 78,79 1244 Colorado (cont.) For-lings mentioned as occurring i n (cont.) La Junta 89.78,79 Saguache Go. 71 Lamar 8 9 . 7 8 , 79 San Luis 89.70-72 Longmont Volg 57.93 San Luis Valley Loveland Volg 57.93, 8 8 . 0 0 , 89.71 94, Mex 89.77 Sangre de Gristo Manassa 72 Mountains 89.70,73 Monte V i s t a 89.71,72 Santa Fe RR 78 Ordway 78 Slovenian Miners 78.0 Pueblo Volg 57.92 Sopris 73 Slav 78.1 South Platte Valley Mex 89.70,73 Volg 57.93, Mex Rio Grande Co. 71 89.70, 75, 76 Rocky Ford 78 S t e r l i n g Volg Romeo 72 57.93, 94 Sugar C i t y 78 Trinidad Mex and I t a l 89.70, 73 Volgans general 57.93 Walsenburg Mex+Slav 73 Weld Co 89.76, 77 Wiggins 74 Windsor Volg 57.93 Congregationalists, general 49.43 German 58.27, 03 mentioned as occurring i n (Volgans except i n Iowa) Colorado, Loveland 57*94 I l l i n o i s , Chicago 55 .88 Iowa, Avoca 56.80 DesMoines 56.76 1245 Congregationalists (cont.) German (cont.) mentioned as occurring i n (cont.) Iowa (cont.)Dubuque 56.61 Minden 56 .80 Muscatine 56.06 Wilton 56.67 Nebraska, Gulbertson 57*68 Grand Island 57.65 Hastings 57.66 Lincoln 57 .48 Sutton 57.52 Welsh 91 . 7 ; 9 2 . 3 0 , .4 Connecticut French Swiss, Torrington 85.80 I t a l i a n s , Hartford 82 . 9 New Haven 8 2 . 5 3 , . 9 ; 8 3 . 1 2 , . Poles 76.O Conscription. See M i l i t a r y Service, OtJig atory Cornies, Johann 5 ^ . 0 2 , 25 Covenanters. See Swedish Mission Crimea 5 ^ . 0 0 , 2 3 , 50 Croatians 7 8 . 1 f f . , 7 7 . 0 , . 1 , . 3 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , 3 3 , 35 i n meat# packing 49 .38-39 i n national parishes 4 9 . 5 9 , 6 4 , 66 s t a t i s t i c a l l y confused with Slovenians 77 .0 mother tongue census s t a t i s t i c s 49.92 CSPS, Czech lodge 75 .32 1246 Czechs ?1 .0 f f . and intermarriage 49#80 i n meat packing 4 9 . 3 8 i n national parishes 49.59* 6 4 f 66 Mentioned with Germans i n Iowa, northeast 56 .65 Cedar Hapids 56 .71 Iowa C i t y 56 .71 Nebraska, Wilbur 57•59 Wisconsin, Milwaukee 56.07 Dakotas, 1874 Mennonites 5^***0 Scandinavians 64 .0 See also North and South Dakota Dalarne, Swedish province 61 .6 Danes 67.OO f f . , 6 2 . 0 - . 3 and intermarriage 4 9 . 8 0 , 89 mother tongue census s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 mentioned with Germans i n Iowa Harlan 5 6 . 7 5 , Newell 56.86 See also Scandinavians Danish Church, denomination i n 0 . S. 67*13 Danzig and Mennonites 51*11, 5^*00, 3 2 , 34 ; 57*f? Denver and Rio Grande Railroad employed Mexicans 9 0 . 0 1 . See also Colorado Defenseless Mennonites 58.42 Dialect, general treatments, and Engl-izing 98 .04 A l s a t i a n 52 .50 Datch 59*51 French Canadian 86 .5 1247 Dialect (cont.) French Canadian 86 .5 German, and Ehgl-izing 58 .93 i n St. Louis 56.99 i n Sheboygan 56.19 on Volga 53*81, 82 I t a l i a n 81.7? 83 .8 Mexican (lacking) 88.30 Discrimination against Greeks 9 4 . 8 , I t a l i a n s 8 3 . 7 0 , 7 1 . Mexicans 90 .33 See also segregation Displaced persons, Gerling, a f t e r Second * o r l d War 5 5 . 8 0 , 89 Dorpat Seminary 53*51 Drus&es i n Lebanon 95*11* .6 Duden, Gottfri e d 5 7 . 0 4 ; 56*93 Dimkards, members of the Church of the Brethren, 58.43 mentioned as being present i n I l l i n o i s Freeport and Lena 55*97 along Rock River 55*98 Indiana, Mkhart Go. 55.46 Oklahoma, Thomas 57*88 Dutch 59*00-52 and intermarriage 49 .80 among Mennonites 51*11 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 , 93 i n national parishes r 49 .64 l a s t F r i s i a n s , from western Hanover, 1248 l a s t F r i s i a n s , from western Hanover 50.11, 5 1 , 6 1 , 8 5 , 90 present i n the United states i n I l l i n o i s , Clayton 55 .71 Champaign 55*77$ 78 Mount Olive 55.68 W i l l Co. 55 .92 Iowa, Breda 56 .83 Bremer Go. 56#66 east of Palmer 56 .81 Nebraska, Mams Co. 57.67 Auburn 57*62 Franklin Co. 57.68 Lanham 57*56 Otoe Reserve 57*60 S t e r l i n g 57.63 Ohio, Cleveland 55 . 15 Education Croatian 7 8 . 4 Czech 75*5 Danish 67 .13 French Canadian, i n Canada 8 6 . 81 i n the United States 8 7 . 2 German i n Russia among Blackseamen 5^*61 Mennonites 54 .25 Volgans 53*6, . 7 i n the United States Lutheran Missouri Synod schools 58 .16 Other schools mentioned i n Iowa, Carrol (Catholic) 56 .82 1249 Education (cont.) German (cont.) i n 0. S. (cont.) other schools mentioned i n (cont.) Iowa (cont.) Davenport*56.57, 58 DesMoines 56.76 Missouri public schools 57 .29 St. Louis 58 .6 Ohio public schools 55.11 Wisconsin under Bennett Law 56.41-45 Milwaukee 56.08 Greek 9 ^ . 6 0 , i n Kansas Ci t y , Mo. 94.10 Hispano i n New Mexico 89.15 I t a l i a n 82.4, 8 3 .0 Lebanese 96.15 Mexican, i n Mexico 8 8 . 5 1 i n the United States 87 .2 Chicago 89.87 Colorado 8 9 . 7 6 , 77 Texas 8 9 . 4 3 Polish 76.80, 82 Slovenian 78.4 Swedish 66.32 Welsh, i n w a l e s 9 1 . 6 , . 7 , i n the United States 9 2 . 5 Eisteddfod 9 1 . 9 ; 92.6 1250 Emigration Causes of General 49 . 0 3 f f Croatian 77.4, .70, .#9 Czech71«lff*» Danish 62.1 f f . Dutch 59.10-12 Flemish 59.81-82 French of France 85.1 f f . French Canadian 86 . 5 f f . German and Ger-ling i n Austrian Crown lands 52.8 i n Germany 17th & 18th centuries 50.40-42 19th century 51.00 f f . i n Luxemburg 52.51 i n Russia 53.16,17 Mennonite bringing to Russia 54.01 sending from Russia 54.1 f f . Volgan 53.91 f f . i n Switzerland 52 .3 Greek 93.40 f f . I t a l i a n 81 .5 f f . Lebanese 95*3 f f . Mexican 88.31ff., 88 .73 Norwegian 63.01 Polish 76.10-11, 31 f f • Slovenian 77•Zi Swedish 61 .2 f f . European development hinders 49.07 Ports of departure 41.06', 49.01 S t a t i s t i c s on, fo r Germany 50.70-72 See also Immigration 1251 Engl-izing General discussion 98*00 to end General on urban and r u r a l rates 4 9 . 2 6 among Catholics — conservation vs. Amer­ ica n i z a t i o n 49 #58 effect of nativism 4 9 . 2 ? by stocks — general discussions Croatian 78.#9 I t a l i a n 8 3 . 9 Czech 75 .7 Lebanese 96.59 Dutch 59.51-52 Mexican 90 .8-.9, Texas 89.48d, Chicago 89 .98 French Canadian 8 7 . 6 , 86*2, 87.9$ resistance t o , i n Canada 8 6 . 9 German 58 .89 f f . Polish 76 .9 early 55.00 Welsh 92.90ff. i n Wisconsin 56.48-49 also passim, but see especially Greek 94 .90-91 World War, F i r s t Europe Ports 49 .06 resistance there to l i n g u i s t i c displace­ ment 98 .03 See also names of countries, provinces and other large p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s Evangelical German use of the term 58.01 General on non-Lutheran bodies using "Evangelical" i n t h e i r names 58.02, 05-07 See further the next four main items Evangelical Association 58.20-21 mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s , northern 55.86 southeast 55*5& 1252 Evangelical Assn (cont.) mentioned as present i n (cont.) Iowa, Black Hawk Co. 56 .65 Council Bl u f f s 56.27 DesMoines56.76 Hardin Co. 56 .75 Uxm Co. 56 .71 Story Co. 56.75 Missouri, Cosby 57.26 Oregon 57.26 St. Joseph 57.24 Nebraska, near F a l l s City 57 .61 Fremont 57.52 Gage Co. 57.60 Grand Island 57 .65 at & near Hastings 57*66 Sutton 5 7 . 5 2 , West Point 57.37 Wisconsin, Calumet Co. 56.24 Dane Co. 56.35 Fond du Lac area 56 .25 Green Co. 56 .34 La Crosse area 56.39 Lomira 56.26 Sauk Go. 56.36 Winnebago Co. 56.28 Evangelical and Reformed Church 58.18-19 mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s ( 5 5 . i s omitted before each reference) Alton 67 G o l l i n s v i l l e 65 Aurora 90 Edwardsville 66 B e l l e v i l l e area 60 Bensen v i l l e 89 Elgin 90 Chicago 87 Homel 66 1253 Evangelical & &eformdd Church (cont.) mentioned as present i n (cont.) I l l i n o i s (cont.) Oconee 55 Quincy 71 Ohlman 55 Staunton 6 8 , 69 pana 55 Waterloo 63 Pekin 74 Indiana ( 5 5 . i s omitted) DuBois Co. 37 Fort Wayne 42 Elkhart 45 Lafayette 44 Evansville and near 38 Iowa ( 5 6 . i s emitted) Ackley 75 Monticello 67 Clarence 67 Pomeroy 87 Keokuk 53 Schleswig 84 Waukon 63 Zwingle 60 Ledyard 88 Louden 67 Michigan t i i l e s # 5 5 ^5 Ohio ( 5 5 . i s emitted) Bluffton 26 Monroe C0« 18 Canton 17 New Bremen 25 Hamilton 14 Somerset 20 Lancaster 20 Strassburg 16 Oklahoma (57* i s omitted) Kingfisher 75 OKeene 75 Loyal 75 Marshall 7^ Wisconsin ( 5 6 . i s omitted) Hartford 18 Milwaukee 13 K i e l 21 New Holstein 21 Menominee F a l l s 17 Sheboygan 19 See also Evangelical Synod & Reformed Nebrask a Arago 57 .61 Plymouth 57.59 Columbus (R) 57.39 Seward 57.50 Lincoln 57 .46-49 Steinauer 57.62 aha 57 .32 Sutton (R) 57 .52 Winside (R) 57.38 ^Missouri Amazonia # 5 7 . 2 6 Kansas Ci t y 57.23 Blackburn 5 7 . 2 1 , 22 Lexington 57 .21 P a r k v i l l e 5 7 . 2 3 , 25 Rhineland 57 . 11 , 12 Rockville 57.28 Savannah 57*26 Franklin Co. 57 .05 Sedalia 57 . 19 , 20 Bland 57 .11 C a l i f o r n i a 57*18 Cape Giradeau Co. 57*00 Cosby 57*26 Gasconnade Co. 57 .11 St. feharles 57.09 Germantown 57.28 St. Louis 5 6 . 9 7 , 99 Hermann 57.10 f f . Stolpe 5 7 . 1 1 , 12 H i g g i n s v i l l e 5 7 . 2 1 , 22 Washington Independence 57 .23 57.08 ferson City 57 .17 1254 Evangelical Synod 58*18, 9 2 . The churches i n the following l i s t probably a l l became Evangelical and Reformed Churches and might be included i n the preceding l i s t . mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s (55* has been omitted from references) Adeline 97 Kankakee 93 Chebansee 93 Peru 9^ fileroy 97 Princeton 84 Porreston 97 Rock Run 97 Freeport 97 W i l l Co. 92 Highland 66 Holloway 9^ Indiana (55* i s omitted) DuBols Go.37 Perry Co. 37 Evansville area 38 Iowa (56* i s omitted) A t l a n t i c 79 Le© Go. 5^ Burlington 55 Marshalltown 7^ Dubuque 6 l Muscatine 56 F t . Madison 53 Wilton (Moscow Twp) 6? Hubbard 75 Missouri (57* i s omitted) Blackburn 22 St. Joseph 24 Femme Osage 07 St. Louis 56.93» 9 7 ; K Independence 23 5 7 . 2 3 , 24 Kansas C i t y 23 Washington 06 P a r k v i l l e 23 Weston 25 Wisconsin ( 5 6 . i s omitted) Howard's Grove 20 Milwaukee 13 P r a i r i e du Sac 1255 Erangelical United Brethren Church 58 .20 See also Evangelical Association Family and Ehgl-izing, general 99*0 character i n f o r - l i n g stocks (mainly general treatments) Danish 6 ? . 2 2 French Canadian 8 ? . 5 German 5 8 . 8 Greek 93*80 Hispano 89 .16 I t a l i a n 83*4 Lebanese 95*9? 96*58 Mexican 8 8 . 5 2 ; 90.60 Polish 7*6.531 *9 Flemish 5 9 . 6 0 - . 9 and intermarriage 49.80 i n national parishes 49 .64 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 49 . 9 2 See also Belgians Flusche, brothers 56 .81 S n i l 57.96 Foresters 8 3 . 1 1 Forty-eighters Czech 7 4 . 1 German free thinking 58 .47 , .7 i n Germany 51 .01 In U. S.mentioned as present i n Iowa —Davenport 56 f .57 Guttenberg 56 .64 , r i v e r towns 5^*55 1256 Forty-eighters (cont.) German i n U. S. (cont) Missouri, St. Louis 56 .95 Wisconsin, Milwaukee 56.08, 10 See also Latin Farmers and Free Thinkers Fl o r i d a Greeks at Tarpon Springs 9^*00 Franch. See French i n France Franciscans 49.5*H 5 5 . 5 4 ; 57*^2; 83.O Franco-Americans, term defined 87.00. See French Canadians Free thinkers, Czech 75*11. German 58 .47 See also Porty-eighters French i n & from France 84.4 f f . Mennonites i n France 5^*34 mmm^iimMm i n the United States i n coal mining 49 .32-33 and intermarriage 49.80 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 , 93 mentioned as present i n Missouri Bonnot fs M i l l 57*14 Loose Creek 57.14 St. Charles 57.09 Ste Genevieve 57 .02 Wisconsin, Milwaukee 56.07 French Canadians 86.0 f f . t h e i r Catholics ## vs. I r i s h on English language 4 9 . 5 8 ; 8 7 . l l French Swiss 8 5 . 6 at Vevay, Indiana 5 5 . 3 3 ; 85.80 Fris i a n s 59 .51 For East Frisians see East 1257 Gaeddert, D i e t r i c h 5^.21 Galicia(ns) 5 2 . 7 1 , .8 Mennonites from Switzerland 50 . 1 2 ; 5 0 . 1 3 ; 5 2 . 2 1 ; 58.33 Poles 7 6 . 1 1 . . 2 ; 7 6 . 3 0 , 33 General Conference Mennonites 58.33* 34 See also Mennonites General Synod of Lutherans 58.09 f f . Gerke, H. C. 55*65 Ger-ling, defined 50*10; 50 .0 - 5 8 . 93 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 , 93? 5 0 . 2 1 , 2 2 mentioned i n sections on Czechs 73*0 ; 71*3 , 51* 52 See also Blackseamen, 3ukovina(ns), Ga- l i c i a f c s ) , Germans, Germany, Mennonites, Moravian Germans, Russian Germans, Swiss, Volgans; also the names of German churches main a r t i c l e s on them 58*00 f f . ; also f o r places where Ger-lings are to be found i n the United States outside of Kansas (for Kansas, Vol. I ) , see under the names of the states. German American National Union 58.87 Gerraan Nebraska Synod 57*69; 58.10-12 Germans, i n Europe 50 .0 f f . ; i n G/ S. 55.QOff. E a r l i e r references Catholics 49 .54 f f . , national parishes **9*59, 6 4 , 6 6 ; Eng-lizing 49 .62 census s t a t i s t i c s 50*20, mother tongue 50.21-22 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 - 3 3 , 35 1258 Germans (cont.) immigrants from 50 .30-31 and intermarriage 49.80, 86#-88 i n meat packing 49.38-39 Muss-Preuseen 49.08 For cross references see under Ger-ling German^ regions 5 0 . 5 1 consular reports from 51*04, 51 See also Germans,and names of p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s , from kingdoms to c i t y states, including t e r r i t o r i a l d i v i s i o n s of Prussia (^ssener Gesellschaft 57 .05 Gonner, Nicholas Loxemburger editor 49.60, h i s statement on language usage 52.52 Gotland, i n Sweden 61 .6 people from i n Nebraska 65.30 Great Northern fiailroad 9 0 . 0 1 Great Western Sugar Co, 57.93 Greeks 93 .00 f f . mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 , 9 2 i n meat packing 49.38-39 Grundtvig(ians) 62.3? 6 7 . 1 1 , 1 3 . 2 3 , 24 Guadalupe, Our lady of 88 .50 Many Mexican churches dedicated to her; fo r them see i n the l i s t of Catholic churches thoses assigned to Mexfcans Gymnastics , i n Germany 51*3; f o r the United States see Turnverein (Ger) and Sokol (Czech) Hallerburg, H. H. 55 .83 Hamburg 1885 population 50*61 ©migration through 50*90 to Grand Island, leb. 57*65 Hanover(ians) i n Germany 5 0 . 1 1 , 51 1885 population 5 0 . 61 emigration from 5 0 . 8 1 , 84 , 8 5 , 9 0 ; affected by conscription 51*04 landholdings, character of 51*^3 Muss-ftreussen 51*03 Mentioned as present i n the United States I l l i n o i s , Chicago 55*85 Germantown 55*61 fandalia 55*53 m i l Co. 55*92 Indiana, Fort Wayne 55*42 Iowa, Bellevue 56.62 Bremer Co. 56*66 Iowa Co. 56.69 Iwxemburg 56 .62 St. Donatus 56.62 Missouri, Cole Camp 57.19 Concordia 57.21 Germantown 57*28 St. Charles 57*09 faos 57*13 Nebraska, Auburn 57*62 Avoca 57*63* 64 Lanham 57*56 Thayer Co. 57.53 mm* 1260 Hanover(ians) cont. mentioned as present i n (cont.) Ohio, Black Swamp 55*27 Cleveland 55*15 Wisconsin, Sauk Co. 56.36 Sheboygan 56.19 Hapsburg colonization 52 .62-63 Haraszthy, Count 56.35* 36 Hauge Hans I . 63*3 Heiss, German Catholic bishop 49*58, 5 6 , 5 7 Helias, J e s u i t , 57*13, 15 Henni, John M., Catholic bishop 4 9 . 5 1 , 58 i n Ohio 55*12, 2 2 ; i n Wisconsin 56 .46 Hermannssohne 56*^8; 58*56 Hessia (including Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse- Nassau), i n German Rhein West 50*51 1885 population 5 0 . 6 1 emigration i n 19th century from 5 0 . 8 2 , 8 5 , 90 Muss-Preussen 51*03 Source f o r Volgans 53*06 mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s , B e l l e v i l l e area 55 .8 east of Peoria 55*75 W i l l 8 0 . 55.92 Indiana, Darmstadt 55*38 Missouri, Warren Co. 57*05 Wisconsin, Sheboygan 56.19 Hispanos (defined 88.0) 89*03 f f . , 89*71 f f . , 89 .75 and Mexicans 89.19 Hoffman, Franz 5 5 . 5 5 , 85 1261 Holiness Church 58.29 Holdeman Mennonites 58*38 See also Mennonites Holland. See Dutch and Michigan Hoistein, i n German northwest 50*51 1885 population 5 0 . 61 emigration from 5 0 .81 people from, jpentioned as present i n Nebraska, Grand Island 57*65 Randolph 57.45 Hungarian Germans 5 2 . 9 , 5 0 , 13D, to Black Sea 5^*50 0 . S. mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 50*22 Hungary and Hungarians. See Magyars, # Croatians, Slovaks I l l i n o i s Coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , 3^, 3 5 , 8 2 . 6 2 , 70 f f . I l l i n o i s Michigan canal 55*52, 8 5 , 90 , 9^ I l l i n o i s River 58*51, 52 ; 67*20 Immigration, year of a r r i v a l s from Ger­ many 50 .23 Kansas recieved much population from, 49 .27 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s (various stocks) 49 .92 railroads Burlington (and Mexicans) 8 9 . 8 3 Galena and Chicago 55*97 I l l i n o i s Central 55*51, 5 2 , 5 5 , 7 0 ; 5 5 . 8 5 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 9 8 ; 65*04; 87*81 Peoria and Oquawka 55*52, 75-76 Rock Island (and Mexicans) 89*81, 83 Santa Fe $^nd Mexicans) 8 9 . 8 1 , 8 3 ; l a n d ^ a ^ p 1262 I l l i n o i s (cont.) For-ling stocks; t h e i r mother tongues for the state 4 9 . 9 2 . Section numbers i n parenthesis refer to census s t a t i s t i c s . Stocks i n Chicago are l i s t e d under the name of the c i t y below. Groatians 7 8 . 1 , 3 1 , .4, .9? 79*3 Czechs 7^.01 , . 4 Danes 67*20 Dutch (59*02) 59.02 Flemish (59.52) 59.52 French (84.1) 85.10 French Canadians ( 8 6 . 1 - . 3 ; 87 .7)8#6.71 ; 87.80-84 German (50.21) 55.50 f f . Greek (93.10) I t a l i a n (81 . 1) 7 6 . 7 3 ; 82 .70-72 Lebanese (95*21) Lithuanian 82 .72 (see also coal) Mexican (89.01 , 80) Norwegian 6 8 . 0 , . 2 Polish 7 6 . 7 3 ; 76 .0 (see also coal) Serb 7 8 . 8 Slav (general) 79*2; 78 .9 (see also coal) 55*68-69 Slovak 7 9 * 3 ; 55*69 Slovenians 7 8 . 0 , . 1 , . ^ 0 , 3 1 , A, . 9 Swede 65 .00 f f . Swiss ( most with German) 5 2 . 1 0 , . 3 ; 55*65; 85 .80 Welsh (91 .3) 92.34 1263 I l l i n o i s (cont.) Places mentioned where f o r - l i n g s are present. I f stock i s not indicated, i t i s German; 55 • i s omitted Adams Co. 72 C a r l i n s v i l l e 6 0 , 6 9 Garlyle 6 l Gass Co. 75 Genterville 59 Centralia 51 Cessna Park 75 Champaign 57 Addison 89 Adeline 97 Ainsworth Du 59.21 Altamon 53 Alton 5 0 , 67 Andover Swd 6 0 . 0 2 , . 2 A r e n z v i l l . 73 Chapin 7 3 , 83 Augsburg 53 Chatham 81 Aurora Ger 9 0 ; Chebanse 93 Pr 87 .90 Bath 73 Chester 57 , 6 0 , 63 Clayton 72 Christopher, polyglot 7 6 . 7 3 ; 7 9 . 2 ; 82 .7 2 Coatsburg 72 Goal Valley, Wei 92.34 C o l l i n s v i l l e 65 Cook Go. 85 Crete 92 Danvers 75 Danville 5 2 , 77 , 78 Decatur 5 2 , 82 DeKalb Co. Swd 65.00 Dieteri#ch 54 Dixon 98 Dundee 90 Dunkley's Grove 85 Dwight 93 . 7 , Beardstown 73 Chicago Gath. n a t l parishes Beckemeyer 61 49.64 meat packing 49.38, 39 BellevflLe 57-58 as a way st a t i o n 49 .23 DuPage Co. 85 c h stocks present Benl* coal L J Croat 78.1, .2note Bdwardsville 66 ^9.35no.3 ( n Danish 67.OI, 20 Dutch 59.02, 21 East Moline 98 Flemish 5 9 . 9 Fr. Can. 87.80 East st. Louis German 02, 5 1 , 85 f f . , 91 mmn&mt 58.22 Effingham 54 Greek 94.11, 61 I t a l i a n 82.8 note Eleroy 97 Mexican 88.20, 80, 81 f f . ; 89.01; Elg i n 90 90.00, 12 Polish 76.60, 70, Elizabeth 96 72, 80, 81 Slovenian 78.01, 31, Elk Grove 89 . 9 Swedish 65.00, 01 Emden 80 Welsh 91 .3 I t a l 8 2 . 7 1 7 i l 6 Slovak 7 9 . 3 South Slav 78.30 Bensenville 89 Bishop H i l l Swd 6 5 . 0 2 Bloomington 78 Bonfeld 93 Bourbonnais Fr. Can 87.81, 83, 84 Braceville WelfLasalle 5 1 , ## 94 9 2 . 3 4 Braidwood Wal-J Lasalle Co. #Ital loon 85.80 \ 82.70 Bunker H i l l 68 ILeland Nor 68 « « « R 5 H i l 1 Fox River Nor 68.0 Freeburg 59 Freeport 97 Gb 7 4 . 4 Galena Du 59#21; Ger 9 6 . 59 Galesburg, way st a t i o n 4 9 . 2 3 ; Swd 6 5 . 0 1 , 0 2 , 3 0 ; 66.1. .2 G i l l e s p i e 68, 6 9 ; 49 .35 no? Oilman 5 2 , 76 Golden 72 Granite Gity Slovak 79*3 Gridley 75 Grundy Go. I t a l 82.70; Wei 9 2 . > Hanover 96 Hartsburg 80 Havana 73 Henry Go. Du 59*02; F l . 59.52; Swd 65.00 Herrcher 93 Herrin coal49 .36 No. 7 ; polyglot 7 9 . 2 ; 82.72 Highland Swiss 52.10, . 3 ; 55^5% 85.80 Hinsdale 90 Hollowayville 9** Hoyleton 60 Iroquois Go. FrCan 87.82; Ger 76 Jackson Go. I t * l 82.70 Jacksonville 83 Johnson Gity Jtttal 82.72 J o l i e t Croat 78.1, 31, .4, . 9 ; Ger 5 5 . 9 4 ; Serb 7 8 . 8 ; Slovenian78.0, 31, A , . 5 , . 9 lane Go. 65.00 Kankakee Dan 67.20; Fr from France 85.80; FrCan 86.71; 87.80#-84; Ger 92-93 Kappa 79 Kaskaskia River 63 Kewanee 95 Kickapoo 74 Knox Go. &wd 65.01 1264 I l l i n o i s Places (cont.) Lemont 91 Lena 94 L fErable Fr. Can 8 7 . 81 L i b e r t y r i l l e Serb 7 8 . 8 L i v e l y Grove 59 Livingston 68 Lockport 91 McHenry 89 McLean Go. 75 Macoupin Co* I t a l 82 .70 Madison Co. 6 5 , I t a l 82 .70 Manteno Fr. Can 87 .82 Marengo 90 Marine 65 Marion coal 49.36 no. 6 I t a l 82.72 Mascoutah 59 Mendota 94 Menominee 96 Metaiaora 75 Naples 52 Nashville 60 Nauvoo 71 New Baden 61 New B e r l i n 8 1 , 84 New Minden 6 0 , 63 New Trier 89 Niles 89 wW^WwWW Oconee 55 Oglesby polyglot 7 8 . 3 0 , Pol 7 6 . 7 3 , Slovenian 7 8 . 0 , . 9 Ohio River on 111 . side 50 Olraan 55 Oregon 98 Ottawa 94 Paderborn 59 Pana 55 Paxton Swd 65 .OO, 04 MiUstadt 5 8 , 63 Pekin 7 3 , 7* Moline F l 5 9 * 9 , Ger 57 , Swd 65*02 Momence 8 7 , 8 2 Fr. Can Monee 92 Morgan Co. 73 Morrison 98 Peoria 5 2 , 7 0 , 7 3 , 7^ Swiss 52.10 Peotone 92 Princeton Ger 9 4 , Swd 6 5 . 0 1 Quiney 50, 7 0 , 7 1 , 57.35 Red Bud 5 9 , 63 Mount Olive coal Ridgeville 76 4 9 . 3 5 , no. 5 , Croat 7 8 . 1 , .9* Rock F a l l s 98 79 .3 } Ger 6 8 , 69 Rock Island Ger 5 0 , 9 8 ; Slovak 79 .3 5 6 . 5 7 ; Swd 6500, 0 2 , 30 Dutch 59 .02 , F l 59.52 Mt. Pulaski 80 Rock Run 97 1265 • I l l i n o i s (cont.) Places mentioned (Cont.) Roekford Ger. Teutopolis 54 98 , Swd 6 5 . 0 0 , 03 Tiskilwa 95 Royal ?8 Toluca 95 Sangamon River Vandalia 53 73 Sehatmberg 89 Venedy 59 Shelby Co. 55 Vermilion Go. coal 82.70 S i g e l 55 V i c t o r i a Swd 6 5 . 0 0 ; 6 6 . 1 South Chicago Wabash River on Mex 8 9 . 8 2 , 8 5 ; 111. side 50 9 0 . 42 Warsaw 71 S p r i n g f i e l d 5 2 , 7 0 , 81 Waterloo 5 9 , 63 St. ^nne Pr Can 8 7 . 8 2 , 83 Waukegan 89 St. Glair Co. 57 West Franklin poly- St. Elmo 53 g l o t 78 . 9 St. George Fr W i l l Co. Ger 8 5 , 92 Can 8 7 . 8 1 , 84 Welsh 9 2 . 3 4 St. Peter 53 Willow Springs 91 Staunton coal "~l?oodford Go. 7 4 , 75 49*35 no. 4 I t a l 8 2 . 7 1 West Chicago 89 Slovak 79 .3 S t e e l v i l l e 60 , 63 Whiteside Go. Du Stephenson Co. 97 59*02 S t e r l i n g 98 Williamson Co. Coal I t a l 82 .70 Stewardson 55 Strassburg 55 Streator Slovak 7 9 . 1 Summerfield 64 51 .11 ; 57.76 Swedona Swd 65 . 0 2 Sycamore Swd 6 5 . 0 0 I l l i n o i s Central. See Railroads under main headings I l l i n o i s and Iowa I l l i t e r a c y Croatian 77.71 I t a l i a n 8 2 . 4 Mexican 8 8 . 5 1 #Polish 76 .32 I l l y r i a 77.70 Immigration Catholic 4 9 . 5 5 Old and Mew defined 4 9 , 0 2 and f i n a n c i a l panics 4 9 . 2 8 s t a t i s t i c s on year of a r r i v a l i n the United States Croatian 77 .0 Dutch 59 .01 Flemish 59 .61 French from Europe 84 .34 French from Canada 87 .03 German 5 0 . 2 3 , 30 Greek 9 3 . 2 I t a l i a n 81 .2*4 Lebanese 95 .22 Mexican 8 8 . 1 0 , l l f 73 Norwegian 6 3 . 1 Slovenian 77 .0 Scandinavian & Swedish 6 l . 0 , .1 Welsh 9 1 . 4 See also Emigration Independents among Welsh. See Congrega- t i o n a l i s t s Indiana German - ##### 55-30 f f . 1267 Ind iana ( c o n t . ) Kansas , r e l a t i o n t o 4 9 . 2 2 ; 97 .20 S t a t i s t i c s from census on s tocks F l e m i s h 59-52 French 8 4 . 1 German 5 0 . 2 1 Mexican 8 9 . 8 0 Poles e a r l y 76.60 Welsh 91 .3 Places mentioned as c o n t a i n i n g f o r - l i n g s . I f s t o ck i s not i n d i c a t e d i t i s German. 55 . i s omi t ted Adams Go. ##44 A l l e n Co . 44 A u r o r a 32 Co. Bartholomew^35 Berne Swiss 4 3 ; 52.10 Bremen 45 B r o o k s v i l l e 32 Decatur 3 0 , 41 Dubois Go. 37 E a s t Chicago Mex 8 9 . 8 2 Edinburg 35 E l b e r f e l d 38 E l k h a r t 45 E l k h a r t Co. 46 F l o y d Go. 34 Hammond 45 Haubstadt 38 H o l l a n d 37 Hunt ington 44 Ind iana Harbor Mex 8 9 . 8 2 , 85 I n d i a n a p o l i s 30 ,40 Jackson Go. 35 Jasper 37 J o n e s v i l l e 36 i l L a f a y e t t e Ger 3 1 , 4 4 , Du 56.21 La Por te 4 5 , way s t a t i o n Ger 4 9 . 2 3 , Swd 65 .03 Logansport 44 M a r i a h H i l l 37 Maucksport 3^ F o r t Wayne 3 0 - 3 1 , Meinrad 37 41 Gary Ger 4 5 , Mex Mishawaka 40 8 9 . 8 0 , 8 5 , Swd 65 .04 Nappanee 46 Goshen 46 Hew A lbany 34 1268. "• ' '^ Indiana (cont*) Places containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) New Alsace 32 St. Meinrad 37 New C a r l i s l e Sunman 33 Pol 76 .60 New Harmony 39 Swiss 52.10 Ohio River 3 0 , 32 Terre Haute 35 Perry Go. 37 f## Tippecanoe Co. Ger 4 4 , Swd 65.04 Peru 44 Vevay Ger 3 3 , Fr. Stfiss 33; 85.80 Posey C 0 # 39 Vincennes 39 Richmond 24 Wabash-Erie canal 31 Shelby Co* 35 Warren Co. Swd 65.04 South Bend Ger 45 Westphalia 39 F l 5 9 . 5 2 , . 9 South % i t l e y 44 Woodland 45 Spencer Co. 37 Indians, general 9 6 . 9 Arisona 8 9 . 5 2 Mexico 88 .30 New Mexico 89 .11 Oklahoma 8 9 . 9 3 , 9 4 , 97 Intermarriage 49 .80 f f . among French Canadians 87 .12 among Germans i n St* Louis 56.98 among I t a l i a n s 8 3 . 4 among Welsh 9 2 . 8 Iowa Kansas, r e l a t i o n to 49*22; 97*5 Mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s , various stocks 4 9 , 9 2 Railroads 56#64, 70 I l l i n o i s Central 56*65 Northwestern 5 6 . 8 2 , 85 Rock Island 5 6 .f9 1269 Iowa (cent.) For-ling stocks treated Blackseamen 57*^7 Czechs 7^.00,# #3 Danes 67#23-25 Dutch 59#02, 11, 21, #3, A Germans 50.21, 23? 56.50 f f . I t a l i a n s 81.1 Swedes 65.10 f f . Welsh 9 1 . 3 , 92.36 Places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s . I f stock i s not indicated, i t i s German. 5 6 . i s omitted Ackley 75 Buffalo 57 Algona 88 Buffalo Center 88 Amana 68, 51 Burlington 5 5 , 5 0 , 52 Blackseamen 5**#8 Aplington 75- Calmar Czech 74 .3 Arcadia 82 Garrdl 82, 83 Atkins 70 C a r r o l l Co. 82 A t l a n t i c 29 Cascade 62 Aroca Ger 80 Casey 79 Dan67,24 Bancroft 88 Cedar F a l l s Dan 67 .23 Battle Creek 85Cedar Hapids Ger 51, 71, Czech 74#3 Bellevue 62 Charlotte 60 Benton Go. 70 Charter oak 84 Black Hawk Co. 65 Clarence 65 Boone Swd 65#12 Clayton Co. 6 3 , 79 Boyden Du 59#51 Clinton 5 9 , 50, 51 i^^wW^^PlP1wwu^f^^^W^, A/an u ( . &j Breda 83 Clinton Go. 60 Bremer Co. 6 5 , 6 6 , 51 , 89 1270 Iowa (cont.) Places containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Council Bl u f f s 77 , 51 Dan 6 7 .24 Grandview College Danville 55 Dan 67 .23 Davenport ### Ger Graettinger Dan 57, 5 0 , 5 8 ; 67.25 5 7 , 6 5 , Swd 65 .11 Welsh 92.36 Grafton 6 5 , 66 Denison 84 Denver 65 Guttenberg 6 3 , 64 Hardin Go. 75 Des Moines Ger 76 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 57 Harlan Dan 80 Dan 67 .23 Swd 6 5 . l l Hartley 88 DesMoines Co. 55 Holstein 85 Dewitt 60 Holy Cross 62 Dexter 79 Hemestead 69 Donnelson 5^, 8 3 ; 51.11 Hubbard 75 Dubuque 6 1 , 5 0 , 5 2 , 65? 58 .14 Humboldt Dan Durant 67 67.25 D y e r s v i l l e 62 Ida Grove 85 Sldora 75 Iowa Gity 7 1 , 51 , E l g i n 63 Iowa Co. 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 89 Hinger 65 Jackson Co. 60 ELkader 63 Kalona 7 2 ; 5$.71 i l k Horn Dan Keokuk Ger 5 0 , 53 67.24 Swd 6 5 . l l F a i r b a n k s 6 5 , 66 Keystone 70 Fenton 88 Kimballton Dan 6 7 .24 F t . Madison 63 Kossuth Co. 88 Franklin 5^ Lakota 88 Franklin M i l l s 55 L a t l y 55 Germania 88 Ledyard 88 German Valley Lee Co. 5^ 85 Glidden 83 Lidderdale 83 Grand Mound 60 Lowden 67 1271 Iowa (cont.) Places containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Luxemburg 62 Luzerne 70 Manning 83 Manson 87 Maquoketa 60 Marengo 6 9 , 70 Maine 79 Paullina 88 F e l l a Du 59*3 . Af 11, 2 1 Petersburg 62 Pleasant Grove 55 Pomeroy 87 Portsmouth 81 P o s t v i l l e 63 Marshalltown 74 Pottawatomie Co. 80 Marshall Co. Czech 7 4 . 3 Minden 80 Monona 63 Montgomery Go. Swd 6 5 . 1 1 , 12 Monticello 67 Headline 65 Red Oak Volg 57.52 Swd 65.12 Ringsted 67 .25 Dan Rolfe Dan 67 .25 Roselle 82 Mount Pleasant Rutland Dan 67 .25 Swd 65 .12 Muscatine 5 0 , 56 Sabula 60 Neola 80 Schaller 86 Newell Ger 8 6 , Dan 67 .25 New London 55 #New Sweden Swd 6 6 . 2 New Vienna 62 Newhall 70 Odebolt 85 Oelwein 65 ,66 Ottumwa 7 3 , 51 Oxford 69 Page Co. Swd 65.11 Palmer 87 Panama 81 Parkersburg 75 Schleswig 84 Scott Co. 52 , 57 Shelby Co. Dan 67.24 S h e r r i l l f s %und 62 Sigourney 73 Sioux C i t y Ger 7 8 , 5 1 , 6 5 , Swd 6 5 . 1 1 , 12 S p i l l v i l l e Czech 7 4 . 3 St. ^ a r 6 5 , 66 St. Donatus 62 WWWWflffrw St. Paul 5^ St. ###|#Sebald 63 Stanwood 67 State Center 7^, 51 1272 Iowa (cont.) Places containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Storm Lake Ger Waukon 63 8 6 , Dan 67 .25 Sumner 65 Wesley 88 Swedesburg Swd Westgate 6 5 , 66 65.12 fan Horne 70 West Point 5** Van Meter 79 Westphalia 81 Vict o r 70 Wheatland 60 Wapello 73 Whittemore 88 Washington Swd Williamsburg 69 65.12 Waterloo 51 , 65 Wilton 67 Waverly 5 9 , 65 Worthington 62 Iowa Synod (German Lutheran) 5 8 . 1 3 , 1^ See also American Lutheran Church I r i s h Catholic hierarchy 4 9 . 5 2 French Canadians discontent with 4 9 . 5 8 ; 8 7 . 0 2 , 11 , 3 0 , .6 Germans discontent with 4 9 . 5 6 I s o l a t i o n anti-Engl-izing 98.10 f f . I t a l i a n s 81 .0 f f . ; mentioned elsewhere: Catholics Engl-iaed i n Philadelphia 4 9 . 6 0 i n national parishes 4 9 . 5 9 , 64, i n coal mining 4932, 3 3 , 3 6 , 37; \ 6 6 5 5 . 6 8 - 6 9 ; 78.30 and intermarriage 4 9 . 8 0 f f . mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 mentioned with Germans i n Milwaukee 56 .07 with Mexicans i n Colorado 8 9 . 7 3 , 74 i n and at Gary, Ind. 8 9 . 8 2 Jansen, Cornelius 5 7 . 5 5 , 57 Jansson, Erik 6 6 . 2 Japanese 9 6 . 7 Jesuits i n x t a l i a n education 8 3 . 0 on Volga i n Russia 53 .6 at Conejos, Colo. 8 9 . 7 ! , 73 1273 Jews from Germany 50.13E from R u s s i a 5 4 . 91 Jugo-Slavs 7 8 . 6 1 . See also Croatian, Serf) Slovenian Kansas Census s t a t i s t i c s general mother tongue 4 9 . 9 2 Dutch 59 . 0 2 French 8 4 . 1 French Canadian 8 4 . 1 ; 8 6 . 1 , . 2 Ger-ling 5 0 . 2 1 , from Russia 50 .31 dates of a r r i v a l 50.23 Greek 9 3 . 1 0 , dates of a r r i v a l 93 .3 I t a l i a n 8 1 . 1 Lebanese 95 . 2 1 Mexican 8 9 . 0 1 Welsh 91 .3 Coal mining 4 9 . 0 2 , 3 2 ; 82 . 6 1 Germans, from where^t^fa^sas 51*90-#92 Catholic bishops i n Kansas 58 .00 Iowa Synod to Kansas 58 .14 Immigration s t a t i s t i c s , destiaation Kan­ sas on a r r i v a l at ports fCzechs 71 . 1 French Canadians 8 6 . 3 Greeks 9 3 . 2 I t a l i a n s 81 .4 Lebanese 95 .22 Mexicans 88.11 Mexicans, from where i n Mexico to Kansas 8 8 . 2 1 , on Kansas railroads 9 0 . 0 0 , 13 Religious bodies s t a t i s t i c s 1916 ~~ 58.06 1274 Kansas a way station and source f o r out-state population 97«9 places i n Kansas mentioned A l i d a 52 .0 Dispatch 5 9 . 2 2 , . 3 , . 4 Barclay 90.12, irns 5 1 . 0 5 ; 52.51 52 Arkansas C i t y 90 .13 Arlington 52.71 Arvonia 9 2 . 4 , .6 Atchison 54.91, 56.92, 58.91 A x t e l l 6 5 . 0 1 Bala 92.38, . 4 , .6 • l l e v i l l e 7 6 . l l Bern 5 2 . 0 , . 4 ; 55.75? 7 4 . 3 Block 57.19 Blue River 7 4 . 3 Brantford 65.04, 1 0 ; 6 5 . 5 B r a z i l t o n 57.19 Brown Co. 6 2 . 4 ; 6 8 . 1 , . 2 Buhler 57.84 Ebenezer 54.24 ^Hoffnungsau ififcWW^54.21 •on 57 .53 Caney 89-94 Cedar Point 8 5 . 1 , . 5 Chanute 90.13 Cheyenne Co. 54.53 Cloud Co. 87.85 C o f f e y r i l l e 57.19 Collyer 5 4 . 5 0 , 52 Courtland 65.10 Crawford Co. 81.1 Cuba 7 4 . 0 0 ; 7 4 . 3 Denmark 67.OI, 13 Dodge C i t y 90.13 Doniphan Co. 6 7 . 0 1 ; 6 8 . 2 Dorrance 57 .85 Dubuque 52."51; 73.0 E l l i s 5 2 . 7 0 ; 57.92 E l l i s Co. 5 3 . 9 3 ; 58 .6 Ellsworth Co. 74.00 fiaporia 9 0 . 1 2 , 13 ; 9 2 , 3 3 , 34 , 37, . 4 , .5 Enne 65#3, .5? 6 6 . 2 Enterprise 58*24; 6 5 . 0 1 Esbon 74.7 Eudora 4 9 * 2 3 ; 5 4 , 9 1 ; 5 8 . 5 ^ Everest 6 7 . 2 ; 7 3 . 0 ; 74 .9 Fairview 57*79 Falun 61*6 Florence 90.13 Galva 57.19 Garden Gity 57*93; 8 9 . 7 0 , 7 5 , 78 Gnadenberg 54.32 Goessel 5^.21 Goodland 90.13 Gorham 52.60 Www wm»*wwW Gray Co. 9 6 . 4 Greenleaf 6 7 . 0 1 Greenwood Co. 6 3 . 4 ; 6 8 . 1 Gridley 55.75 Halstead 51«H» 5 7 . 7 6 , 83 1275 Kansas (cont.) Places i n Kansas mentioned (cont.) Hanover 58.12 Lyndon 67.13 Hanston 52.71 Hepler 57.19 Herington 5 5 . 8 ? ; 57.95 90.13 Herndon 5 2 . 9 ; 74 .00 Hillsboro Gnadenau 54.23 Johannestal 5 2 . 6 0 Hudson 57 .21 Humboldt 58.54 Independence 57.19; 90.13 Jamestown 67.01, 10, 14 Kackley 65.2 K a p f Dan 1 PI 5#9.80, 82*9 Grk 93.11; 94.00; 94.10 I t a l 81.1 Jews 54.91 Mex 88.91; Lyon Greek 51.42, 90; 56.27; 57.19 McPherson Go. 57.79 - Mariadahl 65.01, 31 Marienthal 53.23, 26 Marion Bo. 54.53; 57.79, 86, 87; 74.00 Marshall Co. 67.00; 74.00 Marysville 52.51 Meade 54.22; 57.55 Melvern 90.12 Moray 68.2 Mound Ridge 52.71;54.#31; 56.54; 57.79, 83 77.0; 78.2a, .4, 61..' Mulberry Greek 5 2 . 0 Munden 75.10 Munjor 53.23 89,01, 42, 84, Murray Twp. (Marshall 8 5 , 8 9 ; 9 0 . 1 3 , 34 Pol 78.11 Slovak 7 5 . 8 Slovene 7 7 . 0 ; 7 8 . 4 , 61 Kiraeo 5 2 . 5 Co.) 65.10 Nemaha Co. 57.24; 5 8 . 2 1 Neuchatel 52 .4 ; 8 5 . 1 , .6 New Andover 6 5 . 0 1 Leavenworth 5 4 . 9 1 ; New Basel 52 .0 , 5 6 . 9 2 ; 5 8 . 4 7 ; New Tabor 7 1 . 6 ; 75.18; 7 6 . 1 1 , 71 , 75.10 .4 80; 82.50 Lehigh 57 .86t87 L e o v i l l e 52 .51 L i b e r a l 57.84 Liebenthal 53.23 Lind 6 6 . 2 Lindsborg 4 9 . 2 3 ; 6 l . 5 3 j 6 5 . 0 1 ; 6 5 . 2 , 31 Linn 57.19 L i t t l e Blue 74.6 lone Tree 5 4 . 3 2 Lorraine 55*92 Newton 90.13 Odee 57.19 Odin 5 2 . 6 1 ; 73 .0 Ogallah 65 .31 Ogden 54 .91 Olmltz 5 2 . 6 1 ; 73 .0 Olpe 56.81; 57.96 Osage Ci t y 82.*0; 8 5 . 4 , . 5 ; 9 2 . 4 , .6 Ost 52 .51 Padonia 92.38 Palacky 74.00 Palmer 57.19 iz?6 Kansas fcont.) Places i n Kansas mentioned (cont.) Park 54.50} S t o t l e r 57.96 6 6 . 2 Parsons ^ " " " ^ ^ - ^ t r a s s b u r g - 2 o I E 5 ^ ! 5 Z a ) 5 3 . 2 3 , 52 Hwnee Rock 54.32 P f e i f e r 53.23 P i l s e n 71.6; 74.00 Pittsburg 57.191 8 2 . 5 0 ; 83.2; 96.1 P r a i r i e View 59.22, .3, .4 Raiaona 57.85 Rawlins Co. 74.00 Republic Co. 57.53; 74.00 R##ice 8 5e§° Rooks . 74 .00; 87.85 Rosedale 92.33 Russell 58.12 Rush Co. 74.00 Russell Go. 5 3 . 9 3 ; 54.53 Salina 5 4 . 9 1 ; 90.13 Saline Go. ScandS;S|.10, 3 V 2 , 68.2 Scipio 48.61; 5 7 . 1 5 ; 59.9 Scranton 6 5 . 0 1 Seneca-St. Benedict 52.51 St. Francis 5 2 . 9 ; 5 4 . 5 0 , .8; 5 7 . 6 8 , 92 St. Mark aJh^L.57,95 SfT^PauI 52.51 tState Line 57.60 S t e r l i n g 58.42 Tescott 67.01 fimken 73.0; 74.00 Topeka 54.91; 55.88; 89.01; 89.89; 9 0 . 1 2 , 13 V i c t o r i a 49.61 Washington Go. 58.91 Wellington 90.13 Westphalia 56.81; 57.916 Whitewater 5 2 . 0 , 5 1 . 1 0 , 42 Wichita 54.91; 89.01; 90#.13; 95.7 Wilson 71.55; 74.00 Windhorst 49.23; 5 1 . 0 5 ; 58.54 Winfield 90.13 Worden 58.91 Zurich 74.00 St. Marys 59.80>) 82 1277 Kansas P a c i f i c Railroad 55 .92 Kemper, Herman 56 .20 Kennick. Catholic Bishop # 4 9 * 5 8 # , 59 Kentucky Germans 55*02 Places mentioned Bardstoim 4 9 . 5 0 Brandenburg 55*3** L o u i s v i l l e 5 5 . 0 2 ; 55.3**; 8 5 . 8 0 Kherson, t e r r i t o r y i n South Sussia, 5 ^ . 5 0 ; 5^.5^ Khiva 57.57 Kirchenverein 58 .18 Kleine Gemeinde 5^ .22; 5 7 . 5 5 ; 58.37 See also Mennonites Kniest, Lambert 56 .82 Knights of Columbus 83.10 Krimmer Mennonite Brethren 5^.23* 57*55% 58.37 aee also Mennonites Kulturkampf 4 9 . 0 8 ; 5 1 . 0 5 ; 76 .31 Laboi; and language 4 9 . 3 1 , agents among Mex, enganchadoresj for I t a l i a n s see padroni Lamy, J . B. 89.14 Land grants, Spanish 89*17, 3 2 , 6 1 , 71 Landholdings and emigration i n Bohemia 7 1 . 5 6 ; i n l f l a n d e r s 5 9 . 81 i n Germany 5 1 . ^ 1 ^ 3 , 50 i n Mexico 8 9 . 1 7 ; i n Russia 53 .33 ff.#; 5^.1 Language development i n Austrian Empire among Czechs 71*51 among Slovenians 77 .5t . 6 l^§^04^MHhm^^ as a Polish unifying force 76 .34 1278 Latin farmers 55*62} 56*21; 57*04, 13 Lebanese 95*0 f f * mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 49*92 i n national parishes 49.59; 49.64, 66 Lippe(rs) 1885 population 50.61 emigration from 50.90 mentioned as present i n Iowa, Hardin Co. 56.75 Schaller 56 .86 Storm Lake 56.86 Indiana, Evansville 55*38 Nebraska, Logan 57*36 Wisconsin, Manitowoc Co. 56*20 i n Sheboygan and i t s county 56.19. 20 Lithuanians 76*53; 78*30; 82.72 i n coal mining 49.35 i n meat packing 49.38-39 i n national parishes 49.64 Lodges 49*3t At 58.5**; 75*30 Lorrainers at Lorain, Ohio 55*15 Louisiana f o r - l i n g stocks mentioned Czechs 74.01 French 85.80, .9 Germans 55*02, 57*99 I t a l i a n s 82 . 0 0 , 51 Scandinavians 64.0 language f o r Catholics 49.67 places mentioned, New Orleans as port 49 .21 and repeatedly, Houma & Plaquemine I t a l ­ ians and French 82.51 1279 Lucerne Memorial of Catholics against Engl- i z i n g 4 9 , 6 1 Luchsinger, John 56 • 3** Ludwig Missionsverein 49#56 LULACS 90.41 Lutheran Church i n America 58*10 Lutherans, general 49#42 divided i n Europe 49*12 among f o r - l i n g stocks Czech 71*54 Danish 67*11 f f . German i n Germany 51.10 i n Russia 53.13t k0f 60 i n the Dnited States 5 8 . 0 1 , 0 5 - 0 7 ; Norwegian 6 6 . 3 0 ; 6 8 . 3 , . 4 Slovak 5 5 . 6 8 * 6 9 ; 75 .8 Swedish 6 6 . 0 , . 2 , 30 f f . mentioned as present i n the United 3 t a t e s i n (for section numbers refer to the town as l i s t e d under each state when entered as a main entry. The stock or stocks d i s ­ cussed f o r each town are noted by an abbreviation unless the stock i s only German.) Colorado-(all Volgan)-Fort C o l l i n s , Fort Morgan, Greeley, Loveland r A^o^aT) I l l i n o i s — Alton, Altamont, Andover Swd,V Bath, Beardstown, B e l l e v i l l e , Bloomington, Bonfeld, Buckley, Campbells H i l l , C a r l i n v i l l % C arlyle, Centralia, Chapin, Chatham, Chester, Chicago, Clayton, Coatsburg, Crete, Decatur, Dieterich, Dixon, Dundee, Dwight, Sast Moline, Elizabeth, fiaden, Freeport, Galena, Gales- 58.08 f f . Lutherans (cont.) mentioned as present i n (cont.) I l l i n o i s (cont) burg Swd#,Gillespie, Golden, Granite City- Slovak, Havana, Hinsdale, Holloway, Homel, Hoyleton, Kankakee, Kewanee, Lena, Lincoln, Lockport, Marengo, Mendota, M i l f o r d , M i l l - stadt, Moline Swd, Mount Olive, Mount Pu­ l a s k i , Naperville, Nashville, New B e r l i n , New Minden, Miles, Ottawa, Pekin, Peoria, Qainey, Red Bud, Rock Island Swd, Rock P a l l s , Rockfordf Ger#+Swd, Royal, S i g e l , Spring­ f i e l d , St. Libory, St. Peter, Staunton Ger+Slovak, S t e e l v i l l e , S t e r l i n g , Steward- son, Str^ssburg, Swedona Swd, Venedy, W i l l Co., Willow Springs Indiana — Mams Co., A l l e n Co., Cross Plains, Darmstadt, Decatur, Dubois, Elberfeld, Evanston, Farmer's Retreat, Fort Wayne, Gary, Hammond, Huntington, Indianapolis, Jackson Co., J o n e s v i l l e , La Porte Ger+Swd, Laneville, Logansport, Madison, Mishawaka, Peru, Richmond, South Whitley, Sunman, Terre Haute, Vincennes, Woodland Iowa ~ Algona, Arcadia, A t l a n t i c , Avoca, Battle Creek, Bellevue, Benton, Boone Swd, Burlington, Cedar Rapids, Char­ l o t t e , Charter Oak, Clarence, Clinton Ger+Dan, Council B l u f f s , Davenport, Deni- son, Denver, Des Moines Ger-HDan, Dexter, Dubuque, Elk Horn Dan, Elinger, Fairbank, Garnavillo, Grafton, GrandMound, Guttenberg, 1281 Lutherans (cont.) mentioned as present i n Iowa (cont.) Hartley, Holstein, Hubbard, Ida Grove, Iowa Cit y , Kimballton Dan, Lakota, Lowden, Man­ ning, Manson, Maquoketa, Marengo, Monona, l e w e l l UB,X^ Monticello, Mount Pleasant Swd, M u s c a t i n e 9 ^ Odebolt, Ottumwa, Oxford, Palmer, P a u l l i n a , Pomeroy, Eeadlyne, Schleswig, Sioux C i t y , St. Ansgar, St. Donatus, St. Sebald, Stan- wood, State Center, Sumner, Swedesburg Swd, V i c t o r , Washington Swd, Waterloo, Waverly, Westgate, Whittemore, Wilton, Williamsburg Missouri — Altenburg, Appleton C i t y , Blackburn, Bollinger Co., Bucklin Swd, C a l i ­ f o r n i a , Gape Girardeau Co., Cole Camp, Con cordia, Corder, Coming, Craig, Sama, Far­ le y , Farmington, Franklin Co., Gasconnade Co., Fordonville, Illmo, Iron Mountain, Jackson, Jamestown, Jefferson C i t y , Kansas Cit y , Perry Co., P i l o t Knob, Pocahonta, Rock v i l l e , Rosebud, Sedalia, St. Charles, St. Joseph, St. Louis, St. Paul, Stover, Sweet Springs, Washington, Waverly Nebraska — Adams, Arago, Arapahoe, Auburn, Avoca, Bancroft, Battle Creek, Baz- i l e M i l l s , Benkelman, B l a i r Dan, Bloomfield, Clatonia P r e d i c t Blue H i l l , Bruning, Chappell,^ Coieridge, Columbus, Creighton, Creston, Gulbertson, Deshler, Elkhorn, FCmtanelle, Franklin Co., Fremont, Fried€jf€^)au, Garland, Grand Island, Haigler, Hanover Congregation, Hardy Dan, Hastings, Hebron, Hildr e t h , Holstein, Hoo- Kenesaw per, HoskinsJLeigh, Lincoln, Logan, 1282 Lutherans (cont.) mentioned as present i n (cont.) Nebraska (cont.) — Madison, M i l l a r d , Minden, Murdoek, Norfolk, Oakland Swd, Cfcaaha Ger+Swd, Osmond, Otoe, Palmer, Pap- i l l i o n , P i c k r e l l , Pierce, Plainview, Platte Co., Randolph, Ravenna, Ruskin Dan, Serib- ner, Seward, St. Libory, Stanton, Staple- hurst, Steinauer, S t e r l i n g , Sutton, Syra­ cuse, Table Rock, Uehling, Wahoo, Swd, Wake­ f i e l d Swd, Wayne, West Point, Winslow, Wis- ner Ohio — Akron, Canton, Cincinnati, Cleve­ land, Columbus, Dayton, Deshler, E l y r i a , Hamilton, Napoleonf^lomersef^foiSdo, West Lake, Winesburg, Zanesville Oklahoma — Adair, Alva, Breckenridge, Clinton, Enid, Goodwin, Granite, Hooker, Okarche, Optima, Woodward Texas — Gastro v i l l e Wisconsin ( i t s Bennett Law 43.4; 56.41) — Appleton, Baraboo, B e l o i t , Bonduel, Bos- cobel, Burlington, Gedarburg, Chilton, Col­ umbus, Dane Co., Edgerton, Fenimore, Fond du ^ac, Freistadt, Green Lake Co., Hanover, Jackson, Zanesville, Johnson Creek, K i e l , La Crosse, Loganville, Luck Dan, near Luxem­ burg, Madison, Manitowoc, Mayville, Menom- enee F a l l s , M e r r i l l , Milwaukee, Montello, Muskego Morw, Neenah, Heshcoro, New Holstein, Oshkosh, Plymouth, Portage, Racine Gerf+San, Reedsburg, Shawano, Sheboygan, Theresa, 1283 Lutherans (cont.) mentioned as present in(Cont. Wisconsin (cont*) — Watertown, Wausau, ^ e s t f i e l d , Wilhee Dan* Luxemburg(ers) 50.12C; 52*51-52 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 50*22 mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s , New T r i e r near Chicago 55*89 Iowa, Bellevue 56*62 Cascade 56.62 Dubuque 5 6 . 6 1 Luxemburg 56*62 New Vienna 56 .62 SherriBJs ^ound 56 .62 St. Donatus 56 .62 Westphalia 56.81 Ohio #55*22 Wisconsin, Calumet Co. 56.24 La Crosse 56.39 Luxemburg 56.30 Ozaukee Co. 56.18 Pewaukee 56.17 Mafia 82.2; 83.70 Magyars 96 .6 i n meat packing 49.64 i n national parishes 48 .38-39 i n Croatan area 77*70 Maine Catholic language usage 49*67 Acadians by St. John River 86 .6 note Quebecans 86.2, mentioned as present at Biddeford 8 7 . 0 1 Portland 87.02 Lewiston 8 7 . 0 1 , 11, 3 0 f .6; Skowhegan 87*01 1284 Maronite Christians among Lebanese 95*3* .4, .6 . 7 ; 9 6 . 5 0 , 51 53 Maryland Baltimore, e a r l y Catholics 49.50 Germans, early immigration 50.41 thence to Ohio 55.11, 22 school 58.6 Massachusetts French Canadians, s t a t i s t i c s 84 . 1 ; 8 6 . 1 , 23 Mentioned as present i n ( 8 7 . i s omitted) F a l l River ##01, 02, 11, .6 Fitchburg 01 Mew Bedford 01. 11 Have r h i l l 01 P i t t s f i e l d 85.80 Holyoke 01 Southbridge (French Swiss) 01 Lawrence 01 Spri n g f i e l d 0 1 , 02 Lowell 01 Worcester 01, 11, 31 Greeks 93.10, at Lowell 9**.00 It a l i a n s at Boston 82.9. 53 Lebanese 95.21; 9 6 .1 at Boston 9 6 .1 at F a l l River and Lawrence 96.2 Meat Packing 49.38-39 Mexicans i n , at Chicago 89.81 Oklahoma C i t y 89.96 Omaha 8 9 . 8 9 Mecklenburg(ers), i n ^ erman Inner f o r t h 50.51 1885 population 50.61 emigration from 50.85, 90; to Russia^ landholding problem 51.42 1285 Mecklenburg(ers) (cont.) mentioned as present i n Iowa, Dubuque 56*61 Ohio, Black Swamp 5 5 . 2 ? Wisconsin, nw of Fond du Lac 56 .25 Manitowoc 56.23 Plymouth 56.20 Shawano 56.32 Sheboygan 56.18 Mennonites r e l i g i o u s l i n g u i s t i c unity 49.13 i n Europe G a l i c i a 52.?1 Germany 51*11 Switzerland, place of o r i g i n 50.12} 5 2 . 2 1 Russia South Russia 54 .00 f f . on Volga 53*53 s t a t i s t i e s 53*13; 5^*60 i n United States 58*30 f f . mentioned as present i n (excluding Amish I l l i n o i s (55* i s omitted) Freeport 97 S t e r l i n g 98 Morrison 98 Summerfield 64 Peoria neighborhood 75 Indiana, Goshen 55***6 Iowa, i n or near Iowa Co. 56 .69 Kalona 56 .72 Lee Go. 56.5** Nebraska (57* i s omitted) Beatrice 57 Henderson 51 Culbertson 68 Jansen 55 1256 Mennonites ^cont.) mentioned as present i n (cont.) Ohio 5 5 . 1 6 , 26 Oklahoma ( 5 7 . i s omitted) Bessie 7 7 , 78 Gotebo 7 7 , 78 Gordell 77 Hooker 85 Corn 77 , 78 Hydro 78 Darlington 76 Major Co. 79 Deer Creek 83 Medford 83 Inid 79 Okeene 79 Fairview 79 Meno 79 Geary 77 , 78 Thomas 88 Goltry 79 Washita Co. 77 See also Amish Methodists German 58 .23-26 r e l a t i o n of German conference to national bolfy 58.03 Mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s ( 5 5 . i s omitted) Bloomington 79 ®id course of I l l i ­ nois River 73 Chicago 86 Madison Co. 61 Decatur 82 Staunton~Mt. Olive d i s t r i c t 68 Indiana ( 5 5 . i s omitted) Floyd Co. 34 Posey Co. 39 Monroe Co. 37 Santa Glaus 37 Perry Co 37 Seymour 35 ilowa ( 5 6 . i s omitted) near Burlington 55 Council Bluffs 77 Davenport 57 Denison 84 Muscatine 56 Victor ?0 128? Methodists, German (cont.) mentioned as present i n Cont. Missouri (57* i s omitted) Cole Camp area 19 above St. Joseph 26 Gasconnade Go. 11 St. Louis 5 6 . 9 3 . Hermann 11 Weston 25 Lafayette Go. 21 Nebraska (57 . i s omitted) Qatonia Precinct 59 Pierce 45 Gage Co. 60 Richardson 61 Humboldt 03 S t e r l i n g 03 Lincoln 46 West Point 37 0 h i o ( 5 5 . i s omitted) Cincinnati 12 Columbus 21 Monroe Co. 18 Crawford Co. 22 Toledo 23 Marion Co. 22 Williams 28 Wisconsin ( 5 6 . i s omitted) Beaver Dam 26 Green Lake Co. 37 B r i l l i o n 24 Milwaukee 07 Dane Co. 35 Oshkosh 28 Fond du Lac 25 Sheboygan 19 Swedish 6 1 . 2 ; mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s , Bishop H i l l 6 5 . 0 2 Nebraska, Genoa 65 .31 Ockland 65 .31 Saronville 65.30 Welsh Wesley Methodist 91^ ; 9 2 . 4 G a l v i n i s t i c Methodist, q. v. i s rathar Presbyterian than Methodist 1288 Mexicans 8 8 . 0 0 f f . i n national parishes 4 9 . 6 7 For references to places where mentioned see the names of states, p a r t i c u l a r l y Arizona, C a l i f o r n i a , Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, lexas, also Chicago under I l l i ­ nois Mexico, Mennonites i n 5 4 . 2 2 , 3** Meyer, A. R. 57 .23 Michigan, f o r - l i n g stocks i n Croats 7 8 . 1 , . 2 Czechs 74 .00 Danes 6 7 . 1 0 , at Gowan 6 7 . 2 Dutch, census s t a t i s t i c s 5 9 . 0 2 , 52 I n g l - i z i n g 59 .52 mentioned as present at Grand Rapids 5 9 . 2 0 , 51 Holland 5 9 . 1 1 , 20 Kalamazoo 59 .20 French, census s t a t i s t i c s 84 , 1 French Canadians 86 . 3 , at Detroit 8 7 . 7 Germans 55*48-49, Niles 55.45 Saginaw 55.^9 other German towns and churches i n Michigan not indexed; see 5 5 * ^ - ^ 9 Mexicans 8 9 . 8 0 , at Detroit 8 7 . 7 Poles 7 6 . 0 , 60 Slovenians at Calumet 7 8 . 0 , . 1 Midwest Synod (German Lutheran) 5 8 . 1 1 , 12 See also German Nebraska Synod Miege, Jean Baptiste 4 9 . 5 1 1289 Migrant |abor, Mexican 88 #91 i n C a l i f o r n i a 89.61, 62 Colorado (beets) 89.77, 78 Texas 1* 92- Logan 36 Logan's Creek 34, 36 Luxemburg settlement 39 McCook 68 Madison 42 Malrao Swd 65 .31 Mason CityD^an 67.28 Mead Swd 65.31 M i l l a r d 33 M i l l i g a n Cz 71.53; 74. 6, . 8 ; 75 .0#, .4 Minden Dan 67 .28 Ger 6 7 , Swd 65 .31 Monterrev 37 Murdock 63, 64 Newman Grove Swd 65.31 1296 Nebraska (cont.) places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s (Cont.) North Platte Roseland Greek 9 .^00 67 Nysted Dan Ruskin Dan 67.28 67.29 Oakland Swd Saline Co. Cz 65.31 74. 6, .4 Omaha Saronville Swd meat pack­ 65.30 ing 49.38-39 Saunders Co. Cz Croat 78.31, .9 74.7 Cz 74.5, .7, .8 Schickley Swd Dan 67 .26 65.30 Ger 3 2 , 30 Scotts Bluff Co. Greek 9 .^00 30 Mex 89.89, 01, 50 Scribner Pol 76.70 36 Slovene 78.0, 31, Seward .9 50 Swd 65.31 Seward Co. Osceola Swd 50 65.31 S h e l l Creek Ger 40, Osmond 58.22, Wel 92.37 45 Shestak Cz Otoe 74.7 63 St. Bernard Palmer 42 65 St. Charles P a p i l l i o n 37 33 St. HUH Edwards P i c k r e l l ##Swd 65.31 60 St. Libory Pierce 65 45 St. Peters Plainview Dan 67.27 53 Ger 45 Stanton Platte Co. 44 40-42 Staplehurst Platte River Cz 50 74.7, .8, Ger 3 0 , 34, 39 Steinauer 62 Plymouth S t e l l a Wel 59 92.38 P o s t v i l l e Wel St e r l i n g 92.38 63, 64 Prague Cz Stromsburg Swd 74.7, .8 65.31 Praha Cz 7 .^7 Superior Dan Randolph 67.29 45 Sutton 52, 47, 9 2 ; Ravenna 54.8 65 Swedesburg Swd Red willow Co* 65.31 69 Swedenome Swd Richardson Co. 65.31 Cz 74.4, Wel Syracuse 92.38 63, 64 1297 Nebraska(cont.) places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Table Rock Wayne 62 38 Talmadge Wayne Co. Ger 38 6 3 , 64 Wel 92.38 Tecumseh Webster Co. Cz 63 7 4 . 7 Thayer Co. West Point Cz 5 3 , 54 74.6 Ger 37 Tilden Wilber Cz 44 7 4 . 4 , . 6 , .8 Tobias Winside 53 38 Uehling 36 Winslow Viborg Dan 36 6 7 . 2 ? Wisner Wakefield Swd 65.31 ^ 3 7 ( York Wahoo Cz 7 4 . 8 50 Swd 65 .31 \ YORK Co. 50 Warsaw Cz 74 .8 PoJ 76.62 fwymore a e l \ 92.38 Wausa Swd 65.31 Netherlands, Mennonites there early Swiss 52*21, i n 1925 5^*34 See also Dutch New England as a whole French Canadians, population s t a t i s t i c s 8 6 . 1 general 87 .00 See further the names of i t s states New Hampshire, french Canadians no early Engl-izing 8 6 . 2 Manchester 87.OI, 0 2 , .6 Nashua 8 7 . 0 1 , .6 New Jersey, f o r - l i n g stocks Dutch, census 59*02 Paterson 59*21 Flemish, Paterson 59*9 German, Newark, North American Baptist 55*86; 58 .22 I t a l i a n , Hammonton 8 2 . 5 2 , 8 2 . 9 note Vineland 8 2 . 9 note, 8 2 . 5 2 1298 New Jersey (cont.) Poles (census) 76 .0 Swiss, Passaic 52.10 New Mexico Kansas, r e l a t i o n of population to 97.73 American 01 Forum there 90.42 Hispanos 89.10 f f . , term defined 8 8 . 0 0 at work i n Arizona 8 9 . 5 6 , 58 , 59 places mentioned where Hispanos are present. 8 9 . i s omitted Alamo Gordo Las Vegas 28, 1 0 , 18 10, 29 Albuquerque Lordsburg 2 2 , 1 0 ; 9 0 . 9 29 Helen 25 Magdalena B e r n a l i l l o 25 29 C a n j i l l o n Manzano 24 Gapitan 21 Garrizoso 29 Gebolla 27 Ghama 27 C h i l i l i 23 Cimarron Moriarjty 23 M e s i l l a 29 Mesquite 29 Mora 28 23 Mountain A i r 23 Oro Grande 29 Pasturo 21 26 Santa Fe E l Cerrito 13 , 15 26, 10, 14, 18 Espanola 27 Santa Rosa 21 Santo Tomas 29 Sapelo 28 Socorro Fort Sumner 2 1 , 10 Galisteo 28 Grants 24 29, 10, 18 Springer Hatch 29 28, 14 Hernandez 27 Taos 26, 18 Tierra Amerilla 27 Las Cruces 2 9 , 10, 13, 18 1299 New Mexico (cont.) places mentioned where Hispanos are j^ind (cont.) 21 Indians 89*11 Mexicans from Mexico 89.19, census 89.01 New Orleans See Louisiana New York Census s t a t i s t i c s general 5 0 . 2 1 Dutch 59*02 Flemish 59*52 French Canadians 8 ? . 7 Greek 93*10 I t a l i a n 81.1 Lebanese 95*21 Poles 76.0 ( 6 0 ) Scandinavian 64.0 Welsh 91*3 population relations to lansas 97»0 for Czechs 74.00 f o r Germans 57*99 New York C i t y as port 49.21, place of brief residence stocks mentioned as present there ^Germans, early 50.41; 5 5 * 0 2 ; Bapt. f i j e r a s Torreon Vaughn 21 ^9*23 5 5 * 8 6 Greek 9 ^ * 2 9 , 61 I t a l i a n 82 . 53 Lebanese 9 6 . 2 1300 New York (cont) New Xork C i t y (cont.) _ — ( i ^ e r t o r i c a n s 88*0 Swiss 52.10 Welsh 91 .3 other places i n state where f o r - l i n g s are mentioned as present Dutch, Clymer 59*21 Puttneyville 59 .21 Rochester 59 .21 (also Flemings 5 9 . 9 ) German, Buffalo 55 .02 (also Lebanese 96.50) Welsh, Buffalo 91-3 Co. Cattaraugus ^ 2 . Jk Granville 9 2 . 3 1 Oneida Co. 92 .31 Steuben 9 2 . 3 1 , .90 Utica 9 2 . 3 1 , A Newspapers. See Press North American Baptists (German) General Conference 58 .22 See further under Baptists, German North Carolina I t a l i a n s at Valdese 8 2 . 9 See also for Germans, Carolinas North Dakota, Mennonites 5^*^1 North I t a l i a n s , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from South 81.3 passim i n succeeding sections Norwegians 6 8 . and intermarriage 49.80, 89 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 , 93 with Swedish Lutherans 66 .30 mentioned with Germans, ne Iowa 5 6 . 6 5 , i n Wisconsin i n 1850 — 5 6 . # 0 3 Norwegian Lutheran Church 6 8 . 3 Ohio thence to Kansas 4 9.22^ 9 7 . 1 , for Czechs 74.00 census s t a t i s t i c s German mother tongue 50 .21 Greek 93.10 Lebanese 95*23 P o l i s h 7 6 . 0 (60) f o r - l i n g stocks mentioned as present Blackseamen 5^*8 Czech 71*0; 7 4 . 0 1 , 00, . 7 French 85.80, 81 German 55*10 f f , year of immigration 50.23 Lebanese 96.50 Mexican 90.20 Slovenian 78.0, 2 3 , 2#4, 3 1 , 34 Swiss 52*10 Volgan 53*94 Welsh 91*2; 9 2 . 2 1 , 32 f f . , 91-92 places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s i f stock i s not mentioned, i t i s German. Mm 55. i s omitted Akron 15 Canton 16 , 17 A l l e n Co. Ger Celina 6 6 , Swiss 52.10 25 Alvado C h i l l i c o t h e 22 10 Archbold Cincinnati 28 Du 59*21 Ashtabula Swd German, early 55*02; 6 5 . 4 12 , 13 , 15 , Cath Auglaize Co. 4 9 . 6 0 , Meth 5 8 . 2 3 , 25 thence to 111. , Teu~ Berwick topolis to l a . , 22 Guttenberg 56 .64 Black Swamp Welsh 92 .32 1 0 , 27 way station 4 9 . 2 3 Butler Co. 43 1302 Ohio (cont.) places mentioned as eontlhfaining f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Cleveland Holmes Go. 16 national par­ Jackson Co Wel i s h e s ^ . 64 92.21, 32, 33, Czechs 71.0; .4, .5, 9 1 , 92 74.01, .7 Knox Go. Germans 49 . 6 2 ; 22 d2, 10 , 15 ; Slavs 49.63 Lancaster 19, 20; 58.7 Licking Co. Wel Slovenes 78.0, 2 note, 31, 92.32 .5 Lewisburg Columbiana Co. 24 16 Lima Ger 2 5 , Columbus Ger Wel 92 .32 10, 21, Wel 92 . 3 2 , 33, A, Lorain Croat ?8.4 .6, Ger 16, 15, .90 Mex 90.41 Crawford Co. Ludwigsburg 22 24 Cuyahoga Co. Wel Mansfield 92 .32 22 Darke Go. Maria Stein 24 25 Delaware Co. Wel Marion Co. 92 .32 22 Dayton 24 Mauraee Miami Ca­ Deshler na l 24, 27 27 Minster Elida 25 26 Monroe Co. E l y r i a 18 12 Napoleon Findlay Mex 27 90.20 Newark Wel Ft. Laramie 9 2 . 3 2 , 92 25 New Bremen Frenchtown Fr 25 . 85.80, 81 New Riegel G a l l i a Co. Wel 22 92.21, 3 2 , 33, .5, . 9 1 , 92 .4, Osnaburg 16 G a l l i p o l i s Fr Paddy's Run Wel 85.80 9 2 . 3 2 , 91, 92 Germantown Palmyra Wel 24 92 .32 Gnadenhutten Pandora 16 26 Gomer Wel Preble Co. 92 . 3 2 , 34, 24 91, 92 Putnam Co Ger 43, Granville Wel Swiss #52.10 92 . 3 2 , ## 92 Radnor Wel Hamilton 92.21, 32 , .4, 14 91, 92 Hamler Richland Co. 27 22 Henry Co. Ridgeville Corners 27 27 1303 Ohio (cont*) places containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Sandusky Venedocia Wel 54.8 9 2 . 3 2 , 90, 91 Somerset V e r s a i l l e s Fr 19 85.80 Sonnenberg Wauseon 16 28 St. Henry Wayne Co. Ger 16 , 43 25 Swiss 52.10, .3 St. Marys Welsh H i l l s Wel 25 92.32, .4, 91, 92 Stark Go. West Alexandria 16 24 Switzer 52.10, West take .3; 55.18 12 T i f f i n Williams Co. 22 28 Toledo Ger 2 3 , Winesburg Leb 96 .50 16 Tuscarawa Go. Youngstown Croat 16 78 .4 Union Co. Zanesville 21 19 Van Wert Go. Wel 92 . 3 2 , . 4 O i l Industry i n Oklahoma 8 9 . 9 6 . 1 Oklahoma history of settlement 57.#70-71 coal mining 49 . 3 2 ; 8 2 . 6 2 population relations with Kansas 9 7 . 7 1 , . 9 railroads Missouri ,Kansas and Texas 8 9 . 9 7 Rock Island 8 9 . 9 ^ , 95 Santa Fe 89.94, 95, 97 f o r - l i n g stocks mentioned as present French 84 . 1 German 57.72-89 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 50.21 Greek 9^.21 I t a l i a n 8 2 . 6 2 Lebanese 9 5 . 2 1 , 9 6 . 3 Mennonite 5 7 . 7 6 - 8 5 ; 54.41 Mexican 8 9 . 0 1 , 90-99 Volgan 53-94; 57.86 Oklahoma Places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s (counties l i s t e d i n Section 8 9 . 9 1 as con­ taining Mexicans not included ). I f stock i s not noted, i t i s German. 57. i s omitted Adair 73 Alva 73 Anadarko Mex 8 9 . 9 5 Balko 84 Bessie 77 , 78, 86 Cherokee S t r i p or Out­ l e t 71, 74 Chickasha Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 95 Coalgate 4 9 . 3 7 Comanche Co. Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 98 Cordell 77 Corn 77, 78 Darlington 76, 77 Deer Creek 83 Dewey Mex 8 9 . 9 4 Duncan Mex 8 9 . 9 5 EL Reno Mex 8 9 . 9 5 Enid Ger 74 , 79 82 Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 94 Fargo 87 Geary 77, 78 Goltry 79 Goodwin 87 Gotebo 77, 78 Granite 73 Greer Co. 73 Henryetta coal 4 9 . 3 7 , Mex 89.97 Hitchcock 86 Hooker 85 Hydro 77, 78 K i e l 75 Kingfisher 75 Krebs coal 49.37 Lawton Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 98 Lehigh coal 49.37 Loyal 7 5 , 86 McAlester coal 4 9 . 3 7 , Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 97 Major Co. 79 Marshall 74 Medford 83 Meno 7 9 , 80, 81 Okarche 75 Okeene 79, 86 Oklahoma City Ger 8 7 , Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 9 6 , Greek 9 4 . 2 1 , Lebanese 9 6 . 3 Optima 85 Pavihuska Mex 8 9 . 9 4 Ponea C i t y Mex 8 9 . 9 4 Shattuck 87 Shawnee Mex 8 9 . 9 1 , 95 Tangier 87 Thomas 88 Tulsa Ger 8 7 , Hex S & S ? s e 9 1 9 6 . 3 1305 Oklahoma (cont.) places mentioned as containing f o r l i n g s (cont.) Turpin Weatherford 77 , 86 84 Washita Co, Woodward 77 8 7 Waynoka 4 Aex 89.94 Oldenburg, i n German Northwest 5 0 . 5 1 1885 population 50 .61 Emigration 5 0 . 8 1 , 8 5 , 90 Oldenburgers mentioned as present i n Indiana, Oldenburg 55*32 Iowa, Luxemburg, 5 6 . 6 2 Missouri, St. Charles 5 7 .09 Nebraska, Pl a t t e Co. 5 7 ,40 Ohio, Minster 5 5 . 2 5 Wisconsin, Calumet Co. 56.24 Olsson, 0 . 6 5 . 2 Oregon, fermans summarized 57.98 Orthodox Catholics Greek f o r Greeks 9 . 3 9 , 94 .3 at Chicago 94 .11 at Kansas C i t y , Mo. 94.10 at Oklahoma City 9 4 . 2 Greek f o r Lebanese i n Lebanon 95.**, *7 In the United States 9 6 . 5 0 , 5 2 , 53 i n Oklahoma 9 6 . 3 Ruthenian 49 .35 Serbian 7 8 . 8 Overpopulation and population s t a t i s t i c s as evidence of over population general European 49 .04 1306 Overpopulation (cont.) Croatian 77 . 3 , . 9 Czech 71 . 3 , .#4 Danish ( s l i g h t ) 6 2 , 1 Dutch 59 . 10 French i n France ( s l i g h t ) 8 5 . 0 i n Canada 86.6 Ger-ling, i n Germany 50 .60 i n Russia on Volga 5 3 * 3 1 , 3 4 , 35 on Molotschna 54.1 Greek ( s l i g h t ) 93*40 I t a l i a n 81.5 ff Lebanese 9 5 . 4 Mexican 8 8 . 3 1 , 32 Norwegian 6 2 . 0 Poli sh 76.2 Slovenian 7 7 . 2 0 Pabst, Fred 5 6 . 1 1 Padroni 82 .58 Palatinate. See Pfalz Penn-Germans, i . J f e . , persons descended from early Pennsylvanian German stock general 5 5 . 0 1 , general on t h e i r churches 58.04 Mennonites 5 8 . 3 0 , 40, 41. See also Amish and Mennonites Mentioned as present i n (exclusive of Amish, q.v.) I l l i n o i s , southeast 5 5 . 5 6 Stephenson Co. 55*97 near Springfield 55*82 Indiana, Berne, 5 5 * 4 3 Elkhart Co. 55 .46 Iowa, near Amana 5 6 . 6 8 Missouri, early i n Bolinger Co.57*00 Nebraska, Omaha 5 7 * 3 2 Wisconsin, Green Co. 5 6 . 3 4 130? Peonage 8 8 . 6 2 , 6 1 , 58 P f a l z , i n German south 50*51 emigration from (see also Bavaria) to Black Sea 53*10; 54*51, 52 to Volga area 53*06 to America 50 .90 Palatines mentioned as present i n I l l i n o i s , Suramerfield 55*64 Iowa, Amana 56.58 Lee Go. 56.5** Pennsylvania r e l a t i o n to population of Kansas 49 . 2 2 , 97*02 coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , by I t a l i a n s 8 2 . 6 0 # # f o r - l i n g stocks mentioi$$#|bed as present i n French 85.80 Genaan 55*00, 04 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 50 .21 immigration, early 50.41 l a t e r years of 50.23 source of population , to I l l i n o i s 55*52 to Missouri at Hermann from Philadelphia 57*10 to Ohio 55*11 See also Penn-Gemans Greek 90.10 I t a l i a n 81.6 Lebanese 96#.l, . 2 Poles 76.0, . 6 0 , .70 Scandinavians 64.0 Serb 78.8 Slovenian 78.0, 3 1 , 40, . 5 , 60 Swiss 52 .10, 20 Welsh 91 . 3 ; 92.20. 30, 35 1308 Pennsylvania (cont.) Places mentioned as containg f o r - l i n g s Altoona Ger 55.04 Beulah, Wel 9 2 . 2 0 , | f 3 0 , .4 Blossburg Wel 92 .35 Cambria Co. Wel 9 2 . 2 0 , 30 Garbondale Wel 92.30 Ebensburg Wel 9 2 . 3 0 , .4 Frenchville 85.80 Harrisbe^Ger 55.04 Philadelphia Ger 55.00 Leb 9 6 . 2 , Swiss 52.10 Pittsburgh, Ger 5 5 . 0 2 , 04 I t a l i a n 82 .60 Lebanese 9 6 . 1 , . 2 Poles 76 .75 Serb 7 8 . 8 Slovenian 78.0, 3 1 , 40, . 5 , .60 Swiss 5 2 . 1 0 , 20 Wel 92.30 P o t t s v i l l e Wel 92.30 Scranton, Wel 9 2 . 3 0 , Ger 55.04 Wilkes3»rre Wel 92.30 Philadelphia see Pennsylvania Pietism 49.14; 54.24; 5 4 . 6 0 ; 5 8 . 6 3 f ; 5 8 . 3 ; 5 9 . 1 1 , 61|S6.2; 6 7 . 1 1 , 1 2 ; 91 .7 Pittsburgh, see Pennsylvania Poland, kingdom of 7 6 . l l ; 7 6 . 2 ; 7 6 . 3 0 , 32 See also Poles 1309 Poles 7 6 . 0 — 9 mother tongue census s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 ; 49.35-36 meat packing 4 9 . 3 8 - 3 9 national parishes 4 9 . 5 9 , 64, 66 priests on Volga 53*6 mentioned with Germans as present i n Nebraska, Columbus 57*39 P l a t t e Co. 57*41 Wisconsin , Milwaukee 56 .07 Princeton 56.37 mentioned with Mexicans i n Chicago area 8 9 . 8 2 Polish Germans 5 2 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 1 3 A , 2 2 , 5 1 , 6 1 , 85 Mennonites 5 4 . 3 0 , 3^ PomeraMa(ns), i n German Inner North 5 0 . 5 1 , 5 0 . 1 1 ; population i n 1885, 50.61 i n Black Sea area 5^*52 i n the United States mentioned as present i n Iowa, Dubuque 5 0 . 6 1 Nebraska, Grand Island 57*65 Ohio, Cleveland 55*15 Wisconsin ( 5 6 . i s omitted) nw of Fond du Lac 25 Green Lake 37 Manitowoc 23 Marquette 80. 37 Mayville 26 Oshkosl^ 28 0zaukee^l8 Portage 36 Shawano Go. 32 Sheboygan 19 Theresa 26 Watertown 27 Wolf River 31 Ponziglione, Catholic p r i e s t 4 9 . 5 1 Population See Overpopulation, Census, Mother tongue 1310 Ports i n Europe 4 9 . 0 6 i n the United States 49*21 Portuguese #80.0 Presbyterians Czech 75.10 French Canadian 87 .83 German 5 8 . 2 8 , mentioned as occurring i n I l l i n o i s , Madisonf$5.66 Iowa, Dubuque 5 6 . 6 l Garnavillo 56.13 Wisconsin, Marquette 56#37 I t a l i a n 82 .9 note Welsh 9 1 . 7 ; 9 2 . 4 Press. The items showing l o c a l i t i e s are usually f o r newspapers Croat 78 .7 Czech 7 5 . 4 French Canadian, general #87.32 i n Massachusetts, F a l l River 8 7 . 3 1 Worcester 8 7 . 3 1 German, general 58*7* 56.82, i n Iowa, C a r r o l l 56 .02 Cedar Rapids 5 6 . 7 1 Clinton 56.57 Council Bluffs 56.73 Denison 56.84 DesMoines 56.76 ELkader 56 .63 Iowa City 56.71 Keokuk 56.53 Manning 56 .83 1311 (Press (cont.) German (cont.) Iowa (cont.) Maquoketa 56.60 Muscatine 56.56 Ottumwa 5 6 . 7 2 P o s t v i l l e 56.63 Sioux Gity 56.78 Missouri, Hermann 57*10 St. Louis 56.93* 96 Nebraska, Omaha 57*32 West Point 59*37 Wisconsin, Milwaukee 56.08 Sheboygan 56.19 Greek 9 4 . 6 l I t a l i a n 83*2 Lebanese 96 .57 Mexican, see Spanish Polish 7 6 . 8 0 , 82 Slovenian 78 .7 Spanish 90.50 i n C a l i f o r n i a , San Bernardino 8 9 . 6 5 Welsh 92 .71 Protestants among stocks where Catholicism i s either dominant or s i g n i f i c a n t l y repre­ sented. Czech 75*10 German 51*10; 58.01 f f . when used i n discussions concerning German Protestants i n the United States, the phrase f,German Protestant Churches*1 does not include the Methodistic or Mennonite churches, but only the Lutheran and Evangelical and Reformed churches 55*86 1312 Protestants etc. (cont.) Greek 9 4 . 5 I t a l i a n s 8 2 . 9 Lebanese 95*35; 96.50 Mexican 9 0 . 3 2 , i n Tulsa, Okla. 89 .97 Provincialism German 51*10, i n German societies based on single p r o v i n c i a l o r i g i n 58.51* Turnverein 58.55 verse St. Louis 5 6 . 9 i 8 , 99 Sheboygan, Wise. 56.19 Greek 9 4 . 5 I t a l i a n , see Gampanil#ti#ismo Yolgan 5 4 . 5 2 , 57.47 See also Dialects Prussia(ns) Danzig area53*10; general 5 0 . 1 1 , PuertoEicans 8 8 . 0 1 51 Quakers, Norwegian 6 8 . 0 , Welsh 91*#7 Radio, i n German 57*41, i n Spanish 90.51 Railroads bring s e t t l e r s west 4 9 . 2 9 I t a l i a n workers on 82 .55 Mexican workers on, i n Mexico 8 8 . 6 3 , 6 5 , i n U. 3. 9 0 . 0 0 f f . , 88.90 Arizona 89 .59 C a l i f o r n i a 8 9 . 6 3 , 65 C h i c a g o 8 9 . 8 l , 83 See also the subheading rfrailro§dsH under the names of states Rapp, Johann Geor 55*39 Raza, l a 8 8 . 2 1 Reformed Church i n America 59*4, 51 1313 Reformed Protestants Czech 75*10 Dutch, i n Netherlands 59*11 i n 0 * S., Christian Reformed Church 5 9 * 4 , 5 1 , Reformed Churchin A- merica 59*4, 51 German i n Germany 51*10 and Switzerland 52#20 i n Russia 53*13, **0 f f . , 60 i n 0 . S. 58*19, 1916 s t a t i s t i c s 58 .05-07 mentioned as present i n Colorado, Loveland 57*9^ Iowa, Iowa Co. 56 .69 Indiana, ^erae 55*^3 Missouri, Cosby 57*26 Germantown 57*28 Ohio, Canton 55.17 Columbiana Co. 55*16 Stark Co. 55*16 T i f f i n 55*22 Zanesville 55*19 Wisconsin, New Glarus 5 6 . 3 ^ P r a i r i e du Sac 5 6 . 3 $ Sheboygan 5 6 . 1 9 , 20 See also Evangelical and Reformed Church Reich German defined 50.11 Religion as an i s o l a t i n g l i n g u i s t i c factor 98.20 f f . i n Germany 51*10 among Germans i n Russia 53*^*0; 5^.60 i n Wales 91*7 1314 Religious bodies, general 49#42 f f . s t a t i s t i c s f o r them among Germans 5 8 . 0 5 , 0 6 See also under the names of the bodies and under the names of the various stocks Religious freedom, lack of 61 . 5 8 Remittances to Europe as promoting emigra­ t i o n , i n Germany 51*51* i n Sweden 63J36 Rese, F. 55*12 Revolutions, i n Mexico 8 8 . 3 2 , i n % s s i a 5 4 . 9 0 See also Forty-eighters Rhine West, defined 50 . 5 1 * concept used i n s t a t i s t i c a l sections following Rhineland(ers), i n the German Rhine West 5 0 . 5 1 1885 population 5 0 . 6 l j emigration 5 0 . 8 2 , 8 5 , 9 0 Prussia i n s t a l l e d there 51*00 Places i n 0 . S. mentioned as containing I l l i n o i s , McHenry 55*89 Indiana, Elberfeld 5 5 . 3 8 Iowa, Minden 56.80 Missouri, Loose Creek 57*13 Tipton 57*18 Westphalia 57*13 Ohio, Cleveland 5 5 * 1 5 Wisconsin, Appleton 56.29 northwest Dane Go. 56 . 5 5 Lomira 5 6 . 2 5 Manitowoc 5 6 . 2 3 Sheboygan 5 6 . 1 9 Sheboygan Co. 56.20 near Lake Winnebago 5 6 . 2 4 , 31 Riess, Konrad 56.56 1315 Shode Island, ^reneh Canadians i n 1930 l i m i t a t i o n s to English 86 .2 i n 1922 t h e i r p o l i t i c s 87 .30 mentioned as present i n Central F a l l s 8 7 . 0 1 Pawtucket 87 .01 Woonfiocket 87 .01, 12, .6 Riess,Konrad56.56 Rock Island r a i l r o a d and Mexicans 9 0 . 0 1 See also I l l i n o i s , Iowa, Kansas (Bering- ton 9 0 . 1 3 ) , Oklahoma i M b l l M R o s a t i * Joseph 4 9 . 5 0 ; 56.93 Rosewater, Bdwalfcr 74 . 5 Rumanians, 80.0 i n national parishes 49 .64 German 50 .22 Rural environments outstate from ^ansas 49 .25 Russia \ander Czars, see next item Soviet Russia 54,90 Russian Germans i n Russia 53 . 0 0 f f . , 50*14 s t a t i s t i c s by.religious confession 53.13 t h e i r locations there mentioned preferences i n sections 53*20-96 are to v i l l a g e s or locations i n the Volga area; 5 ^ 0 - 4 1 to those i n the Mennon- i t e area; 54 . 5 0 -8 to those i n the Blackseamen*s area^ 1316 Russian Germans i n Russia (cont.) t h e i r locations Alexanderwohl 54.21 Hoffnungstal 54.52 54 Annafeld 54 .23 Huck 57.47* Astrakhan 5 3 . 0 3 Jagodnaja 5 3 . 3 0 , 71 note; 57 .93 Balzer 5 3 . 3 0 ; 57.47 J o s e f s t a l 5451,54 Beaurgard 53.40 Kandel 5 4 . 5 4 Beideck 57 .47 Kassel 54 .60 Beresina 54.51* 5 2 , 54 Karaman River 53.21 Bergdorf 5 4 . 5 2 ; 54.54 Katharinenstadt 5 3 . 2 1 , 70 Bergseite defined 53.20 Kazan 53 .03 then passim; 57 .47 Bessarabia 5 4 . 5 0 , 54 Kherson 5 4 . 5 0 , 54 Black Sea 53 .01 then KhortSlza 5 4 . 0 0 , passim; Tatars 53.08 01#, 69, . 1 Crimea 5 4 . 0 0 , 23 K l e i n Idebental 54.51 54 D i e t e l 5 3 . 3 0 , 40 Kolb '57^66 Dnieper River 5 3 . 3 0 ; 54.00 Koppental 53.53 Dniester River 5 4 . 5 0 , 53 Kuchurgan 54.50 52 54 Dobrinka 57 .93 Kukkus 57 .47 Don River 53.20 Kutusufka 54 .31 ^ b 5 7 . 4 J ^ Donhof 53.30 Liebenthal 53 .23 Dreispitz 57.85 Marienthal 53 .23 Bckheim 5 3 . 3 0 , 40, 92 Mariental 54 . 5 1 , 54 Prank 5 3 - 3 0 ; 5 7 . 4 7 , 6 6 , 93 Marxstadt 53 .21 Franzfeld 54 .51 Medevedista Riv­ er 53.20 Freudental 54 .51 lesser 53 .30 Galka 53.30 , 93 Mieholin 54.33 Glucktal 5 4 . 5 1 , 52 , 60 Molotschna 5 4 . 0 0 , 02 . 1 33* Grimm 53.70 5?!51 ( r i v e r ) Monjou 53 .23 Gross Liebental 5 4 . 5 0 , 54 Neudorf 5 4 . 5 4 , 60 Halbstadt 54.00 Neu Horka 53 .30 Helenental 54 .51 1317 Russian Germans i n Russia, t h e i r loca- Norka 5 7 . 4 7 , 6 6 , 9 3 ; tions (cont,) 5 3 . 3 0 , 40 S c h i l l i n g 57 .47 Odessa 54.50 Shaba 54.53 Old Colonies 5 4 . 5 1 , Simferopol 5 4 . 0 0 50 Ostrog 54 .32 Strassburg, Kuehur- gan 5 4 . 5 2 , 54 Peterstal 5 4 . 5 1 Tiraspol 53 .6 P f e i f e r 53.23 Volhynia 54.30 Plotzk 5 4 . 5 3 Volga 5 3 . 0 1 , passim Pobotschnaja Walter 5 3 . 3 0 ; 57.47 5 3 . 3 0 ; 57 .93 Rab 53.30 Wiesenseite, defined 5 3 . 2 0 , then passim Riga 4 9 . 0 6 Worms 5 4 . 5 2 , 5 4 , 6 0 ; 57.52 Rohrbach 5 7 . 5 2 , 54, 60 Salz 5 4 . 5 0 , 54 Samara 53 .20 Saratov 5 3 . 0 3 , 2 0 , 2 1 , . 6 ; 57 .93 Schafer 53 .30 Sch#wetz 5 4 . 2 1 i n the United States (Russian Germans) mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 50 .22 immigration s t a t i s t i c s 5 0 . 3 1 Nebraska, i t s Russian Germans compared to those of Kansas 57.69 i n Oklahoma City and Tulsa 57.87 See also Volgans, Mennonites, and Black- seamen; Colorado, Nebraska, Oklahoma Russians 76.53 mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 i n meat packing 49 .50-59 Ruthenia, Poles i n 7 6 . 2 , #30 Ruthenians, see Ukrainians R u s s i f i c a t i o n 53 .15-16 , 8 0 ; 54.25 1318 Salt mining and Mexicans 90*24 Santa Pe Railroad competes with I l l i n o i s Central f o r s e t t l e r s 5 5 . 9 2 competes with Nebraska railroads for settlers 57*55 and Mexicans 9 0 . 0 1 ; see further C a l i f o r ­ n i a , I l l i n o i s , Kanas (Darticularly 90.13}, Oklahoma Santa Fe T r a i l 8 9 . 1 3 Saxony (kingdom and province) i n German Inner North 5 0 . 5 1 1885 population 5 0 . 6 1 9 0 ; emigration from 5 0 . 8 5,^to Volga 5 3 . 0 6 m i l i t a r y ardor 51 .04 Saxons mentioned as present at I l l i n o i s , Mount Olive 5 5 * 6 8 Missouri, St. Louis 5 6 . 9 4 , 9 8 ; 5 8 . 1 5 Perzy Co. 5 7 . 0 1 ; 5 8 . 1 5 Wisconsin, Manitowoc Co. 5 6 . 2 3 Sheboygan 5 6 . 1 9 Schleswig and Schleswig-Holstein i n German Northwest 5 0 . 5 1 1885 population 5 0 . 6 1 - conquest by Prussia 5 1 . 0 2 # ; 6 2 . 2 emigration from 5 0 . 8 5 , 90 emigrants mentioned as present at Iowa, Avoca 5 6 . 8 0 Bremer Co. 5 6 . 6 6 Crawford Co. 5 6 . 84 Davenport 5 6 . 5 7 Dewitt 5 6 t . 6 0 Minden 5 6 . 8 0 Newell 5 6 . 8 6 1318 a. Schleswig and Schleswig-Holstein (cent.) emigrants mentioned as present i n (cont.) Iowa (cont.), near Storm Lake 56#86 Wheatland 56-60 Wilton 56 .67 Oklahoma, L o j a l 57.75 Wisconsin, Manitowoc Co. 56.21-23 See also Holstein Scholte, Henry Peter 5 9 . 1 1 , 50 Schools, see Education Segregation and discrimination general concerning effect on Bngl-izing 9 8 . 8 Greek 9^*8 I t a l i a n 8 3 . 3 f f . Mexican 90 . 7 , i n church ^0.31 ,32 i n C a l i f o r n i a #89.65,67 and i n neigh­ boring sections in Oklahoma 89 . 9 3 , 99 i n Texas, passim i n 89 .30 f f . , p a r t i c ­ u l a r l y 89 . 4 3 , 46a, 46b Serbian National Federation 78 .8 Serbo-Croatian language 77*0 Serbs 78 . 8 , i n meat packing 49.38-39 in Bisbee, Arizona mining 89.58 / Shame as an fingl-is&ing factor 9 8 . 6 1 S i b e r i a , Mennonites there 1925 - 5 4 . 3 ^ Germans there 54.90 Settlement currents outside Kansas 49 .22 associations 49 . 2 3 ; 58.5**; 7^.2 ^Shellenburg, Abraham 5^*24 S i l e s i a 5 0 . 5 1 ; 73.0 1885 population 50*61 emigration 5 0 . 8 5 , 90 See also Teschen 1319 Singing societies German 58#53? mentioned as occurring i n I l l i n o i s , Highland 55*65 Indiana, Evansvilie 55*38 Iowa, Council Bluffs 5 6 . 7 ? Davenport 5 6 . 5 7 Port Madison 5 6 . 5 3 Keokuk 5 6 . 5 3 frequently mentioned with or as part of other s o c i e t i e s ; see Societies Welsh 9 1 * 9 ; 92 .6 Skfine i n Sweden 6 1 . 6 Slsvs 7 0 . 0 - 7 9 * * * a u x i l i a r y bishops named for them i n Cleve­ land and Chicago 4 9 . 6 3 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 * * f f * (111*) ; 8 9 . 7 3 (Cdlo.) i n copper mining 8 9 . 5 8 (Arizona) See also and p a r t i c u l a r l y the names of the Slavic l i n g u i s t i c stocks Slovaks, i n Europe 7 2 . 0 , i n U. S. 7 5 . 8 ; 7 9 * 1 5 mother tongue stat 4 9 . 9 2 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , 33* 35 i n meat packing 4 9 . 3 8 - 3 9 i n national parishes 4 9 . 5 9 , 64 , 66 at Pueblo, Colorado 8 9 . 7 3 at Staunton, I l l i n o i s 55*68-69 Slovene National Benefit Society 7 8 . 5 Slovenians 7 7 * 0 f f . mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 * 9 2 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , 3 3 , 9§ i n meat packing 4 9 . 3 8 - 3 9 i n national parishes 4 9 . 5 9 , 64 , 66 with Mexicans at Pueblo, Colorado 8 9 . 7 3 s t a t i s t i c a l l y confused with Groatians 7 7 * 0 , *1 1320 Smaland i n Sweden 6 1 . 5 3 , .6 Societies Croatian #78.60 Czech 75.2 f f . Danish 67*3 French Canadian 8 7 . 4 German 58.50 f f ; 5 1 . 3 ; see also Turnverein and Singing s o c i e f t i e s Greek 94.45 I t a l i a n 83.10, 11 , 12 Lebanese 96 .56 Mexican 90.40-42 Polish 76.81 Serb 78 .8 Slovenian 7 8 . 5 Swedish 6 6 . 5 Welsh 9 2 . 6 ; 91 .9 Sogndal i n Norway 63.4 Solingen Society 57*05 Sokol 75*30 South Dakota Blackseamen 5 4 . 8 #FrenchCanadians 8 6 . 3 Ger-lings, see Blackseamen and Mennonites under t h i s heading Mennonites 54.41, "Po l i s h " 54 . 3 2 , "Swiss" 54.31 Welsh 91*3 South I t a l i a n s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from North 8 I . 3 , then passim South Russia, the Ukraine. See Mennonites, Blsckseamen Southern P a c i f i c Railroad and Mexicans 8 9 . 6 3 ; 90.01 Soviet Russia and German colonies 5^*90 1321 St. Jean Baptiste Society 8 ? . 4 St. Louis, see Missouri St. Raphaelsverein 4 9 . 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 3 Stassei* Heinrich 5 5 * 9 2 Stavanger, Norway 6 3 . 4 ; 6 8 . 0 Steamship conditions 61 .50 Steel workers, Mexican 8 9 .81, 85 Stepihan, Martin 5 6 . 9 4 Stucky Jospph 5 4 . 3 1 Sudetenlanders 7 3 * 0 at Oshkosh, Wise. 56.28 Supreme Court decision of 1923 - 5 7 . 6 9 Sugar Beets 5 3 * 9 6 ; 5 7 * 3 0 , 4 ? , 91 f f . ; 89*64, 7 4 f f , 8 6 ; 9 0 . 2 0 Survivance of French i n New ihgland 8 ? .31 Swabians f i n Europe 5 2 . 6 3 ; 5 4 . 5 0 See also Hessians, Bavarians, etc. i n U. S. Indiana, F t . Wayne 55*42 Missouri, St. Louis 5 6 . 9 8 i n Turnverein 5 8 . 5 5 verse Sweden and Swedes 6 0 . 0 f f . mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 4 9 . 9 2 i n coal mining 4 9 . 3 2 , 3 3 i n meat packing 4 9 . 3 8 - 3 9 and intermarriage 4 9 . 8 0 , 8 9 Swedish Mission Church 66.4; 6 1 . 5 8 ; 66.1 mentioned as present at Iowa, Red Oak 6 5 . 1 2 Neb., Oakland 6 5 . 3 1 For Sedish Baptists and Methodists, see Baptists and Methodists 1322 Swiss ( i . e.#, German Swiss; see also French Swiss.) 5 2 . 0 - . 4 , ; Apostolic Christians 58»4#6 \50^12^ Census s t a t i s t i c s 52#10 Immigration s t a t i s t i c s 5 0 . 3 0 Mennonites 5 8 . 3 3 I 5 4 . 3 4 Mother tongue s t a t i s t i c s 5 0 . 2 2 mentioned as present i n C a l i f o r n i a , Hew Helvetia 5 2 . 1 0 I l l i n o i s , B e l l e v i l l e area 5 5 * 5 8 Bensenville 5 5 . 8 9 Highland 5 2 . 1 0 ; 55*65 west of Cessna Park 55*75 east of Peoria 5 2 . 1 0 Tazewell Co. 5 5 * 7 5 Indiana, Berne, 5 2 . 1 0 ; 55*^3 St. Meinrad area 5 5 * 3 7 Vevay 5 5 * 3 3 Iowa, Dubuque 5 6 . 6 l Wilton 5 6 . 6 7 Zwingle 5 6 . 6 2 Missouri, Cosby 5 7 * 2 6 Germantown 5 7 * 2 8 New Conception 5 7 * 2 6 Rich Fountain 57*13 Swiss 5 7 . 1 1 Nebraska, Columbus 5 7 * 3 9 New Jersey, Passaic 5 2 . 1 0 New l o r k , Bronx 52 .10 Ohio, Swiss Mennonites 5 5 * 1 6 , 2 6 , 4 $ 3 A l l e n , Putname & Wayne Cos. 5 2 . 1 0 Sw±t«er52.10 1323 Swiss(cont.) mentioned a#s present i n (cont.) Pennsylvania, Allentown, Philadelphia, & Pittsburgh 52.10 V i r g i n i a , Helvetia 52.10 Wisconsin, 56.03, Hartford 52.10; 56.18 Monroe 56 .34 Mew qa^lrus 56.34; 52.10 P r a i r i e du Sac 56.36 Synodical Conference, German Lutheran S t a t i s t i c s 58.05-0? es s e n t i a l l y the Missouri Synod 58.01-15 Syrians, see Lebanese, p a r t i c u l a r l y 95*11 Tatars 53.03, 08-09; 5^.53 Tatge, Conrad 55*92 Television i n Spanish 90.52 ^(Tennessee Wel 92.21 ^TescEiir?6T2, 3 0 *35 Texas 39 5 Census s t a t i s t i c s , Mex 89 .0 l^Ge£. mother tongue 50.21 American GI Forum 90.42 • Stocks mentioned as present (see further l i s t of places) Czech 71 .0; ?4 .01 German 57*96 • 50.21 ?5.7note Mexican 89 .30 f f v 0 J Poles 76.60 Scandinavians 64.0 Tejano defined 89.31 Places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s I f not otherwise mentioned, they are Mexicans. 89. i s omitted A l i c e Ger 57.96 /Austin Ger 57.96 ^Mex 48a „ - ^ Mex 48b, 39 Balmorhea_45 texar Co. 39 , ^ b 0 ^ Dan 6 7 . 0 1 , Ger 0 5 , 15 , 16 Wel92.35 , .4 Randolph Dutch 59.52 Random Lake 20 Reedsburg 36 Rock Co. 0 6 , 33 Rock River 0 2 , 33 Norw 6f8.1 Rosier. Gz 74.1 Sauk 06 1331 Wisconsin (cont.) places mentioned as containing f o r - l i n g s (cont.) Waukesha Co. 0 6 , 1? Waupaca Dan 67*21 Sauk City 35 Sauk Co. 36 Waupon Dutch 59*52 Wausau 0 1 , 06 Waushara Co. Pol 76.60 Welsh 92.35 Wautoma 37 Westby Norw 6 8 . 5 Westfield 37 Winnebago, Lake 0 6 , 24 Wisconsin River 0 1 , 0 6 , 36 Withee Dan 67.21 Wolf River 31 Wood Co. Welsh 92.35 Sawyer Co. Wel 92.35 Shawano Co. 0 6 , 32 WmwwwwjPW ML WW Sheboygan ## 0 5 , 0 6 , 19 Sheboygan Co. r u r a l 20 Sherwood 24 Sobieski |»ol 76.60 St. Croix Co. Wel 92 .35 Stockbridge 24 Theresa 26 Trempealeau Co. Pol 76.60 Vernon Go. Dan 6 7 . 0 1 Washington Co. 27. 0 6 , 18 Watertown 06 to Nebraska Platte Go. 57.^*0 Norfolk 57.4#3 Wisconsin Synod (German Lutheran) 56 .07 Women and I h g l - i z i n g 9 8 . 6 2 position of, among I t a l i a n s 8 3 . 4 Greeks 9 3 . 2 , 80; 9^.7 Lebanese 9 5 . 9 ; 9 6 . 4 World War, F i r s t f and Engl-izing general 9 8 . 8 , 9 9 . 7 other 4 9 . 0 9 , 71; 5 4 . 9 0 ; 5 6 . 1 1 , 5 7 . 3 4 , 6 9 ; 5 8 . 1 2 , 15 , 17, 24, 2 5 , 5 5 , 56 57 ; 5 8 . 7 , 91 6 6 . 6 ; 8 7 . 2 1332 Wurtemberg, i n German South 50.51 H 8 8 5 population 5 0 . 6 1 emigration to Black Sea area 5^ .50, 51 to Volga area 53*06 i n 19th century 50.81, 8 5 , 90 emigrants mentioned as present #in Indiana, H b e r f e l d 55.38 loisa, Dubuque 56.61 Muscatine 56.56 looming, Mexicans 89.80 Yiddish 5^.91 Tugo~Slav#ia Germans i n 5 0 . 2 2 See also Jugo-Slavs, Croatian, Serb, Slo­ venian ZCBJ 75.JO Zoar Society 55»l6 Zoot s u i t r i o t s 89.61, 63