THE EFFECTS ON SOCCER DRIBBLING SKILLS WHEN TRAINING WITH TWO DIFFERENT SIZED SOCCER BALLS By Karen S. Miller Submitted to the graduate degree program in Health, Sport, and Exercise Sciences and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Education. ________________________________ Chairperson J. Leon Greene, Ph.D. ________________________________ Susan King, Ed.D. ________________________________ L. Keith Tennant, Ph.D. Date Defended: April 12, 2012 i ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine the effects, if any, on soccer dribbling skills in children, ages, 8-10, after practicing with different sized soccer balls during the season. The Kansas Youth Soccer Association (KYSA, 2008) and the United States Soccer Association (US Soccer, 2011) recommended that children use smaller sized soccer balls than regulation adult sized soccer balls. As indicated by the associations, the size three ball is recommended for children under 8 (U-8), the size four ball is recommended for children under 12 (U-12), and the size five ball is recommended for children older than 12. Twenty-four recreational soccer players from Kansas participated in the study. The participants were from two different teams. The children were randomly placed on the teams by the league officials, unless parents specifically requested a coach. The Mor-Christian General Soccer Ability Skill Test Battery was used to test soccer dribbling skills (Collins & Hodges, 2001 p. 208). Both teams were timed in a pretest for soccer dribbling skills. Team one, the experimental group, was tested using the size five ball, and team two, the control group, was tested using the size four ball. The pretest was followed by six weeks of practice using their assigned size balls. Practice consisted of 1 hour practices twice a week. At the end of the six weeks program, a posttest was administered to both teams. Data were collected and a t-test was used to analyze the data. The results of this study indicated that there was not a significant difference in dribbling skills between the children in the control group as compared to the children in the experimental group. While the size four ball revealed quicker time results, these numbers were not significant enough to rule out the effect of what would be expected by chance. Based on the finding of this study, the following ii conclusions were made: 1) ball size does not offset dribbling skills in young soccer players; 2) soccer players 8 to 10 years old should continue to play with the smaller size four ball; and 3) the weight and size of the larger ball may be too cumbersome for young players to control and develop dribbling skills. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the recreational soccer players who participated in the study and their parents for their cooperation and assistance. I would like to thank my chairperson, Dr. Leon Greene, for all of his guidance and support throughout this study. I would to thank my committee members, Dr. Susan King and Dr. L. Keith Tennant for their input and work on this study. I would like to thank all the people who assisted me with this study. They are Jeff Bachtel, Eric Caldwell, Nate Anderson, Stephen Lissinna, Erik Borgeson, John Hughey, Chad Miller, Ashley Miller, and Dr. Richard Whitlow. I would like to thank people who assisted me with my paper Mark Miller, Chad Miller, Barbara Whited, and Gail Miller. Without everyone’s help, I co uld not have completed my thesis. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i TABLE OF CONTENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i i CHAPTER 1. The Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Significance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 CHAPTER 2. Review of Related Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Dribbling Technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Speed Dribbling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Shielding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Faking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Teaching Soccer Dribbling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Smaller Fields are Putting More Pressure on Dribbling Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 v How Practice and Repetition Develop Skills Based on Developmental Theory. . . 16 Soccer Ball Size Recommendations for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Competitive Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Human Reliance on Hands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Experts Recommend Youth as the Prime Age to Teach and Learn Skills . . . . . . . . 21 Cognitive Processing Rates for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Brain Regions Eliciting Motor Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Method of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 CHAPTER 3. Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Selection of Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Reliability and Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Measurement of Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Collection of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Analysis of the Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 CHAPTER 4 Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 vi Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 CHAPTER 5 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 8 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 A. Permission for the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 B. Approval for Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4 C. Letter to Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 6 D. Parental Consent Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8 E. Letter to Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2 F. Example of Workout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4 G. Timed Test Scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 - Kansas Youth Soccer Association (KYSA) Policies 1.3 Ball Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2 - Mor-Christian General Soccer Ability Skill Test Battery. Pretest and Posttest Schedule. . 28 3 - Mean Performance Scores for the Mor-Christian General Soccer Ability Skill Test. . . . . 39 Battery - Time in Seconds 4. - deĂŵs’ t-test results for the Mor-Christian General Soccer Ability Skill Test Battery. . . 40 1 CHAPTER 1 The Problem Introduction Dribbling the soccer ball is one of the most important skills that children need to effectively play soccer. Players in possession of the ball are subjective to a tremendous amount of pressure. To be effective, players must be able to dribble and control the soccer ball with their feet. Hargreaves (1990) stated, t͞he most important skill in soccer is the ability to control the ďĂůů͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϮϱͿ. The success of the team depends on its players’ abilities to dribble and maintain possession. For soccer players to be successful, Coerver & Galustian (1995) note d, ͞ŐettinŐ Ɖossession oĨ the ďĂůů ĂnĚ ŬeeƉinŐ it is Ăn iŵƉortĂnt ƉĂrt oĨ soĐĐer͟ ;Ɖ͘ 4 ). Dribbling the ball under control and maintaining possession is essential in soccer. According to Thomas, Fellinghan, and Vehers (2009) d͞ribbling appears to be the single ŵost iŵƉortĂnt sŬiůů ǁhen ĐoŵƉĂreĚ to ƉĂssinŐ͕ Ĩirst touĐh͕ ĂnĚ ĚeĨense͟ (p. 120). There are a number of important dribbling skills necessary to play soccer. Players need to be able to change speeds with the ball such as accelerating and stopping. Huijgen, Elferink -Gemser, Post, & Visscher (2010) contend ed, d͞ribbling speed is considered critical to the outcome of the game. Dribbling in soccer can be categorized into dribble actions while accelerating and dribble ĂĐtions ǁith ƋuiĐŬ ĐhĂnŐes oĨ ĚireĐtions ͟(p. 689) . Players need to be able to use the inside, outside, sole, and instep of their feet to change directions. Another important dribbling skill is shielding the ball while stationary and on the move. Players must also be able to dribble while looking up to assess the game developments. These dribbling skills are important to being an effective soccer player. 2 Russell, Benton, and Kingsley (2010) stated, d͞ribbling possession can be lost due to a ůĂĐŬ oĨ ďĂůů Đontroů͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϰϬϲͿ͘ Soccer is one of the most popular sports with youth; however many children have difficulty finding their touch and controlling the ball. hiůĚren’s dribbling skills are not yet refined and highly coordinated. As a result, the ball strays too far ahead of them for an easy interception by a defender. Many children while dribbling end up chasing the ball instead of anticipating and manipulating it in a controlled and decisive manner. As reported in the book Coaching and Playing Youth League Soccer (1988), t͞he age of your players will have Ăn eĨĨeĐt on the ƉroŐressive ĂĐƋuisition oĨ sŬiůůs͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϱͿ͘ Children are challenged developmentally to acquire dribbling skills necessary to play soccer. Soccer is a game where the hands are disallowed except for the goalie. The inability to use one’s hands while dribbling adds to the difficulty to play soccer. Many infants instinctively reach to pick up objects such as a ball because since birth they have mainly relied on their hands to manipulate objects. Berk (2007) stated, o͞f all motor skills, reaching may play the greatest role in infant cognitive development because it opens up a whole new way of edžƉůorinŐ the environŵent͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϯϵͿ͘ Switching from a reliance on hands to only using ones feet to manipulate the soccer ball adds complexity to learning and acquiring new skills. Over the years , many outdoor soccer fields for youth have reduced in size from large soccer fields possessing 11 players per team to smaller fields with fewer players. The Federation of International Football [ Soccer] Association FIFA (2011 -2012) and US Soccer (2012) noted the section in the L aws of the GĂŵe thĂt ͞the laws may be modified in their application for matches for players of under 16 years of age . Any or all of the following modifications are permissible: size of the field of play, size, weight and material of the ball ͟(p. 3 ). O n the large 3 fields, a child can dribble in space for quite some distance before encountering another defender. However, on the smaller fields, there is less room to operate and to find space when dribbling. Katis and Kellis (2009) stated , t͞he smaller pitch [ field] results in increased pressure from the opponents and this situation requires from the players to dribble the ball more ͟(p. 37 8). Under these pressure like circumstances, skills are tested more and ball handlers are put under even more pressure. Many young players find it difficult to produce the skills quickly and efficiently enough when dribbling the ball in a confined area, especially with the limited time to respond and react. Modified soccer games have emerged over the years which are available to soccer players of all ages. These games are Futs al and indoor soccer. Futsa l is played on a basketball court. With limited friction, the smaller ball rolls very fast even with a weighted ball lining specifically designed for this game. I ndoor soccer is played on artificial turf whereby a regular soccer ball is used. The height of astro turf is low and consistent which lends to the ball rolling quicker in comparison to the outdoor fields. These modified games which are played on smaller fields along with quicker rolling balls puts younger players under even more pressure to control and respond while dribbling. Katis and Kellis (2009) noted, d͞ue to smaller pitch [ field] and less number of participants during small-sided games, each player comes into contact with the ball ĂnĚ ĚeĂůs ǁith Đoŵŵon ŐĂŵe situĂtions ŵore oĨten͟ ;2001 p. 374). Russell and Kingsley (2011) reported that t͞he quality of technical response (skill performance) is dependent on cognitive, perceptual and motor skills, which interact in rapidly ĐhĂnŐinŐ environŵents͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϱϮϰͿ͘ Berk (2007 ) supported this notion by stating that, y͞ounger children often have difficulty with skills that require rapid responding such as batting and 4 dribbling ͟(p. 295) . With children’s processing rates and reaction times slower than adults, this adds to the difficulty of successfully dribbling the ball while under pressure. Schreiner (2010) stated, t͞he modern game of soccer puts players of all abilities under great pressure from both tiŵe ĂnĚ oƉƉonents͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϭͿ͘ With these difficulties facing young players, it would make sense to offer them a slower rolling ball to accommodate their dribbling skills, coordination, processing rate, and reaction times. Kansas Youth Soccer Association KYSA (2008) recommended that children use a smaller size soccer ball than adults. The ironic twist is that when coaches want to provide an even more difficult challenge to their players in practice, they offer them a smaller, faster rolling ball to dribble. With the size of the soccer fields shrinking over the past couple of years thus resulting in players being put under even more pressure, the question arises are these smaller balls the best size for children or would a larger slower ball improve their dribbling skills.  neǁ ĨieůĚ thĂt is eŵerŐinŐ to Ɖroŵote ĐhiůĚren’s sƉorts is ĐĂůůeĚ oŵƉetitive Engineering (CE). Burton, Gillham, and Hamm ermeister (2011) stated, ͞ĐoŵƉetive enŐineerinŐ (CE) is a term coined . . . to promote a systematic environment change process (e.g., ball size, basket height, playing time rules) designed to enhance the competitive experiences of young athletes͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϮϬϭͿ͘ dhe ŐoĂů Ĩor ĐoŵƉetitive enŐineers is to di cover methods in sports to enhance play in youth. With the lack of mastery in dribbling skills in youth soccer, finding the best size ball to improve dribbling skills is an important component of competitive engineering. Purpose The purpose of this study was to determine the effects, if any, on soccer dribbling skills in children, ages 8-10, after practicing with different sized soccer balls during the season. 5 Scope The following were delimiting factors to this study: 1. Twenty-four recreational soccer players ages 8-10 participated in the study. 2. O nly size four and five balls were used. 3. The Mor-Christian General Soccer Ability Skill Test Battery (Collins & Hodges, 2001 p. 208) was the only test used to evaluate the dribbling skills of the subjects . 4. The subjects were boys and girls participating in a city parks and recreation soccer program. Assumptions The following assumptions were made: 1. All subjects were physically healthy during testing. 2. All subjects performed to the best of their ability during testing. 3. All subjects performed to the best of their ability during the training program. Limitations The following limitations were made: 1. It was not possible to control t he physical activities of the subjects beyond the practice times. 2. It was not possible to control what the other coach did in practices. Significance ^oĐĐer is Ă ĚiĨĨiĐuůt sƉort to ŵĂster ǁithout the use oĨ one’s hĂnĚs͘ /t is even ŵore difficult for children whose reaction times Gabbard (2004) noted are slower than adults. Many experts contend that learning is optimal in these younger years. Experts such as Berk (2007) 6 made reference to suĐh theories Ăs the ͞ĐritiĐĂů ƉerioĚ͟ ǁhere ůeĂrninŐ ĐĂn onůy tĂŬe ƉůĂĐe in Ă nĂrroǁ ǁinĚoǁ oĨ tiŵe͕ ĂnĚ the ͞sensitive ƉerioĚ͟ ǁhere ůeĂrninŐ is ŵore ĐonĚuĐive in the younger years. The recommended ball size is smaller for these younger ages (KYSA, 2008). Children required to play with a smaller, faster soccer ball as opposed to using a larger, slower ĂĚuůt sinje ďĂůů͕ ĂĚĚs ŵore ĚiĨĨiĐuůty͕ esƉeĐiĂůůy ǁhen ĐhiůĚren’s inĨorŵĂtion ƉroĐessinŐ rĂtes Ăre slower. Using a larger size ball, which rolls slower, will allow young children the time necessary to process and respond appropriately while dribbling. Instead of just chasing a ball , they can create imaginative techniques and pursue finer lines while dribbling for faster times. Providing players with the opportunity to process and problem solve their next dribbling move could be an effective method in developing highly skilled players. Children are extremely creative, and they can absorb a huge amount of knowledge. If they w ere able to operate and dribble at a pace that coincides with their processing capabilities, it would be interesting to see their potential. Some coaches recommend young children using smaller sized balls because their feet and bodies are smaller. But if one examines how a smaller ball rolls faster than a larger ball, a larger and heavier ball may be more beneficial to them. Children will be able to control a larger, slower rolling ball better while dribbling. According to Kreighbaum and Barthels (1990), a͞ ďoĚy’s ǁeiŐht is Ă ŵeĂsure oĨ the ĨorĐe ǁith ǁhiĐh the eĂrth Ɖuůůs on the ďoĚy’s ŵĂss͘ dhe greater the force pressing the surfaces together cʹalled the normal or perpendicular force- the ŐreĂter the resistĂnĐe to sůiĚinŐ͟ (p. 115). Coerver and Galustian (1995) state d, t͞he more ball control these youngsters develop, the more opportunity they will have to make spontaneous and unexpected movements. It would be unfortunate for youngsters and for the sport of soccer 7 if they were not given the chance to develoƉ suĐh sŬiůůs͟ ;Ɖ ϳϰͿ͘ y ĚriďďůinŐ Ă sůoǁer oďũeĐt, it allows the child to correct for errors in dribbling and create finer lines or more direct routes for a quicker time. Flaherty (2010) reported that , a͞ soccer ball that is too small can make it more difficult Ĩor inĚiviĚuĂůs to ƉerĨorŵ soĐĐer sŬiůůs Ěue to the sŵĂůůer surĨĂĐe ĂreĂ ƉresenteĚ ͟(para. 3). It seems that Flaherty is suggesting that coaches use a smaller soccer ball to challenge their players with more difficult conditions while dribbling. If using a smaller soccer ball results in difficult dribbling conditions and less control for skill development, then it would make sense to use a larger ball to improve control and develop dynamic dribbling skills. Definition The following definitions were pertinent to this study. Cutting the Ball: This is a dribbling move used by soccer players to sharply change ball directions by using the inside and outside of the feet. Inside of The Foot : This is a dribbling move using the inside of the foot to make contact with the ball to cut it across in front of the body. Outside of The Foot : This is a dribbling move using the outside of the foot to make contact with the ball to push it away from the body. Instep Dribble : This is a dribble whereby one points their toe down and pushes the ball with their shoelaces. This method is normally used for speed while dribbling straight ahead. Speed Dribble: This is a fast dribble using the outside or instep of the foot to push the ball for speed. The toe is pointed down during this dribble. Competitive Engineering -This is a field of study devoted to discovering and promoting new methods to enhance youth sports. 8 CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature Introduction Dribbling a soccer ball is both easy and difficult. It can be one of the easiest and most natural skills to perform. This is why young children like to play soccer so that they can run freely while kicking the soccer ball. However, the challenge comes from keeping it close when manipulating the ball to change speeds and directions in an effort to beat an opponent. According to Russell and Kingsley (2011), a͞ skilled dribbler is able to keep the ball close to the desired position while travelling at high speed and a lack of ball control will increase the ůiŬeůihooĚ oĨ ůoosinŐ Ɖossession oĨ the ďĂůů͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϱϮϳͿ͘ This is challenging because the ball handler must master ball control using the inside, outside, instep, and sole of both feet. Not only must the dribbler control the ball using different parts of their feet, but they must also be able to change speeds by accelerating and stopping at a moment’s notice. Coerver and Galustian (1995) stated , t͞he coordination, flexibility, and touch required, under full challenge Ĩroŵ oƉƉonents tryinŐ to ǁin the ďĂůů͕ Ăre ĚiĨĨiĐuůt to ŵĂster͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϴͿ͘ While dribbling, a ball handler must be able to observe, collect, and process information quickly while on the move. Thomas et al. (2009) reported that͕ ͞ĚriďďůinŐ hĂĚ the hiŐhest sŬiůů iŵƉortĂnĐe ĂssoĐiĂteĚ ǁith the teĂŵ’s Ăďiůity to ĐreĂte sĐorinŐ oƉƉortunities͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϭϵͿ͘ To play for an elite team, high school, college, or professional team, players will need to challenge themselves with the ball to acquire these highly developed skills. Because of the popularity of soccer and the numerous skills involved, more research is being conducted to help make the sport and equipment safer and more effective. This study is 9 to determine the effects on dribbling skills of children ages 8 ʹ10, while using different sized soccer balls. A review of the literature was conducted and is organized as follows: 1) dribbling techniques, 2) teaching soccer dribbling. 3) smaller fields are putting more pressure on dribbling skills 4) how practice and repetition develop skills based on developmental theory, 5 ) soccer ball size recommendations for children, 6 ) competitive engineering, 7) huŵĂn’s reliance on hands, 8) experts recommend youth as the prime age to teach and learn skills, 9 ) cognitive processing rates for children, 10) brain regions eliciting motor skills, and 10) method of evaluation. Dribbling Techniques Basically there are four types of dribbling techniques. They are speed dribbling, shielding, faking, and cutting. These four soccer techniques are necessary skills soccer players must acquire to beat an opponent. Open any book pertaining to soccer dribbling and these four areas will be covered in detail. Speed Dribbling Huijgen et al. (2010) stated, d͞ribbling speed is considered critical to the outcome of the game ͟(p. 689). Speed dribbling is one of the first dribbling techniques children learn and acquire. It is most similar to a natural step while tapping the ball at a fast speed with the instep or shoelaces. According to LaPrath (2009) ,͞Ěribbling with the instep, or the top of the foot, allows a player to run at a defender at a higher speed because it is a natural forward motion ͟ (p. 64). The main problem to master with this dribbling technique is controlling the ball with a soft touch so the ƉůĂyer Ěoesn’t push it too far ahead for a defender to steal. Elliott, McCollum and Stuart (2004) stated that, i͞mportant cues to present during the dribbling activity include 10 keeping the ball close, using both feet, having soft touches, and looking ahead at a 45 degree ĂnŐůe͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϴͿ͘ Many young children want to poke the ball with their toe, causing the ball to roll too far ahead of them. Coerver and Galustian (1995) stated that, t͞hese solid skills, b͚all feeling’ ĐĂn onůy ďe ĂĐƋuireĚ throuŐh reƉeĂteĚůy touĐhinŐ the ďĂůů͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϰͿ. The objective of speed dribbling is to advance the ball into your opponent’s territory as quickly as possible when there is space ahead of you. Huijgen et al. stated that, t͞he ability to sprint and dribble at high speed is essentiĂů Ĩor ƉerĨorŵĂnĐe in soĐĐer͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϲϴϵͿ͘ Shielding The second type of dribbling is shielding the ball. Hamm (1999) noted, a͞nother characteristiĐ oĨ the ďest Ěriďďůers is the Ɖerson’s ability to hold the ball under pressure, or shieůĚ Ěriďďůe͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϮϮͿ͘ Shielding the ball can be done while standing still or while moving. When standing still, the ball handler will stand sideways and put a shoulder or forearm on the defender while protecting the ball on the outside or under the far foot (LaPrath, 2009). This is normally done when the ball handler needs help and dribbling might subject them to a trap. LaPrath (2009) also stated that, s͞hielding is most often used when players run out of room to dribble and are tightly marked, or when they simply cannot outrun Ă ĐhĂsinŐ oƉƉonent͟ ;Ɖ. 64). When shielding the ball on the move, the ball handler will dribble the ball using the far foot from the defender so the ball is not exposed for a tackle. Skilled dribblers are able to shield the ball to maintain possession of it which increases their teĂŵ’s chances of winning. LaPrath (2009) continued by saying that, w͞hen dribbling to maintain possession, your player must shield oʹr protect-the ball from the opponent to make it easier to maintain possession͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϲϰͿ. Ball handlers who are proficient at shielding are normally very confident with dribbling the ball. 11 Faking Soccer players must be able to effectively dribble the ball. To compete on a competitive level, players must master ball fakes. A fake is when the ball handler deceives the defender. There are two methods the dribbler can use to beat the defender. The ball handler can use his or her body to fake the defender with a shoulder lean or step fake to the side to give the impression the ball handler is going this way. Another form of deception is to actually move the ball by cutting and dribbling the ball from side to side until the ball handler sees the defender out of position or leaning. The ball handler will dribble at the defender and executes a fake or number of fakes. Hargreaves (1990) stated, t͞he attacker uses body feints and disguises his or her intentions so that the defender makes a wrong move and gets off balance ͟(p. 107 ). The objective is to get the defender to lean off balanced to one side. Hamm (1999) noted, ͞zou must get a defender off balance or leaning the wrong way ͟(p. 117) . Once the defender falls for the fake, the ball handler pushes the ball with speed to the other side past the defender to beat him before he or she can recover. In order to be a complete player in soccer, players must be proficient at dribbling the ball and executing fakes. There are a number of fakes that are taught to soccer players which are listed in the manual Play Like a Soccer Legend (Galustian and Cooke, 1993) . They are the Sir Stanley Mathews fake, the Roberto Rivelino fake, Karl-Heinz Rummenigge fake, and Geoff Hurst fake. The Sir Stanley Mathews fake is used when you are facing the defender while standing nearly still. Lean and h op to one side while dragging the ball with the inside of your foot in this direction. When the defender falls for this fake and leans to this side, quickly push the ball with the outside of your same foot in the opposite directions and go around him and beat him 12 (Galustian and Cooke). In the Roberto Revelino fake , Galustian and Cooke stated, ͞you ĨĂŬe ŬiĐŬ the ball but instead step around it and plant your foot on the far side of the ball. Then turn your body slightly and take the ďĂůů in the oƉƉosite ĚireĐtion͕ usinŐ the outsiĚe oĨ thĂt sĂŵe Ĩoot͟ ;Ɖ͘ 11). In the Karl -Heinz Rummenigge fake, you swing your foot around the front of the ball and take a step to the side. This gives the defender the impression you are moving or passing the ball in this direction. Galustian and Cooke also suggested that as the defender leans in this direction, push the ball in the opposite direction using the outside of your other foot. The Geoff Hurst fake requires you to be dribbling forward then lean back while reaching your leg forward. Stretch your foot ahead of the ball and pull the ball back using the outside of your foot. Flick the ball in the opposite direction and accelerate. O ne of the more popular fakes is the step-over and scissors fake. Hamm (1999) note d, i͞f you step over the ball from the inside to the outside, then take the ball back to the inside with the inside of your foot; we call that a scissors move͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϯϭͿ͘ dhis ĨĂŬe is norŵĂůůy useĚ ďy higher skilled soccer players. It is an ext remely effective fake. Hamm also revealed that͕ ͞if you do it from the outside to the inside and then take the ball back outside with the outside of your foot, you’ve Ěone ǁhĂt ǁe ĐĂůů Ă ďĂsiĐ steƉ-over͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϯϭͿ͘ The most common fake is the step fake to the side. Step to one side and when the defender falls this way, pull the ball back the other direction with the inside of the same foot. This is the easiest fake to execute, and all levels of ability use this fake. Cutting Cutting the ball allows the ball handler to move the ball in their desired direction. According to LaPrath (2009) , y͞our players also need to learn how to escape when an opponent 13 closes in on them by cutting the ball, or spinning to move in a new direction ͟(p. 65). The inside, outside, and sole of the foot are used to cut the ball. ,Ăŵŵ ;ϭϵϵϵͿ suŐŐesteĚ͕ ͞you must be able to dribble with all surfaces of your feet-inside, and outside, soles and laces ͟(p. 132). A ball handler can evade a defender by cutting the ball quickly and sharply. The ball can be cut in front of the planted foot or behind it by using the inside of the foot. A ball also can be cut diagonally to the side using the outside of the foot. The sole of the foot can be placed on top of the ball to roll it backwards behind the ball handler so he or she can turn with speed and accelerate in the opposite direction. Hamm recommended that, y͞ou should work on pullbacks- dribble, then step on the ball and pull it back in the opposite direction with enough pace so that you can breaŬ into Ă run͟ ;Ɖ͘ϭϯ2). To be effective when dribbling the ball under pressure, the ball handler must be able to cut the ball in order to escape danger. Dribbling, as described by Hamm (1999) , i͞s an extremely deceptive skill when facing an opponent͟ (p. 117). To be deceptive , a ball handler must be able to keep the ball close and change speeds at a moment’s notice. This change of pace to transition between these skills of speed dribbling, shielding, faking, and cutting is difficult. To be successful during transitions between skills, the ball must remain close. A smaller size ball such as a four ball, which rolls faster will be more difficult to control and keep close. But by dribbling a slower, bigger ball such as the size five, it will make the transition much easier to go from one speed to another and keep the ball close to execute these four dribbling skills effectively to achieve success. T each ing Soccer Dribbling There are a number of effective ways to teach dribbling to players. In the book, Coaching and Playing Youth League Soccer (1988) , under the heading ͞Ɖrogressive acquisition 14 of essential skills ͟it notes͗ ͞the ƉrĂĐtiĐes in this ŵĂnuĂů Ăre ƉroŐressive͕ thĂt is͕ they Ăre arranged in order of increasing difficulty . . . progressing to situations demanding a higher ĚeŐree oĨ sŬiůů͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭϯͿ͘ ,ere the ǁhoůe ƉrĂĐtiĐe ǁouůĚ eŵƉhĂsinje one sŬiůů suĐh Ăs ĚriďďůinŐ ĂnĚ then ƉroŐress sůoǁůy Ĩroŵ ďĂsiĐ sŬiůů’s ĚeveůoƉŵent to ĂĚvĂnĐeĚ teĂŵ ƉůĂy͘ Siedentop & Tannehill (2000) stated, i͞n active teaching, the teacher (or coach) chooses the content and ĂrrĂnŐes the ƉroŐressions͕ ǁhiĐh Ăre tyƉiĐĂůůy seƋuenĐeĚ in sŵĂůů steƉs͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϮϴϯͿ͘ t the beginning of practice, the players would be taught the skills and they would work on it individually without competition. The practice would then progress to one on one play with limited pressure from opponents then advance to one-on-one play with competition. After this, players would work in small group activities competing to develop their skills. The practice would progress to full field play similar to a game situation. Hopefully by progressing in difficulty and complexity through these dribbling steps the players would become proficient and competent in their games to execute these difficult skills. A full field scrimmage played at the end of practice allows players to transfer what was learned individually and in small groups to a larger scale with more players and complexity similar to a real game. Hargreaves (1990) revealed that in progressive practices ͞the ability to start with a simple practice and gradually develop it into a realistic game situation is one of the hallmarks of a good coach. Drills must be ƉroŐresseĚ ;ĂnĚ soŵetiŵes this ŵeĂns siŵƉůiĨieĚͿ ĂĐĐorĚinŐ to hoǁ the ƉůĂyers resƉonĚ͟ (p.10). Many coaches recommend a progressive practice method from simple to complex when teaching soccer dribbling skills. 15 Smaller Fields are Putting More Pressure on Dribbl ing Skills Over the years, many outdoor soccer fields for youth have reduced in size from large soccer fields possessing 11 players per team to smaller fields with fewer players. Many leagues have discovered that younger children on large fields competing with 22 players were not provided with enough opportunity to touch the ball regularly and develop their dribbling skills. They found by modifying the number of players and size of the field, children were more involved, and they had more opportunity to develop their dribbling skills. Fleck and Cossaboon (1992) suggested , t͞hese games will challenge the player . . . to improve a variety of the needed sŬiůůs͘ /t Ăůso Őives ƉůĂyers the oƉƉortunity to touĐh the ďĂůů ŵore oĨten͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϭͿ. Implementing these changes at the youngest age division requires these players to play with three a side, no goalies, miniature goals, and smaller fields. As players advance through the league, more players are slowly added and the fields and goals increase in size. As players reach the U-14 age division , they start playing with the maximum number of players of 11 versus 11 on full field dimensions. This concept of youth playing on micro soccer fields with less players is a wonderful coaching concept to increase the amount of play and participation by each player. However, the smaller fields put players under more pressure with less room to dribble. Many soccer organizers interested in advancing and developing soccer would argue in support of micro soccer; however, children with slower coordination, processing rates, and reaction times than adults are put under more pressure to perform on these smaller fields. One positive aspect of the larger fields for younger children is that they can dribble in space for distance and experience some success before encountering a defender. However, many league directors and coaches argue that for the youth of today to be successful at the professional or 16 international level they must experience this intensity and acquire the skills under these conditions. How Practice and Repetition Develop Skills Based on Developmental Theory It has been assumed that practicing the skills repetitively will cause improvement. Coerver and Galustian (1995) state d, i͞t is only by regular and purposeful practice with the ball thĂt ďĂůů ĨeeůinŐ ĂnĚ Đontroů ĐĂn ďe ĂĐƋuireĚ͟ ;Ɖ͘ ϲͿ͘ do ďeĐoŵe ƉroĨiĐient Ăt ĚriďďůinŐ sŬiůůs one needs to practice these drills until they are ingrained and mastered. Huijgen et al. (2010) note d, i͞t hĂs Ăůso ďeen shoǁn thĂt ƉrĂĐtiĐe is Ă ŵĂũor ĨeĂture Ĩor the ĚeveůoƉŵent oĨ soĐĐer sŬiůůs͟ ;Ɖ͘ 6 90 ). As reported by Berk (2007), WiĂŐet’s ͞ĐoŐnitive ʹ development theory ʹchildren construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their ǁorůĚs͟ ;p. 19). Players , by practicing with a soccer ball, are able to explore and develop their dribbling skills. Because learning new dribbling skills is similar to infants exploring their worlds for the first time, soccer dribbling can be thouŐht oĨ in terŵs oĨ WiĂŐet’s oŐnitive eveůoƉŵentĂů dheory ;erŬ, 2007 Ϳ͘ /n WiĂŐet’s theory, children like players use schemes where they experiment with their environment to make sense of their experiences. Infants will drop a spoon or throw their bottle to experiment and learn how physical properties react (Berk, 2007) . Just like infants, many young players unfamiliar to the effects of dribbling will react in similar ways by trying new and different methods of tapping the ďĂůů to ůeĂrn the eĨĨeĐts oĨ ĚriďďůinŐ͘ WiĂŐet’s theory on ͞ĂĚĂƉtion͟ is ǁhere inĨĂnts, like soccer players, attempt a skill or habit continuously over and over to discover interesting effects (Berk, 2007) . As a result of these effects, conclusions can be drawn on how to dribble or how physical properties react. This is known as Piaget theory of assimilation (Berk, 2007) . dhrouŐh ƉrĂĐtiĐe or Đontinuous ĂĐtions ͞ĂĐĐoŵŵoĚĂtions͟ ǁiůů Ăůso ďe ĚeterŵineĚ ǁhen 17 previously discovered thoughts or assumptions do not conform or support to new experiments or trials (Berk, 2007) . Separovic, & Uzicanin (2009) reported, i͞n sports, training is a process of reƉeĂtinŐ͕ ǁorŬ thĂt iŵƉroves ƉotentiĂů to ĂĐhieve oƉtiŵĂů ƉerĨorŵĂnĐe͟ (p. 44). Practice and repetition through experimental play is a key element to improving ones soccer dribbling skills. Soccer Ball Size Recommendations for Children FIFA goes to great length s to ensure that the soccer balls meet rigid standards for competition. FIFA state d, t͞he size of a football [ soccer ball] must meet defined standards. This is crucial for players to make accurate passes and go on thrilling dribbles. Could you imagine everyone ƉůĂyinŐ ǁith ĚiĨĨerent sinjeĚ ĨootďĂůůs͟ ;Consistent Circumference, 2011, para. 1). The standards are extremely rigid because any questions regarding a ball and fair play could spark controversy leading to dire consequences from riots to violence. As a reputable governing body, FIFA wants to promote fair play and not have its authority and management capabilities brought into question. FIFA is so concerned with a reputable and reliable ball that they subject them to a minimum of six tests. The tests are consistent circumference, permanent roundness, uniform rebound, water absorption, perfect weight, minimal pressure loss, and shape and size relation. A ball must pass six tests to earn the F͚IFA inspected quality mark.’ To gain the top F͚IFA approved quality mark, ’ a ball must pass these six tests under even more demanding conditions, as well as a seventh test (shape and size retention) to ensure that the ball also retains its shape and size for the duration of a match (FIFA, The Concept. How does a Ball Receive FIFA marks? 2011, para. 5 & 6 ) The United States Soccer Federation or US Soccer (2011) noted in their Laws of the Game permitting modifications, ͞the >Ăǁs ŵĂy ďe ŵoĚiĨieĚ in their ĂƉƉůiĐĂtion Ĩor ŵĂtĐhes Ĩor players of under 16 -years of age ͟(Laws of the Game, Modifications, p ara.1 ). As a result, the 18 Kansas Youth Soccer Association KYSA (2008) enacted league rule changes for players under the age of 16 regarding length of the field, time allowances per game, size and weight of ball, and circumference of the ball as listed below. With studies showing a supporting trend toward developing athletes when they are young, it is important to develop dribbling skills so youth players can acquire the necessary skills to compete at a higher level of play. KYSA (2008) recommended that children use smaller sized balls than the regular adult size five balls. For ages 8 to 12, they recommended a medium size four soccer ball. Below is a chart listed in the Policy section in